APPENDIX

A The Solution of Linear

Simultaneous Equations
Circuit analysis frequently requires us to solve a set of linear simulta-
neous equations. We present several different solution methods here—
some that employ engineering calculators or personal computers, and
others that require just a pencil and paper. Most of the methods begin
by placing the system of equations in matrix form. You should review
matrices and matrix arithmetic, topics found in most intermediate-level
algebra texts.

A.1 Preliminary Steps

To solve a set of simultaneous equations, we begin by organizing the
equations into a standard form. To do this, collect all terms containing
an unknown variable on the left-hand side of each equation and place
all constants on the right-hand side. Then, arrange the equations in a
vertical stack such that each variable occupies the same horizontal po-
sition in every equation. For example, in Eqs. A.1, the variables i1, i2,
and i3 occupy the first, second, and third position, respectively, on the
left-hand side of each equation:

21i1 - 9i2 - 12i3 = -33,

-3i1 + 6i2 - 2i3 = 3, (A.1)

-8i1 - 4i2 + 22i3 = 50.

Once the equations are in this standard form, you can write the
equations using matrix notation as

21 - 9 - 12 i1 - 33
£ - 3 6 - 2 § £ i2 § = £ 3 § .
- 8 - 4 22 i3 50

We can abbreviate the set of equations in matrix form as AX = B,

where A is the matrix of coefficients that multiply the variables, X is
the vector of the variables, and B is the vector of constants from the
right-hand side of the equations. When written in this abbreviated form,
we can solve for the vector of unknowns by finding the inverse of the A
matrix and multiplying it by the B vector:

X = A - 1B.

746
 A.2 Calculator and Computer Methods 747

If any equation is missing one or more variables, the missing variables

can be inserted by making their coefficients zero. Thus, Eqs. A.2 are writ-
ten in standard form as shown by Eqs. A.3:

2v1 - v2 = 4,

4v2 + 3v3 = 16, (A.2)

7v1 + 2v3 = 5;

2v1 - v2 + 0v3 = 4,

0v1 + 4v2 + 3v3 = 16, (A.3)

7v1 + 0v2 + 2v3 = 5.

Equation A.3 is written using matrix form as

3 - 1 0 v1 4
£0 4 3 § £ v2 § = £ 16 § .
7 0 2 v3 5

A.2 Calculator and Computer Methods

Most calculators recommended for engineering students can solve a set of
simultaneous algebraic equations. Because there are many different calcu-
lators, it is impractical to provide directions or an example here. Instead,
we provide the general steps for using your calculator to solve equations;
you should refer to the manual for your specific calculator or search for
instructions on the web.
1. Input the problem dimension by specifying the number of un-
knowns.
2. Create the A matrix, which is the matrix of coefficients that multi-
ply the unknowns on the left-hand sides of the equations.
3. Create the B array, which is the array of constants on the right-hand
sides of the equations.
4. Use the “solve” function (which has different names for different
calculators) for the matrix A and the array B, to calculate the array
X that contains the values of the unknowns.
Most calculators can solve simultaneous equations that have real number
coefficients and complex number coefficients. Some can even solve simul-
taneous equations whose coefficients include symbols.
There are many different computer programs that can solve a set of al-
gebraic equations. We present two examples: Excel, the spreadsheet applica-
tion, and MATLAB, the matrix-based programming language. You should
explore the options available and pick the software that works best for you.

Using Excel
Figure A.1 uses Excel to solve the simultaneous equations given in
Eqs. A.1. Note that Excel can only solve simultaneous equations whose
coefficients are real numbers. To begin, enter the A matrix in a square
collection of cells and enter the B vector in a column of cells. You can
748 The Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations

Figure A.1 ▲ Using Excel to solve the simultaneous equations in Eqs. A.1.

label the matrix and vector, as shown in the figure, but this is not required.
Then highlight a column of cells for the vector X, which will contain the
values of the unknowns. The number of cells in this column must equal
the number of unknowns. Type the following function in the function box:

= MMULT(MINVERSE(start_cell, end_cell), b1:bn)

and simultaneously press the Ctrl-Shift-Enter keys. This will enter

the values for the X vector into the highlighted cells and also will sur-
round the function with braces, as shown in Fig. A.1. The function
MINVERSE(start_cell, end_cell) calculates the inverse of a matrix. The
matrix values occupy square collection of cells whose upper left cell is
start_cell and whose lower right cell is end_cell. The MMULT(R, S) mul-
tiplies two matrices, R and S, supplied as arguments.

Using MATLAB
There are several ways to solve a system of simultaneous equations using
MATLAB. Figure A.2 illustrates one method to solve Eqs. A.1. It begins

>> syms il i2 i3
>> eq1=21*i1 - 9*i2 - 12*i3 == -33;
>> eq2=-3*i1 + 6*i2 - 2*i3 ==3;
>> eq3=-8*i1 - 4*i2 + 22*i3 == 50;
>> [A,B] = equationsToMatrix([eq1, eq2, eq3], [i1, i2, i3])

A =

[ 21, -9, -12]

[ -3, 6, -2]
[ -8, -4, -22]

B =

-33
3
50

>> X = linsolve(A,B)

X =

1
2
3

Figure A.2 ▲ Using MATLAB to solve the simultaneous equations in Eqs. A.1.
 A.3 Paper-and-Pencil Methods 749

by defining the three unknown variables and the three simultaneous equa-
tions. Then, the function equationsToMatrix(eq, var) constructs the A
matrix and the B vector from the equations supplied in the function’s first
argument, using the variables specified in the function’s second argument.
Finally, the function linsolve(A, B) calculates the values of the unknowns
by inverting the matrix supplied in the function’s first argument and then mul-
tiplying by the vector supplied in the function’s second argument. Note that,
unlike Excel, the simultaneous equations specified in MATLAB can have
complex numbers as coefficients on the left-hand side and constants on the
right-hand side.

A.3 Paper-and-Pencil Methods

We present two methods that do not require an engineering calculator or
computer software: back-substitution and Cramer’s method. Both meth-
ods are easy to use when solving two or three simultaneous equations.
If you have four or more simultaneous equations, you should solve them
with your calculator or computer because the paper-and-pencil methods
are quite complicated. Both back-substitution and Cramer’s method work
for equations with real numbers, with complex numbers, or even with
symbols as coefficients and constants.

Back-Substitution
The back-substitution method picks one equation and solves it for one un-
known in terms of the remaining unknowns. The solution is used to eliminate
that unknown in the remaining equations. This process is repeated until only
one equation and one unknown remain. To illustrate, we will solve Eqs. A.2
using back-substitution. Begin by solving the third equation for v3, to get

v3 = 2.5 - 3.5v1.

Now eliminate v3 in the remaining equations:

2v1 - v2 = 4,

4v2 + 3(2.5 - 3.5v1) = 16.

Next, solve the first of the two remaining equations for v2, to get

v2 = 2v1 - 4.

Eliminate v2 in the other equation:

4(2v1 - 4) + 3(2.5 - 3.5v1) = 16.

Simplify and solve for v1:

24.5
-2.5v1 = 24.5 so v1 = = -9.8 V.
-2.5
Finally, use this value for v1 to find the remaining unknowns:

v2 = 2v1 - 4 = 2( -9.8) - 4 = -23.6 V,

v3 = 2.5 - 3.5v1 = 2.5 - 3.5( -9.8) = 36.8 V.

There is another way to solve a set of simultaneous equations with

the back-substitution method. Begin by picking any two equations, and
multiply one or both equations by a different constant such that when
750 The Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations

the resulting equations are added together, one of the unknowns is elim-
inated. For example, consider the first two equations in Eqs. A.3. If we
multiply the first equation by the constant 4 and add the resulting equa-
tion to the second equation, we eliminate v2:

8v1 - 4v2 + 0v3 = 16

+ 0v1 + 4v2 + 3v3 = 16
8v1 + 0v2 + 3v3 = 32.

Now multiply this new equation by 2, and multiply the third equation in
Eqs. A.3 by -3. Then add the two equations together to eliminate v3:

16v1 + 6v3 = 64
+ -21v1 + -6v3 = -15
-5v1 + 0v3 = 49.

Therefore,
49
v1 = = -9.8 V.
-5
We can substitute the value of v1 back into the first equation in Eqs. A.3 to
find v2 and then substitute the value of v2 back into the second equation in
Eqs. A.3 to find v3. You should complete these final steps to verify the values.

Cramer’s Method
We can also use Cramer’s method to solve a set of simultaneous equations.
The value of each unknown variable is the ratio of two determinants. If we let
N, with an appropriate subscript, represent the numerator determinant and ∆
represent the denominator determinant, then the kth unknown xk is
Nk
xk = . (A.4)
∆
The denominator determinant ∆ is the same for every unknown variable
and is called the characteristic determinant of the set of equations. The
numerator determinant Nk varies with each unknown.
The characteristic determinant is the determinant of the A matrix.
For example, the characteristic determinant of Eqs. A.3 is

2 -1 0
∆ = †0 4 3†.
7 0 2

To find the determinant, rewrite the first two columns to the right of the
determinant to get

2 -1 0 2 -1
∆ = †0 4 3† 0 4 .
7 0 2 7 0

There are now five columns. Sum the products of the left-to-right diago-
nals for the first three columns; then subtract the sum of products of the
right-to-left diagonals for the last three columns:

∆ = (2 # 4 # 2) + (-1 # 3 # 7) + (0 # 0 # 0) - (0 # 4 # 7) - (2 # 3 # 0) - (-1 # 0 # 2)
= 16 - 21 + 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 = -5.
 A.4 Applications 751

Note that this shortcut method for finding a determinant works only for
square matrices of dimension 3. To find the determinant for a matrix
whose dimension is larger than 3, consult a reference on determinants.
To construct the numerator determinant Nk, replace the kth col-
umn in the characteristic determinant with the values in the B vector.
For example, the numerator determinants for evaluating v1, v2, and v3 in
Eqs. A.3 are

4 -1 0
N1 = † 16 4 3†
5 0 2

= (4 # 4 # 2) + (-1 # 3 # 5) + (0 # 16 # 0) - (0 # 4 # 5) - (4 # 3 # 0) - (-1 # 16 # 2)

= 49,

2 4 0
N2 = † 0 16 3†
7 5 2

= (2 # 16 # 2) + (4 # 3 # 7) + (0 # 0 # 5) - (0 # 16 # 7) - (2 # 3 # 5) - (4 # 0 # 2)

= 118,

and

2 -1 4
N3 = † 0 4 16 †
7 0 5

= (2 # 4 # 5)+ ( -1 # 16 # 7) + (4 # 0 # 0) - (4 # 4 # 7) - (2 # 16 # 0) - ( -1 # 0 # 5)

= -184.

Using Cramer’s method in Eq. A.4, we can solve for v1, v2, and v3:

N1 49
v1 = = = -9.8 V,
∆ - 5

N2 118
v2 = = = -23.6 V,
∆ - 5

and

N3 - 184
v3 = = = 36.8 V.
∆ - 5

A.4 Applications
The following examples demonstrate the various techniques for solving a
system of simultaneous equations generated from circuit analysis.
752 The Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations

EXAMPLE A.1

Use Cramer’s method to solve for the node volt- 1.7 10

ages v1 and v2 in Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2. ` `
-0.5 2
v2 = .
1.7 -0.5
Solution ` `
-0.5 0.6
The first step is to rewrite Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2 in
standard form. Collecting the coefficients of v1 The shortcut for calculating the determinant for a
and v2 on the left-hand side and moving the con- matrix of dimension 3 does not work for matrices
stant terms to the right-hand side of the equations of dimension 2. Instead, there is a different shortcut
gives us for these matrices. Starting at the top of the first col-
umn, find the product along the left-to-right diagonal.
1.7v1 - 0.5v2 = 10, Then subtract the product along the right-to-left diag-
onal that starts at the top of the second column. Thus,
-0.5v1 + 0.6v2 = 2.
10 -0.5
` `
Rewriting this set of equations in AX = B format 2 0.6 (10)(0.6) - ( -0.5)(2)
v1 = =
gives us 1.7 -0.5 (1.7)(0.6) - ( -0.5)( -0.5)
` `
-0.5 0.6
1.7 -0.5 v1 10
c d c d = c d. 6 + 1
-0.5 0.6 v2 2 = = 9.09 V,
1.02 - 0.25
Using Cramer’s method (Eq. A.4), we can 1.7 10
write expressions for the unknown voltages: ` `
-0.5 2 (1.7)(2) - (10)( -0.5)
v2 = =
10 -0.5 1.7 -0.5 (1.7)(0.6) - ( -0.5)( -0.5)
` ` ` `
2 0.6 -0.5 0.6
v1 = ,
1.7 -0.5 3.4 + 5
` ` = = 10.91 V.
-0.5 0.6 1.02 - 0.25

EXAMPLE A.2

Use Excel to find the three mesh currents in the cir- Putting these four equations in standard form, we get
cuit in Fig. 4.24.
25i1 - 5i2 - 20i3 + 0if = 50,
Solution -5i1 + 10i2 - 4i3 + 0if = 0,
The equations that describe the circuit in Fig. 4.24 -20i1 - 4i2 + 24i3 + 15if = 0,
were derived in Example 4.7. There are three KVL i1 - 0i2 - i3 - if = 0.
equations:
Rewriting this set of equations in AX = B format
5(i1 - i2) + 20(i1 - i3) - 50 = 0, gives us

5(i2 - i1) + 1i2 + 4(i2 - i3) = 0, 25 -5 -20 0 i1 50

-5 10 -4 0 i2 0
20(i3 - i1) + 4(i3 - i2) + 15if = 0. ≥ ¥ ≥ ¥ = ≥ ¥.
-20 -4 24 15 i3 0
There is also a dependent source constraint equation: 1 0 -1 -1 if 0
i f = i 1 - i 3.
 A.4 Applications 753

The Excel solution is shown in Fig. A.3. The mesh and the controlling current for the dependent
currents are i1 = 29.6 A, i2 = 26 A, and i3 = 28 A, source is if = 1.6 A.

Figure A.3 ▲ Using Excel to solve the simultaneous equations in Example A.2.

EXAMPLE A.3

Use MATLAB to find the phasor mesh currents I1 The current controlling the dependent voltage
and I2 in the circuit in Fig. 9.40. source is
Ix = (I1 - I2).
Solution
Converting these three equations into standard
Summing the voltages around mesh 1 generates the form, we get
equation
(13 + j14)I1 + ( -12 + j16)I2 + 0Ix =150,
(1 + j2)I1 + (12 - j16)(I1 - I2) = 150l0°. ( -12 + j16)I1 + (13 + j13)I2 + 39Ix = 0,
Summing the voltages around mesh 2 produces the I1 - I2 - Ix = 0.
equation
The MATLAB commands used to solve this set of si-
(12 - j16)(I2 - I1) + (1 + j3)I2 + 39Ix = 0. multaneous equations are shown in Fig. A.4. Note the

>> syms il i2 ix
>> eq1 = complex(13,-14)*i1 + complex(-12,16)*i2 == 150;
>> eq2 = complex(-12,16)*i1 + complex(13,-13)*i2 + 39*ix == 0;
>> eq3 = i1 - i2 - ix ==0,
>> [A,B] = equationsToMatrix([eq1, eq2, eq3], [i1, i2, ix])

A =

[ 13 - 14i, - 12 + 16i, 0]
[ -12 + 16i, 13 - 13i, 39]
[ 1, -1, -1]

B =

150
0
0

>> X = linsolve(A,B)

X =

- 26 - 52i
- 24 - 58i
- 2 + 6i

Figure A.4 ▲ Using MATLAB to solve the simultaneous equations in Example A.3.
754 The Solution of Linear Simultaneous Equations

use of the complex(a, b) function to construct the I1 = ( -26 - j52) = 58.14l -116.57° A,
complex coefficients, where a is the real part of the co-
efficient and b is the imaginary part of the coefficient.
I2 = ( -24 - j58) = 62.77 l -122.48° A.
MATLAB gives us the solution

In the first three examples, the matrix elements have been numbers—
real numbers in Examples A.1 and A.2, and complex numbers in
Example A.3. It is also possible for the elements to be symbols.
Example A.4 illustrates the use of back substitution in a circuit problem
where the elements in the coefficient matrix are symbols.

EXAMPLE A.4

Use back-substitution to derive expressions for the Substitute this expression into the second equation
node voltages V1 and V2 in the circuit in Fig. A.5. to eliminate V2:
1 (G + 2sC) G
-sCV1 + (G + 2sC) c V1 - V d = sCVg.
sC sC sC g
1 Rearrange and simplify this equation to find the
R sC expression for V1:
1 2
1 1
(G + 2sC)2 - (sC)2 G(G + 2sC) + (sC)2
1 1 V1 = Vg ,
Vg V1 V2 R sC sC
2 sC
2 2 so
Figure A.5 ▲ The circuit for Example A.4. G(G + 2sC) + (sC)2
V1 = Vg
(G + 2sC)2 - (sC)2
Solution (G 2 + 2sCG + s2C 2)
= Vg.
Summing the currents leaving nodes 1 and 2 gener- (G 2 + 4sCG + 3s2C 2)
ates the following set of equations:
V1 - Vg Finally, substitute this expression for V1 into the
+ V1sC + (V1 - V2)sC = 0, equation for V2; rearrange and simplify to find the
R
expression for V2:
V2
+ (V2 - V1)sC + (V2 - Vg)sC = 0. (G + 2sC) (G 2 + 2sCG + s2C 2) G
R V2 = c 2 Vg d - V,
sC 2
(G + 4sCG + 3s C ) 2 sC g
Let G = 1>R and collect the coefficients of V1 and
V2 to get so
(G + 2sC)V1 - sCV2 = GVg, (G + 2sC)(G 2 + 2sCG + s2C 2) -G(G 2 + 4sCG+3s2C 2)
V2 = c dVg
-sCV1 + (G + 2sC)V2 = sCVg. sC(G 2 + 4sCG + 3s2C 2)
Solve the first equation for V2 to get
2sC(G + sC)
(G + 2sC) G = Vg.
V2 = V1 - V. (G + 4sCG + 3s2C 2)
2
sC sC g
APPENDIX

B Complex Numbers
Complex numbers allow us to find the square root of negative numbers. For
example, consider the equation x 2 + 8x + 41 = 0. From the quadratic for-
mula, we know that the two values of x that satisfy this equation are

-8 { 282 - 4(41)
x1,2 = = -4 { 1-25.
2
Therefore, this equation has no solution in a number system that ex-
cludes complex numbers. Complex numbers, and the ability to manipu-
late them algebraically, are extremely useful in circuit analysis.

B.1 Notation
There are two ways to designate a complex number: with the cartesian,
or rectangular, form or with the polar, or trigonometric, form. In rectan-
gular form, a complex number is written as a sum of a real component
and an imaginary component; hence

n = a + jb,

where a is the real component, b is the imaginary component, and j is,

by definition, 1-1.1
In polar form, a complex number is written in terms of its magni-
tude (or modulus) and angle (or argument); hence

n = ce ju

where c is the magnitude, u is the angle, e is the base of the natural log-
arithm, and, as before, j = 1-1. The symbol lu° is frequently used in
place of e ju, so the polar form can also be written as

n = c lu .

When we write a complex number in polar form, we typically use the

angle notation. But when we perform mathematical operations using
complex numbers in polar form, we use the exponential notation be-
cause the rules for manipulating an exponential quantity are well
known. For example, because (y x)n = y xn, then (e ju)n = e jnu; because
y - x = 1>y x, then e - ju = 1>e ju; and so forth.

1
You may be more familiar with the notation i = 1 - 1. In electrical engineering, i is used
as the symbol for current, and hence in electrical engineering literature, j is used to denote
1 - 1.

755
756 Complex Numbers

Since there are two ways of expressing the same complex number, we
need to relate one form to the other. The transition from polar to rectan-
gular form makes use of Euler’s identity:

e { ju = cos u { j sin u.

A complex number in polar form can be put in rectangular form by writing

ce ju = c( cos u + jc sin u)
= c( cos u + jc sin u)
= a + jb.

The transition from rectangular to polar form uses right triangle

geometry, namely,

a + jb = 1 2a2 + b2 2 e ju
= ce ju,

where

tan u = b>a.

The expression for tan u does not specify the quadrant where the angle u
is located. We can determine the location of u using a graphical represen-
tation of the complex number.

Im

b c
B.2 The Graphical Representation of
a Complex Number
u
0 a Re
A complex number is represented graphically on a complex-number
plane, where the horizontal axis represents the real component and the
Figure B.1 ▲ The graphical representation of a 1 jb vertical axis represents the imaginary component. The angle of the com-
when a and b are both positive. plex number is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.
The plot of the complex number n = a + jb = c lu, assuming that a and
Im Im b are both positive, is shown in Fig. B.1.
5 36.878 5 143.138
3 3 This plot makes very clear the relationship between the rectangular
u u and polar forms. Any point in the complex-number plane is uniquely de-
4 Re 24 Re fined by giving either its distance from each axis (that is, a and b) or its ra-
dial distance from the origin (c) and the angle with respect to the positive
real axis, u.
4 1j3 5 5 36.878 241j 3 5 5 143.138 It follows from Fig. B.1 that u is in the first quadrant when a and b are
(a) (b) both positive, in the second quadrant when a is negative and b is positive, in
Im Im the third quadrant when a and b are both negative, and in the fourth quad-
rant when a is positive and b is negative. These observations are illustrated
u u in Fig. B.2, where we have plotted 4 + j3, -4 + j3, -4 - j3, and 4 - j3.
Re Re
Note that we can also specify u as a clockwise angle from the pos-
24 4
itive real axis. Thus, in Fig. B.2(c), we could also designate -4 - j3 as
5l -143.13°. In Fig. B.2(d), we observe that 5 l323.13° = 5 l -36.87°. It is
23 23
5 216.878 5 323.138
24 2j3 5 5 216.878 4 2j 3 5 5 323.138
customary to express u in terms of negative values when u lies in the third
or fourth quadrant, so that -180° … u … 180°.
(c) (d)
The conjugate of a complex number is formed by reversing the sign
Figure B.2 ▲ The graphical representation of four of its imaginary component. Thus, the conjugate of a + jb is a - jb, and
complex numbers. the conjugate of -a + jb is -a - jb. When we write a complex number in
 B.3 Arithmetic Operations 757

polar form, we construct its conjugate by reversing the sign of the angle u. Im
Therefore, the conjugate of clu is cl -u. The conjugate of a complex n2 5 2a1jb5c u2 n1 5 a1jb5c u1
b
number is designated with an asterisk, so n* is understood to be the con-
jugate of n. Figure B.3 shows two complex numbers and their conjugates u2
u1
plotted on the complex-number plane. Note that conjugation reflects a
2a 2u1 a Re
complex number about the real axis. 2u2
2b
n*2 5 2a2jb5c 2u2 n*1 5 a2jb5c 2u1

B.3 Arithmetic Operations Figure B.3 ▲ The complex numbers n1 and n2 and
their conjugates n*1 and n*2.

Addition (Subtraction)
When adding or subtracting complex numbers, we express the numbers in
rectangular form. Addition involves adding the real parts of the complex
numbers to form the real part of the sum and adding the imaginary parts
to form the imaginary part of the sum. Thus, if we are given

n1 = 8 + j16

and

n2 = 12 - j3,

then

n1 + n2 = (8 + 12) + j(16 - 3) = 20 + j13.

Subtraction follows the same rule. Thus

n2 - n1 = (12 - 8) + j( -3 - 16) = 4 - j19.

If the numbers to be added or subtracted are given in polar form, they are
first converted to rectangular form. For example, if

n1 = 10 l53.13°

and

n2 = 5 l -135°,

then

n1 + n2 = 6 + j8 - 3.535 - j3.535

= (6 - 3.535) + j(8 - 3.535)

= 2.465 + j4.465 = 5.10 l61.10°,

and

n1 - n2 = 6 + j8 - ( -3.535 - j3.535)

= 9.535 + j11.535

= 14.966 l50.42°.
758 Complex Numbers

Multiplication (Division)
When multiplying or dividing complex numbers, the numbers can be writ-
ten in either rectangular or polar form. In most cases, polar form is more
convenient. As an example, let’s find the product n1n2 when n1 = 8 + j10
and n2 = 5 - j4. Using rectangular form, we have

n1n2 = (8 + j10)(5 - j4) = 40 - j32 + j50 + 40

= 80 + j18

= 82l12.68°.

If we use polar form, we find the product of two complex numbers by mul-
tiplying their magnitudes and adding their angles. For example,

n1n2 = (12.81l51.34°)(6.40l -38.66°)

= 82l12.68°

= 80 + j18.

The first step in dividing two complex numbers in rectangular form

is to multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator. This makes the denominator a real number. We then di-
vide the real number into the new numerator. As an example, let’s cal-
culate n1 >n2, where n1 = 6 + j3 and n2 = 3 - j1. We have

n1 6 + j3 (6 + j3)(3 + j1)
= =
n2 3 - j1 (3 - j1)(3 + j1)

18 + j6 + j9 - 3
=
9 + 1
15 + j15
= = 1.5 + j1.5
10

= 2.12 l45°.

In polar form, we calculate n1 >n2 by dividing the magnitudes and subtract-

ing the angles. For example,

n1 6.71 l26.57°
= = 2.12 l45°
n2 3.16 l -18.43°

= 1.5 + j1.5.

B.4 Useful Identities

In working with complex numbers and quantities, the following identities
are very useful:

{j 2 = |1,

( -j)(j) = 1,
 B.6 The Roots of a Complex Number 759

1
j = ,
-j

e { jp = -1,

e { jp>2 = { j.

Given that n = a + jb = clu, it follows that

nn* = a2 + b2 = c 2,

n + n* = 2a,

n - n* = j2b,

n>n* = 1l2u.

B.5 The Integer Power of a Complex

Number
To raise a complex number to an integer power k, begin by expressing the
complex number in polar form. Then, to find the kth power of a complex
number, raise its magnitude to the kth power and multiply its angle by k. Thus

nk = (a + jb)k

= (ce ju)k = c ke jku

= c k( cos ku + j sin ku).

For example,

(2e j12°)5 = 25e j60° = 32e j60°

= 16 + j27.71,
and

(3 + j4)4 = (5e j53.13°)4 = 54e j212.52°

= 625e j212.52°

= -527 - j336.

B.6 The Roots of a Complex Number

To find the kth root of a complex number, we solve the equation

x k - ce ju = 0,

which is an equation of the kth degree and therefore has k roots.

760 Complex Numbers

To find the k roots (x1, x2, …, xk), we first note that

c
ce ju = ce j(u + 2p) = ce j(u + 4p) = .

It follows that

x1 = (ce ju)1>k = c 1>ke ju>k,

x2 = [ce j(u + 2p)]1>k = c 1>ke j(u + 2p)>k,

x3 = [ce j(u + 4p)]1>k = c 1>ke j(u + 4p)>k,

f.

We continue this process until the roots start repeating. This will happen
when the multiple of p is equal to 2k. For example, let’s find the four roots
of 81e j60°. We have

x1 = 811>4e j60>4 = 3e j15°,

x2 = 811>4e j(60 + 360)>4 = 3e j105°,

x3 = 811>4e j(60 + 720)>4 = 3e j195°,

Im
x4 = 811>4e j(60 + 1080)>4 = 3e j285°,
3 1058

x5 = 811>4e j(60 + 1440)>4 = 3e j375° = 3e j15°.

3 158
Here, x5 is the same as x1, so the roots have started to repeat. Therefore,
3 1958 Re we know the four roots of 81e j60° are the values given by x1, x2, x3, and x4.
Note that the roots of a complex number lie on a circle in the
complex-number plane. The radius of the circle is c 1>k. The roots are uni-
3 2858 formly distributed around the circle, and the angle between adjacent roots
is 2p>k radians or 360>k degrees. The four roots of 81e j60° are plotted in
Figure B.4 ▲ The four roots of 81e j60°. Fig. B.4.
 APPENDIX More on Magnetically

C Coupled Coils and Ideal

Transformers
C.1 Equivalent Circuits for
Magnetically Coupled Coils
It is sometimes convenient to model magnetically coupled coils
with an equivalent circuit that does not include magnetic coupling.
Consider the two magnetically coupled coils shown in Fig. C.1.
The resistances R1 and R2 represent the winding resistance of each
coil. The goal is to replace the magnetically coupled coils inside the
R1 a c R1 shaded area with a set of inductors that are not magnetically cou-
M
pled. Before deriving the equivalent circuits, we must point out an
1 1
i1 i2 important restriction: The voltage between terminals b and d must
v1 L1 L2 v 2 be zero. In other words, we must be able to short together terminals
2 2 b and d without disturbing the voltages and currents in the original
b d
circuit. This restriction is imposed because, while the equivalent cir-
cuits we develop have four terminals, two of those four terminals
Figure C.1 ▲ The circuit used to develop an are shorted together. Thus, the same requirement is placed on the
equivalent circuit for magnetically coupled coils. original circuits.
We begin by writing the two equations that relate the terminal volt-
ages v1 and v2 to the terminal currents i1 and i2. For the given references
and polarity dots,

di1 di2
v1 = L1 + M (C.1)
dt dt
and

di1 di2
v2 = M + L2 . (C.2)
dt dt

R1 a L12M L22M c R2
The T-Equivalent Circuit
1 i1 i2 1
How can we arrange uncoupled inductors in a circuit that can be
v1 M v2
described by Eqs. C.1 and C.2? If we regard Eqs. C.1 and C.2 as
2 2 mesh-current equations with i1 and i2 as the mesh currents, we need
b d
one mesh with a total inductance of L1 and a second mesh with a total
inductance of L2. Also, the two meshes must have a common induc-
Figure C.2 ▲ The T-equivalent circuit for the tance of M. The T-equivalent circuit shown in Fig. C.2 satisfies these
magnetically coupled coils of Fig. C.1. requirements.
You should verify that the equations relating v1 and v2 to i1 and i2
reduce to Eqs. C.1 and C.2. Note the absence of magnetic coupling be-
tween the inductors and the zero voltage between b and d.

761
762 More on Magnetically Coupled Coils and Ideal Transformers

The p-Equivalent Circuit

We can derive a p-equivalent circuit for the magnetically coupled coils
shown in Fig. C.1 by solving Eqs. C.1 and C.2 for the derivatives di1 >dt
and di2 >dt. We treat the resulting expressions as a pair of node-voltage
equations. Find di1 >dt and di2 >dt using Cramer’s method:

v M
` 1 `
di1 v2 L2 L2 M
= = v -
2 1
v2; (C.3)
dt L M L1 L2 - M L1 L2 - M 2
` 1 `
M L2

L1 v1
` `
di2 M - M
v2 L1
= = v1 + v2. (C.4)
dt L1 L2 - M 2 L1 L2 - M 2 L1 L2 - M 2

Now we solve for i1 and i2 by multiplying both sides of Eqs. C.3 and C.4 by
dt and then integrating:

t t
L2
L1L2 - M L0 L1L2 - M L0
M
i1 = i1(0) + 2
v1 dt - 2
v2 dt (C.5)

and

t t
L1
L1L2 - M L0 L1L2 - M L0
M
i2 = i2(0) - 2
v1 dt + 2
v2 dt. (C.6)

If we regard v1 and v2 as node voltages, Eqs. C.5 and C.6 describe a circuit
like the one shown in Fig. C.3.
To find LA, LB, and LC as functions of L1, L2, and M, write the equa-
tions for i1 and i2 in Fig. C.3 and compare them with Eqs. C.5 and C.6.
Thus

t t

LA L0 LB L0 1
1 1
i1 = i1(0) + v1 dt + (v - v2) dt

t t

LB L0 1 LB L0 2
1 1 1
= i1(0) + a + b v dt - v dt
LA
and
t t

LC L0 LB L0 1
1 1
i2 = i2(0) + v2dt + (v - v2) dt

t t

LB L0 LC L0 2
1 1 1
= i2(0) + v1dt + a + b v dt.
LB

i1 LB i2
a c
1 1
v1 i1(0) LA LC i2(0) v2
2 2
b d

Figure C.3 ▲ The circuit used to derive the -equivalent circuit for magnetically
coupled coils.
 C.1 Equivalent Circuits for Magnetically Coupled Coils 763

Then
1 M
= ,
LB L1 L2 - M 2

1 L2 - M
= ,
LA L1 L2 - M 2

1 L1 - M
= .
LC L1 L2 - M 2

Incorporate the expressions for LA, LB, and LC into the circuit shown in
Fig. C.3 to get the p-equivalent circuit for the magnetically coupled coils
shown in Fig. C.1. The result is shown in Fig. C.4.

L1L22M2
R1 a M c R2
1 L1L22M2 1
i1 i2
L22M
v1 i1(0) i2(0) v2
L1L22M2
2 L12M 2
b d

Figure C.4 ▲ The p-equivalent circuit for the magnetically coupled coils of Fig. C.1.

Note that the initial values of i1 and i2 are explicit in the p-equiva-
lent circuit but implicit in the T-equivalent circuit. If we want to find the
sinusoidal steady-state behavior of circuits containing mutual inductance,
L1L2 2 M2
we can assume that the initial values of i1 and i2 are zero. We can thus
R1 a M c R2
eliminate the current sources in the p-equivalent circuit, and the circuit
2
shown in Fig. C.4 simplifies to the one shown in Fig. C.5. 1 L1L2 2 M 1 i
i1 2
The mutual inductance carries its own algebraic sign in the T- and p- L2 2 M
v1 v2
equivalent circuits. In other words, if the magnetic polarity of the cou- L1L2 2 M2
pled coils is reversed from that given in Fig. C.1, the algebraic sign of M 2 L1 2 M 2
reverses. A reversal in magnetic polarity requires moving one polarity b d
dot without changing the reference polarities of the terminal currents and
voltages. Figure C.5 ▲ The p-equivalent circuit used for
Example C.1 illustrates the application of the T-equivalent circuit. sinusoidal steady-state analysis.

EXAMPLE C.1

a) Replace the magnetically coupled coils shown in b) Repeat (a), but with the polarity dot on the sec-
Fig. C.6 with a T-equivalent circuit. Then find the ondary winding moved to the lower terminal.
phasor currents I1 and I2. The source frequency
is 400 rad>s. j100 V
500 V a 200 V j1200 V 100 V 800 V

I1 1 1
1
300 08 V V1 j 3600 V j1600 V V2 I2 2j 2500 V
2
2 2
b
Figure C.6 ▲ The frequency-domain equivalent circuit for Example C.1.
764 More on Magnetically Coupled Coils and Ideal Transformers

Solution Then

a) For the polarity dots shown in Fig. C.6, M has a 300 - (136 - j8)
I1 = = 63.25 l -71.57° mA
value of +3 H in the T-equivalent circuit. There- 700 + j2500
fore, the three inductances in the equivalent
and
circuit are
136 - j8
L1 - M = 9 - 3 = 6 H; I2 = = 59.63 l63.43° mA.
900 - j2100
L2 - M = 4 - 3 = 1 H;
b) When the polarity dot is moved to the lower
M = 3 H. terminal of the secondary coil, M has a value of
-3 H in the T-equivalent circuit. Before analyz-
Figure C.7 shows the T-equivalent circuit, and
ing the new T-equivalent circuit, we note that re-
Fig. C.8 shows the frequency-domain equivalent
versing the algebraic sign of M has no effect on
circuit at a frequency of 400 rad>s.
the solution for I1 and shifts I2 by 180°. Therefore,
we anticipate that
6H 1H
I1 = 63.25 l -71.57° mA

3H and

I2 = 59.63 l -116.57° mA.

Now let’s analyze the new T-equivalent cir-

Figure C.7 ▲ The T-equivalent circuit for the magnetically
cuit. With M = -3 H, the three inductances in
coupled coils in Example C.1.
the equivalent circuit are
j2400 j 400 L1 - M = 9 - ( -3) = 12 H;
L2 - M = 4 - ( -3) = 7 H;
j1200 M = -3 H.
At an operating frequency of 400 rad>s, the
frequency-domain equivalent circuit requires two
Figure C.8 ▲ The frequency-domain model of the equiva- inductors and a capacitor, as shown in Fig. C.10.
lent circuit at 400 rad > s.
j4800 V j 2800 V
Figure C.9 shows the original frequency-
domain circuit with the magnetically coupled
coils replaced by the T-equivalent circuit in 2j1200 V
Fig. C.8. To find the phasor currents I1 and I2,
we first find the node voltage across the 1200 Ω
inductive reactance. If we use the lower node as Figure C.10 ▲ The frequency-domain equivalent circuit for
the reference, the single KCL equation is M 5 23 H and v 5 400 rad > s.

500 V j 100 V 200 V j 2400 V j400 V 100 V The resulting frequency-domain circuit for
the original system appears in Fig. C.11. As be-
I1 1 I2 fore, we first find the voltage across the center
1 800 V branch, which contains a capacitive reactance of
300 08 V j 1200 V V
2 -j1200 Ω. If we use the lower node as the refer-
2j2500 V
2 ence, the KCL equation is
500 V j100 V 200 V j4800 V j 2800 V 100 V
Figure C.9 ▲ The circuit of Fig. C.6, with the magnetically
coupled coils replaced by their T-equivalent circuit. I1 1 I2
1 800 V
V - 300 V V 300 08 V 2j1200 V V
+ + = 0. 2
700 + j2500 j1200 900 - j2100 2
2j 2500 V

Solving for V yields

Figure C.11 ▲ The frequency-domain equivalent circuit for
V = 136 - j8 = 136.24 l -3.37° V. Example C.1(b).
 C.2 The Need for Ideal Transformers in the Equivalent Circuits 765

V - 300 V V and
+ + = 0.
700 + j4900 - j1200 900 + j300 -8 - j56
I2 =
Solving for V gives 900 + j300
V = -8 - j56 = 59.63 l -116.57° mA.

= 56.57 l -98.13° V.
Then
300 - ( -8 - j56)
I1 =
700 + j4900
= 63.25 l -71.57° mA.

C.2 The Need for Ideal Transformers

in the Equivalent Circuits
The inductors in the T- and p-equivalent circuits of magnetically coupled
coils can have negative values. For example, if L1 = 3 mH, L2 = 12 mH,
and M = 5 mH, the T-equivalent circuit requires an inductor of -2 mH,
and the p-equivalent circuit requires an inductor of -5.5 mH. These
negative inductance values do not create a problem if you use the
equivalent circuits in computations. However, if you want to build
the equivalent circuits using circuit components, the negative reactance
can only be achieved using capacitors. But whenever the frequency of the
sinusoidal source changes, you must change the capacitor used to gener-
ate the negative reactance. For example, at a frequency of 50 krad>s, a
-2 mH inductor has an impedance of -j100 Ω. This impedance can be
modeled with a 0.2 mF capacitor. If the frequency changes to 25 krad>s,
the -2 mH inductive impedance changes to -j50 Ω and we need a 0.8 mF
capacitor. If the frequency is varied continuously, using a capacitor to sim-
ulate negative inductance is impractical.
Instead of using capacitors to create negative reactance, you can
include an ideal transformer in the equivalent circuit. This doesn’t
completely solve the problem because ideal transformers can only
be approximated. However, in some situations the approximation is
satisfactory, so knowing how to use an ideal transformer in the T- and
p-equivalent circuits of magnetically coupled coils is an important tool.
An ideal transformer can be used in two different ways in either
the T-equivalent or the p-equivalent circuit. Figure C.12 shows the two
arrangements for each type of equivalent circuit. To verify any of the
equivalent circuits in Fig. C.12, we must show that the equations relat-
ing v1 and v2 to di1 >dt and di2 >dt are identical to Eqs. C.1 and C.2. To
demonstrate, we validate the circuit shown in Fig. C.12(a); we leave it to
you to verify the circuits in Figs. C.12(b), (c), and (d).
766 More on Magnetically Coupled Coils and Ideal Transformers

M L2 M
L1 2 a 2 a i2 i1 a2L1 2 Ma L2 2 Ma
a2
1:a 1:a
1 i1 1 1 i2 1
v1 M v2 v1 Ma v2
a
2 Ideal 2 2 Ideal 2
(a) (b)

L1L2 2 M 2 a(L1L2 2 M 2)
i1 i2 i1 i2
Ma M
1:a 1:a
1 1 1 1
2 2
L2L1 2 M L1L2 2 M a2(L1L2 2 M 2) a 2(L1L2 2 M 2)
v1 v2 v1 v2
L2 2 Ma a2L1 2 Ma L2 2 Ma a2L1 2 Ma
2 Ideal 2 2 Ideal 2
(c) (d)
Figure C.12 ▲ The four ways of using an ideal transformer in the T- and p-equivalent
circuit for magnetically coupled coils.

L2 M We redrew the circuit shown in Fig. C.12(a) as Fig. C.13, adding the
M 2 a i2
L1 2 a a2 variables i0 and v0 to aid the discussion. From this circuit,
1 1 N1 N2 1 M di1 M d
i1 i0 v1 = a L1 - b + (i + i0)
v1 M v0 v2 a dt a dt 1
a
2 2 Ideal 2
and
(a)
Figure C.13 ▲ The circuit of Fig. C.12(a) with i0 and
L2 M di0 M d
v0 = a - b + (i + i1).
v0 defined. a2 a dt a dt 0
The ideal transformer imposes constraints on v0 and i0:
v2
v0 = ;
a
i0 = ai2.

Substituting the constraint equations into the expressions for v1 and v0

from the circuit gives

di1 M d
v1 = L1 + (ai )
dt a dt 2
and

v2 L2 d M di1
= 2 (ai2) + .
a a dt a dt
Simplifying, we get,

di1 di2
v1 = L1 + M
dt dt
 C.2 The Need for Ideal Transformers in the Equivalent Circuits 767

and

di1 di2
v2 = M + L2 .
dt dt
These expressions for v1 and v2 are identical to Eqs. C.1 and C.2. Thus, the
circuit shown in Fig. C.13 is equivalent to the magnetically coupled coils
shown inside the box in Fig. C.1 because the terminal behavior of these
two circuits is the same.
When we showed that the circuit in Fig. C.13 is equivalent to the mag- 1
i1 L1 21 i2
netically coupled coils in Fig. C.1, we placed no restrictions on the turns k2
ratio a. Therefore, an infinite number of equivalent circuits are possible. 1 1:a 1
However, we can always find a turns ratio that makes all of the induc-
v1 L1 v2
tances positive. Two values of a are of particular interest:
2 2
Ideal
M
a = , (C.7) (a)
L1
and i1 (1 2 k2)L2

1 1:a 1
L2 i2
a = . (C.8) v1 2
k L2 v2
M
2 2
The value of a given by Eq. C.7 eliminates the inductances L1 - M>a Ideal
and a2L1 - aM from the T-equivalent circuits and the inductances (b)
(L1L2 - M 2)>(a 2L1 - aM) and a2(L1L2 - M 2)>(a2L1 - aM) from the
p-equivalent circuits. The value of a given by Eq. C.8 eliminates the induc- Figure C.14 ▲ Two equivalent circuits when
tances (L2 >a2) - (M>a) and L2 - aM from the T-equivalent circuits and a 5 MNL1.
the inductances (L1L2 - M 2)>(L2 - aM) and a2(L1L2 - M 2)>(L2 - aM)
from the p-equivalent circuits.
Also note that when a = M>L1, the circuits in Figs. C.12(a) and (c) L1(1 2 k2) i2
are identical, and when a = L2 >M, the circuits in Figs. C.12(b) and (d) 1:a
1 i1 1
are identical. Figures C.14 and C.15 summarize these observations. We
can use the relationship M = k 1L1L2 to derive the inductor values in v1 2
k L1 v2
Figs. C.14 and C.15 as functions of the self-inductances L1 and L2, and the 2 2
Ideal
coupling coefficient k. Then, the values of a given by Eqs. C.7 and C.8 will
reduce the number of inductances needed in the equivalent circuit and (a)
guarantee that all the inductances will be positive.
1
The values of a given by Eqs. C.7 and C.8 can be determined exper- i1 L2 21 i2
k2
imentally from the magnetically coupled coils. To find the ratio M>L1,
drive the coil with N1 turns using a sinusoidal voltage source and leave 1 1:a 1
the N2 coil open. Use a source frequency that guarantees vL1 W R1. v1 L2 v2
Figure C.16 shows the resulting circuit.
Because the N2 coil is open, 2 2
Ideal
(b)
V2 = jvMI1.
Figure C.15 ▲ Two equivalent circuits when
Since vL1 W R1, the current I1 is a = L2NM.

V1
I1 = . I1
jvL1
Substituting the expression for I1 into the equation for V2 and rearranging 1
yields 1
V1 jwL1 jwL2 V2
2
V2 M N1 N2 2
a b = .
V1 I2 = 0 L1
Figure C.16 ▲ Experimental determination of the
Thus, the ratio M>L1 equals the ratio of the terminal voltages when I2 = 0. ratio MNL1.
768 More on Magnetically Coupled Coils and Ideal Transformers

To experimentally determine the ratio L2 >M, reverse the procedure;

that is, coil 2 is energized and coil 1 is left open. Then

L2 V2
= a b .
M V1 I1 = 0

Example C.2 illustrates how to replace magnetically coupled coils

with an equivalent circuit that includes an ideal transformer and positive
inductor values.

EXAMPLE C.2

Consider the circuit we analyzed in part (b) of equivalent circuit in Fig. C.14(a). Remember that
Example C.1, which replaced the magnetically cou- the source frequency is 400 rad > sec. The result is
pled coils in Fig. C.6 (with the polarity dot on the sec- the circuit in Fig. C.17. We have defined the cur-
ondary winding moved to the bottom terminal) with rents and voltages for the ideal transformer, so we
a T-equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit is shown can write the equations for this circuit. There are
in Fig. C.11 and must use a capacitor to represent the three meshes, so we will write three KVL equations
negative reactance. Repeat the analysis in Example using the mesh currents I1, Ia, and Ib. Then we use
C.1(b). but now replace the magnetically coupled the dot convention for ideal transformers to write
coils with the equivalent circuit in Fig. C.14(a). the equations relating the phasor currents Ia and Ib,
and the phasor voltages Va and Vb:
Solution
(700 + j3700)I1 - j3600Ia - 300 = 0,
From Example C.1(b) we know that L1 = 9 H,
L2 = 4 H, and M = -3 H. We need to calculate -j3600I1 - j14,400Ia + Va = 0,
the coupling coefficient k, the turns ratio a, and
the inductor values for the equivalent circuit in (900 - j2500)Ib + Vb = 0,
Fig. C.14(a):
Vb
M 3 Va = ,
k = = = 0.5, - (1>3)
1L1L2 1(9)(4)
1
M -3 1 Ia = I .
a = = = - , 3 b
L1 9 3
Solving for I1 and Ib,
1 1
L1 a - 1b = 9a 2 - 1b = 27 H.
k 2
0.5 I1 = 0.02 - j0.06 = 63.25l -71.57° mA,
Note that in calculating the coupling coefficient, we
Ib = 0.0267 + j0.0533 = 59.63l63.43° mA.
ignore the sign of the mutual inductance because
this sign represents the location of the polarity Because I2 = -Ib,
marks and has no effect on the amount of coupling
I2 = -0.0267 - j0.0533 = 59.63l -116.57° mA.
between the coils.
Using the values we calculated, we can replace The values for I1 and I2 match those found in
the magnetically coupled coils in Fig. C.6 with the part (b) of Example C.1.

500 V j 100 V 200 V j10,800 V 100 V

I1 Ia 1 1 :21N3 1 Ib I2
1 800 V
300 08 V j3600 V Va Vb
2
2j2500 V
2 Ideal 2

Figure C.17 ▲ The circuit of Fig. C.6, with the magnetically coupled coils replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. C.14(a)
 APPENDIX

D The Decibel
The decibel was introduced by telephone engineers to characterize the
power loss across the cascaded circuits used to transmit telephone sig-
nals. Figure D.1 defines the problem.
There, pi is the power input to the system, p1 is the power output of
circuit A, p2 is the power output of circuit B, and po is the power output
of the system. The power gain of each circuit is the ratio of the power
out to the power in. Thus

pi A p1 B p2 C po p1 p2 po
sA = , sB = , and sC = .
pi p1 p2

Figure D.1 ▲ Three cascaded circuits. The overall power gain of the system is the product of the individual
gains, or

po p1 p2 po
= = sAsBsC.
pi pi p1 p2

We can replace the multiplication of power ratios with addition if we

use the logarithm; that is,

po
log10 = log10sA + log10sB + log10sC.
pi

The log of a power ratio was named the bel, in honor of Alexander
Graham Bell. Thus, we calculate the overall power gain, in bels, by
summing the power gains, also in bels, of each segment of the trans-
mission system. In practice, the bel is an inconveniently large quantity.
One-tenth of a bel is a more useful measure of power gain—hence the
decibel. The number of decibels equals 10 times the number of bels, so

po
Number of decibels = 10 log10 .
pi

When we use the decibel as a measure of power ratios, in some sit-

uations the resistance seen looking into the circuit equals the resistance
loading the circuit, as illustrated in Fig. D.2. When the input resistance
equals the load resistance, we can convert the power ratio to either a
voltage ratio or a current ratio:
iin iout

1 R 1 po v2out > RL vout 2

in = 2 = a b
vin A vout RL pi vin > Rin vin
2 2
or
Rin 5 RL
po i2outRL iout 2
Figure D.2 ▲ A circuit in which the input resistance = 2 = a b .
equals the load resistance.
pi iin > Rin iin

769
770 The Decibel

These equations show that the number of decibels becomes

vout
Number of decibels = 20 log10 (D.1)
vin
iout
= 20 log10 .
iin

The definition of the decibel used in Bode diagrams (see Appendix

E) is borrowed from the results expressed by Eq. D.1, since these results
apply to any transfer function involving a voltage ratio, a current ratio, a
voltage-to-current ratio, or a current-to-voltage ratio. You should keep
the original definition of the decibel firmly in mind because it is of funda-
mental importance in many engineering applications.
When you are working with transfer function amplitudes expressed in
decibels, having a table that translates the decibel value to the actual value
of the output/input ratio is helpful. Table D.1 gives some useful pairs. The
ratio corresponding to a negative decibel value is the reciprocal of the
positive ratio. For example, -3 dB corresponds to an output/input ratio
of 1>1.41, or 0.707. Interestingly, -3 dB corresponds to the half-power
frequencies of the filter circuits discussed in Chapters 14 and 15.

TABLE D.1 Some dB-Ratio Pairs

dB Ratio dB Ratio
0 1.00 30 31.62
3 1.41 40 100.00
6 2.00 60 103
10 3.16 80 104
15 5.62 100 105
20 10.00 120 106

The decibel is also used as a unit of power when it expresses the ratio
of a known power to a reference power. Usually, the reference power is
1 mW, and the power unit is written dBm, which stands for “decibels rel-
ative to one milliwatt.” For example, a power of 20 mW corresponds to
{13 dBm.
AC voltmeters commonly provide dBm readings that assume not only
a 1 mW reference power but also a 600 Ω reference resistance (a value
commonly used in telephone systems). Since a power of 1 mW in 600 Ω
corresponds to 0.7746 V (rms), that voltage is read as 0 dBm on the meter.
For analog meters, there usually is exactly a 10 dB difference between
adjacent ranges. Although the scales may be marked 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, 10, and
so on, in fact 3.16 V on the 3 V scale lines up with 1 V on the 1 V scale.
Some voltmeters provide a switch to choose a reference resistance (50,
135, 600, or 900 Ω) or to select dBm or dBV (decibels relative to one volt).
APPENDIX

E Bode Diagrams
The frequency response plot is a very important tool for analyzing a
circuit’s behavior. Up to this point, we have shown qualitative sketches
of the frequency response without discussing how to create these plots.
The best way to generate and plot the amplitude and phase data is to
use a computer; we can rely on it to give us accurate numerical plots of
0 H(jv) 0 and u(jv) versus v. But we can create preliminary sketches of
the frequency response using Bode diagrams.
A Bode diagram is a graphical technique that approximates a sys-
tem’s frequency response. These diagrams are named to recognize the
pioneering work of H. W. Bode.1 They are most useful for systems
whose transfer function poles and zeros are reasonably well separated.
A Bode diagram consists of two separate plots: One shows how the
transfer function amplitude varies with frequency, and the other shows
how the transfer function phase angle varies with frequency. The Bode
diagram plots are constructed using semilog graph paper to accommo-
date a wide range of frequencies. In both the amplitude and phase plots,
the frequency is plotted on the horizontal log scale. The amplitude and
phase angle are plotted on the linear vertical scale.

E.1 Real, First-Order Poles and Zeros

First, we consider a transfer function, H(s), with poles and zeros that are
real and distinct. We introduce the procedure for constructing a Bode
diagram using

K(s + z1)
H(s) = ,
s(s + p1)
from which

K(jv + z1)
H(jv) = .
jv(jv + p1)

To begin, put the expression for H(jv) in a standard form, which we

derive by dividing out the poles and zeros:

Kz1(1 + jv>z1)
H(jv) = .
p1(jv)(1 + jv>p1)

Next we let Ko equal Kz1 >p1, and express H(jv) in polar form:

Ko 0 1 + jv>z1 0 lc1
H(jv) =
( 0 v 0 l90° )( 0 1 + jv>p1 0 lb1 )

1
See H. W. Bode, Network Analysis and Feedback Design (New York: Van Nostrand, 1945).

771
772 Bode Diagrams

Ko 0 1 + jv>z1 0
= l(c1 - 90° - b1) .
0 v 0 0 1 + jv>p1 0
Therefore,

Ko 0 1 + jv>z1 0
0 H(jv) 0 = , (E.1)
v 0 1 + jv>p1 0

u(jv) = c1 - 90° - b1. (E.2)

By definition, the phase angles c1 and b1 are

-1
c1 = tan v>z1;

-1
b1 = tan v>p1.

The Bode diagram includes the plots of Eq. E.1 (amplitude) and Eq. E.2
(phase) as functions of v.

E.2 Straight-Line Amplitude Plots

Notice from Eq. E.1 that the amplitude plot requires us to multiply and
divide values associated with the poles and zeros of H(s). We can trans-
form the multiplication and division into addition and subtraction if we
express 0 H(jv) 0 as a logarithmic value: the decibel (dB).2 The amplitude
of H(jv) in decibels is

AdB = 20 log10 0 H(jv) 0 .

Expressing Eq. E.1 in terms of decibels gives

Ko 0 1 + jv>z1 0
AdB = 20 log10 (E.3)
v 0 1 + jv>p1 0

= 20 log10Ko + 20 log10 0 1 + jv>z1 0

- 20 log10v - 20 log10 0 1 + jv>p1 0 .

To construct a plot of Eq. E.3 versus frequency v, we plot each term

in the equation separately and then combine the separate plots graphi-
cally. The terms in Eq. E.3 are easy to plot because they can be approxi-
mated by straight lines.
The plot of 20 log10Ko is a horizontal straight line because Ko is not a
function of frequency. The value of this term is positive for Ko 7 1, zero
for Ko = 1, and negative for Ko 6 1.
Two straight lines approximate the plot of 20 log10 0 1 + jv>z1 0 . For
small values of v, the magnitude 0 1 + jv>z1 0 is approximately 1, and
therefore
20 log10 0 1 + jv>z1 0 S 0 as v S 0.

2
See Appendix D for more information regarding the decibel.
 E.2 Straight-Line Amplitude Plots 773

For large values of v, the magnitude 0 1 + jv>z1 0 is approximately v>z1,

and therefore

20 log10 0 1 + jv>z1 0 S 20 log10(v>z1) as v S ∞.

On a log frequency scale, 20 log10(v>z1) is a straight line with a slope of

20 dB>decade (a decade is a 10-to-1 change in frequency). This straight
line intersects the 0 dB axis at v = z1. This value of v is called the corner
frequency. Thus, two straight lines can approximate the amplitude plot of
a first-order zero, as shown in Fig. E.1.

25

20
v
20 log10 z1
15

10
AdB
20 dBNdecade
5

0
z1 10z1
25
Decade
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50
v (rad s)

Figure E.1 ▲ A straight-line approximation of the amplitude plot of a first-order zero.

The plot of -20 log10v is a straight line having a slope of

-20 dB>decade that intersects the 0 dB axis at v = 1.
Two straight lines approximate the plot of -20 log10 0 1 + jv>p1 0 and
intersect on the 0 dB axis at v = p1. For large values of v, the straight
line 20 log10(v>p1) has a slope of -20 dB>decade. Figure E.2 shows the
straight-line approximation of the amplitude plot for a first-order pole.

0 p1 v 10p1
–20 log10 p
1
–5
AdB
–10
–20 dBNdecade
–15

–20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50
v (rad s)

Figure E.2 ▲ A straight-line approximation of the amplitude plot of a first-order pole.

Figure E.3 shows a plot of Eq. E.3 for Ko = 110, z1 = 0.1 rad>s, and
p1 = 5 rad>s. Each term in Eq. E.3 is also plotted in Fig. E.3, so you can
verify that the individual terms sum to create the plot of the transfer func-
tion’s amplitude, labeled 20 log10 0 H(jv) 0 .
774 Bode Diagrams

50
20 log10 |H(jv)| v
20 log10 1 1 j z
1
40

30
220 log10v 20 log10 |H(jv)|
20
AdB
20 log10 Ko
10

0
v
220 log10 1 1 j p
1
210

220
0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5 10 50 100 500
v (radNs)

Figure E.3 ▲ A straight-line approximation of the amplitude plot for Eq. E.3.

Example E.1 constructs a straight-line amplitude plot for a transfer

function with first-order poles and zeros.

EXAMPLE E.1

For the circuit in Fig. E.4: 110s 110s

H(s) = 2
= .
s + 110s + 1000 (s + 10)(s + 100)
100 mH 10 mF

1 b) Write H(jv) in standard form:

1 0.11jv
vi 11 V vo H(jv) = .
2 [1 + j(v>10)][1 + j(v>100)]
2
The expression for the amplitude of H(jv) in
Figure E.4 ▲ The circuit for Example E.1. decibels is
AdB = 20 log10 0 H(jv) 0
a) Find the transfer function, H(s) = Vo(s)>Vi(s).
b) Construct a straight-line approximation of the = 20 log100.11 + 20 log10 0 jv 0
Bode amplitude plot.
v v
c) Calculate 20 log10 0 H(jv) 0 at v = 50 rad>s and - 20 log10 ` 1 + j ` - 20 log10 ` 1 + j `.
10 100
v = 1000 rad>s. Identify these two values on the
plot you constructed in (b). Figure E.5 shows the straight-line plot. Each
d) If vi(t) = 5 cos (500t + 15°) V, use the Bode plot term contributing to the overall amplitude is also
you constructed to predict the amplitude of vo(t) plotted and identified.
in the steady state. c) We have
0.11(j50)
Solution H(j50) =
(1 + j5)(1 + j0.5)
a) Transform the circuit in Fig. E.4 into the
s-domain and then use voltage division to get = 0.9648l -15.25°,
(R>L)s
H(s) = . 20 log10 0 H(j50) 0 = 20 log10 0.9648
1
s2 + (R>L)s +
LC = -0.311 dB;
Substituting the numerical values from the circuit,
we get
 E.3 More Accurate Amplitude Plots 775

0.11(j1000) These two magnitude values are plotted in

H(j1000) = Fig. E.5.
(1 + j100)(1 + j10)
d) The frequency of vi is 500 rad > sec. As we can see
= 0.1094l -83.72°;
from the Bode plot in Fig. E.5, the value of AdB
20 log10 0.1094 = -19.22 dB. at v = 500 rad>s is approximately -12.5 dB.
Therefore,
40 0 H(j500) 0 = 10(-12.5>20) = 0.24
30
and
20
20 log10  jv
10 Vo = 0 H(j500) 0 Vi = (0.24)(5) = 1.19 V.
20 log10 H(jv)
0 To calculate the actual value of 0 H(jv) 0 , substitute
(212.5)
AdB 210 (20.311) (219.22) v = 500 into the equation for 0 H(jv) 0 :
20 log10 0.11
220
0.11(j500)
230 220 log10  1 1 j
v
 H(j500) = = 0.22l -77.54°.
100 (1 + j50)(1 + j5)
240
v
250 220 log10  1 1 j
10
 Thus, the actual output voltage magnitude for
260 the specified signal source at a frequency of
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000 500 rad>s is
v (radNs)
Vo = 0 H(j500) 0 Vi = (0.22)(5) = 1.1 V.
Figure E.5 ▲ The straight-line amplitude plot for the transfer func-
tion of the circuit in Fig. E.4.

E.3 More Accurate Amplitude Plots

We can make the straight-line plots for first-order poles and zeros more
accurate by correcting the amplitude values at the corner frequency, one-
half the corner frequency and twice the corner frequency. At the corner
frequency, the actual value in decibels is

AdBc = {20 log10 0 1 + j1 0

= {20 log10 12

≈ {3 dB.

The actual value at one-half the corner frequency is

1
AdBc>2 = {20 log10 ` 1 + j `
2
5
= {20 log10
A4
≈ {1 dB.

At twice the corner frequency, the actual value in decibels is

AdB2c = {20 log10 0 1 + j2 0

= {20 log10 15

≈ {7 dB.
776 Bode Diagrams

In these three equations, the plus sign applies to a first-order zero,

and the minus sign applies to a first-order pole. The straight-line approx-
imation of the amplitude plot is 0 dB at both the corner frequency and
at one-half the corner frequency, and is {6 dB at twice the corner fre-
quency. Hence, the corrections are {3 dB at the corner frequency and
{1 dB at both one-half the corner frequency and twice the corner fre-
quency. Figure E.6 summarizes these corrections.
25

20

15

10
3 dB
5
1 dB 1 dB
AdB 0
21 dB 21 dB
25
23 dB
210

215

220

225
vc vc 2vc
2
Figure E.6 ▲ Corrected amplitude plots for a first-order zero and pole.

If the poles and zeros of H(s) are widely separated, you can include
these corrections into the overall amplitude plot and produce a reason-
ably accurate curve. However, if the poles and zeros are close together,
the overlapping corrections are difficult to evaluate, so estimating the am-
plitude characteristic using the uncorrected straight-line plot is a better
choice. Use a computer to create an accurate amplitude plot in the fre-
quency range of interest.

E.4 Straight-Line Phase Angle Plots

We can also use straight-line approximations to plot the transfer function
phase angle versus frequency. Using the transfer function phase angle in
Eq. E.2, we know that the phase angle associated with the constant Ko is
zero, and the phase angle associated with a first-order zero or pole at the
origin is a constant {90°. For a first-order zero or pole not at the origin,
the straight-line approximations are as follows:

• For frequencies less than one-tenth the corner frequency, the phase
angle is approximated by zero.
• For frequencies greater than 10 times the corner frequency, the
phase angle is approximated by {90°.
• Between one-tenth the corner frequency and 10 times the corner
frequency, the phase angle plot is a straight line with the value 0° at
one-tenth the corner frequency, {45° at the corner frequency, and
{90° at 10 times the corner frequency.
 E.4 Straight-Line Phase Angle Plots 777

Throughout, the plus sign applies to the first-order zero and the minus
sign to the first-order pole. Figure E.7 depicts the straight-line approxima-
tion for a first-order zero and pole. The dashed curves show the exact plot
of the phase angle versus frequency. Note how closely the straight-line
plot approximates the actual phase angle plot. The maximum deviation
between the straight-line plot and the actual plot is approximately 6°.

908
c1 5 tan21 (vNz1)
608 Actual
Straight-line approximation

308

u (v) 0 2b1 5 2tan21 (vNp1)

Actual
2308 Straight-line approximation

2608

2908

z1N10 p1N10 z1 p1 10z1 10p1

v (rad s)

Figure E.7 ▲ Phase angle plots for a first-order zero and pole.

We construct a phase angle plot using a straight-line approximation

in Example E.2.

EXAMPLE E.2

a) Make a straight-line phase angle plot for the where

transfer function in Example E.1. c1 = 90°,
b) Compute the phase angle u(jv) at v = 50, 500, b1 = tan - 1(v > 10), and
and 1000 rad>s. Add these phase angle values to
the plot you constructed in (a). b2 = tan - 1(v>100).
c) Using the results from Example E.1(e) and We construct the straight-line approximation of
Example E.2(b), compute the steady-state out- u(jv) by adding c1 = 90° and the straight-line
put voltage if the source voltage is given by approximations for –b1 and –b2, all of which are
vi(t) = 10 cos (500t - 25°) V. depicted in Fig. E.8.
b) From the transfer function we have
Solution H( j50) = 0.96l -15.25°,
a) From Example E.1, H(j500) = 0.22l -77.54°,
0.11(jv)
H(jv) = H(j1000) = 0.11l -83.72°.
[1 + j(v>10)][1 + j(v>100)]
Thus,
0.11 0 jv 0
= l(c1 - b1 - b2). u(j50) = -15.25°,
0 1 + j(v>10) 0 0 1 + j(v>100) 0
u(j500) = -77.54°,
Therefore, and
u(jv) = c 1 - b1 - b2, u(j1000) = -83.72°.
778 Bode Diagrams

908 These three phase angles are identified in Fig. E.8.

c1 5 908
608
c) The frequency of the input voltage is 500 rad > sec.
u(v) 5 c1 2 b1 2 b2 Therefore,
308 Vo = 0 H(j500) 0 Vi
08 (215.25)
u (v) = (0.22)(10)
2308
= 2.2 V,
2b2 5 2tan21 (vN100)
2608
(277.54) (283.72) and
2b1 5 2tan21 (vN10)
2908 uo = u(j500) + ui

21208 = -77.54° - 25°

1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
v (rad s) = -102.54°.
Figure E.8 ▲ A straight-line approximation of u(v) for Thus,
Example E.2. vo(t) = 2.2 cos(500t - 102.54°) V.

E.5 Bode Diagrams: Complex Poles

and Zeros
We now consider how to construct a Bode diagram when the transfer
function has complex poles and zeros. Let’s focus on constructing the am-
plitude and phase angle plots for a transfer function with a pair of com-
plex poles. Once you understand the rules for handling complex poles,
you can apply these rules, with minor adjustments, to create plots for a
pair of complex zeros.
The complex poles and zeros of H(s) always appear in conjugate
pairs. When H(s) has complex poles, the first step in constructing a Bode
diagram for H(s) is to combine the conjugate pair into a single quadratic
term. Thus, for

K
H(s) = ,
(s + a - jb)(s + a + jb)

we first rewrite the product (s + a - jb)(s + a + jb) as

(s + a)2 + b2 = s2 + 2as + a2 + b2.

When making Bode diagrams, we write the quadratic term in a more con-
venient form:

s2 + 2as + a2 + b2 = s2 + 2zvns + v2n.

Comparing the two forms shows that

v2n = a2 + b2

and

zvn = a.
 E.6 Straight-Line Amplitude Plots for Complex Poles 779

The term vn is the corner frequency of the quadratic term, and z is the
damping coefficient of the quadratic term. If z 6 1, the roots of the qua-
dratic term are complex, and if z Ú 1, the roots are real. Assuming that
z 6 1, we rewrite the transfer function as

K
H(s) = 2
.
s + 2zvns + v2n
We then write the transfer function in standard form by dividing through
by v2n, so

K 1
H(s) = ,
v2n 1 + (s>vn)2 + 2z(s>vn)
from which

Ko
H(jv) = 2
,
1 - (v >v2n) + j(2zv>vn)
where

K
Ko = .
v2n
We replace the ratio v>vn by a new variable, u. Then

Ko
H(jv) = .
1 - u2 + j2zu

Now we write H(jv) in polar form:

Ko
H(jv) = ,
0 (1 - u ) + j2zu 0 lb1
2

from which

AdB = 20 log10 0 H(jv) 0

= 20 log10Ko - 20 log10 0 (1 - u2) + j2zu 0 ,

and

-1 2zu
u(jv) = -b1 = - tan .
1 - u2

E.6 Straight-Line Amplitude Plots

for Complex Poles
The expression -20 log10 0 1 - u2 + j2zu 0 represents the quadratic term’s
contribution to the amplitude of H(jv). Because u = v>vn, u S 0 as
v S 0, and u S ∞ as v S ∞. To see how the term behaves as v ranges
from 0 to ∞ , we note that

-20 log10 0 (1 - u2) + j2zu 0 = -20 log10 2(1 - u2)2 + 4z2u2

= -10 log10[u4 + 2u2(2z2 - 1) + 1]. (E.4)

780 Bode Diagrams

20 Then, as u S 0,
10
-10 log10[u4 + 2u2(2z2 - 1) + 1] S 0,
0

210 and as u S ∞,
AdB
220
240 dBNdecade -10 log10[u4 + 2u2(2z2 - 1) + 1] S -40 log10u.
230

240 From these limiting expressions, we see that the approximate ampli-
250 tude plot consists of two straight lines. For v 6 vn, the straight line
vn 10vn lies along the 0 dB axis, and for v 7 vn, the straight line has a slope of
v (rad s) -40 dB>decade. These two straight lines join on the 0 dB axis at u = 1 or
Figure E.9 ▲ The amplitude plot for a pair of v = vn. Figure E.9 shows the straight-line approximation for a quadratic
complex poles. term with z 6 1.

20 E.7 Correcting Straight-Line Amplitude

z 5 0.1 Plots for Complex Poles
10
Corrections to the straight-line amplitude plot for a pair of complex poles
5 0.3
z
depend on the damping coefficient z. Figure E.10 shows the effect of z
0 on the amplitude plot. Note that when z is very small, a large peak in the
amplitude occurs in the neighborhood of the corner frequency vn(u = 1).
z 5 0.707 When z Ú 1 > 12, the corrected amplitude plot lies entirely below the
210
straight-line approximation. The straight-line amplitude plot can be cor-
AdB rected by locating four points on the actual curve. These four points cor-
respond to (1) one-half the corner frequency, (2) the frequency at which
220
the amplitude reaches its peak value, (3) the corner frequency, and (4) the
frequency at which the amplitude is zero.
230
At one-half the corner frequency (point 1), the actual amplitude is

240 AdB(vn >2) = -10 log10(z2 + 0.5625). (E.5)

The amplitude peaks (point 2) at a frequency of

250
vn
vp = vn 21 - 2z2, (E.6)
v (radNs)

Figure E.10 ▲ The effect of z on the amplitude plot. and it has a peak amplitude of

AdB(vp) = -10 log10[4z2(1 - z2)]. (E.7)

3
2 3 At the corner frequency (point 3), the actual amplitude is
2
1
1 AdB(vn) = -20 log102z. (E.8)
4
0
The corrected amplitude plot crosses the 0 dB axis (point 4) at
21

AdB 22 vo = vn 22(1 - 2z2) = 12vp. (E.9)

23
Figure E.11 shows these four points.
24
Evaluating Eq. E.4 at u = 0.5 and u = 1.0, respectively, yields Eqs. E.5
25 and E.8. Equation E.9 results from finding the value of u that makes
26 u4 + 2u2(2z2 - 1) + 1 = 1. To derive Eq. E.6, differentiate Eq. E.4 with
27 respect to u and find the value of u where the derivative is zero. To derive
vnN2 v p vn v0
E.7, find the value of u for the frequency in Eq. E.6, then evaluate Eq. E.4
v (radNs)
at that value of u.
Figure E.11 ▲ Four points on the corrected Example E.3 illustrates the amplitude plot for a transfer function with
amplitude plot for a pair of complex poles. a pair of complex poles.
 E.7 Correcting Straight-Line Amplitude Plots for Complex Poles 781

EXAMPLE E.3

Compute the transfer function for the circuit shown e) The actual amplitudes are
in Fig. E.12.
AdB(vn >2) = -10 log10(0.6025) = 2.2 dB,
50 mH 1V
vp = 5010.92 = 47.96 rad > s,
1
1
vi 8 mF vo AdB(vp) = -10 log10(0.16)(0.96) = 8.14 dB,
2
2
AdB(vn) = -20 log10(0.4) = 7.96 dB,
Figure E.12 ▲ The circuit for Example E.3.
vo = 12vp = 67.82 rad > s,

AdB(vo) = 0 dB.
a) Find the value of the corner frequency in radians
per second.
b) Find the value of Ko. Figure E.13 shows these four points, identified as
follows:
c) Find the value of the damping coefficient.
• Point 1 has the coordinates (25 rad > s, 2.2 dB),
d) Make a straight-line amplitude plot for frequen-
• Point 2 has the coordinates (47.96 rad > s,
cies from 10 to 500 rad>s.
8.14 dB),
e) Calculate the actual amplitude in decibels at • Point 3 has the coordinates (50 rad > s, 7.96 dB),
vn >2, vp, vn, and vo. Use these values to correct and
the plot in (d). • Point 4 has the coordinates (67.82 rad > s, 0 dB).
f) Using the corrected amplitude plot, describe Figure E.13 also shows the corrected plot, which
the type of filter represented by the circuit in is the dashed line that passes through these four
Fig. E.12 and estimate its cutoff frequency, vc. points.

Solution 15
10 2 3
Transform the circuit in Fig. E.12 to the s- 5 1 4
domain and then use voltage division to get 0
25
1
210
LC AdB 215
H(s) = .
2 R 1 220
s + a bs +
L LC 225
Substituting the component values, 230
235
2500 240
H(s) = 2
.
s + 20s + 2500 245
10 50 100 500
a) From the expression for H(s), v2n = 2500; there- v (rad s)
fore, vn = 50 rad>s.
Figure E.13 ▲ The amplitude plot for Example E.3.
b) By definition, Ko is 2500>v2n, or 1.
c) The coefficient of s in the denominator equals f) The amplitude plot in Fig. E.13 identifies the cir-
2zvn; therefore cuit as a low-pass filter. At the cutoff frequency,
20 the magnitude of the transfer function, 0 H(jvc) 0 ,
z = = 0.20. is 3 dB less than the maximum magnitude. From
2vn
the corrected plot, the cutoff frequency appears
d) See Fig. E.13. to be about 55 rad>s, almost the same as that pre-
dicted by the straight-line Bode diagram.
782 Bode Diagrams

E.8 Phase Angle Plots for Complex

Poles
The phase angle plot for a pair of complex poles is a plot of
u(jv) = - tan - 1[2zu>(1 - u2)]. The phase angle is zero at zero fre-
quency and is -90° at the corner frequency. It approaches -180° as v
(and, therefore, u) becomes large. As in the case of the amplitude plot, z
determines the exact shape of the phase angle plot. Figure E.14 shows the
effect of z on the phase angle plot.
We can make a straight-line approximation of the phase angle plot for
a pair of complex poles. We do so by drawing three line segments:

• For v … (4.81 - z)vn, draw a horizontal line at 0°;

• For v Ú (4.81z)vn, draw a horizontal line at –180°;
• For (4.81 - z)vn … v … (4.81z)vn, draw a straight line connecting the
0° phase angle at (4.81 - z)vn to the –180° phase angle at (4.81z)vn.
This line passes through –90° at vn and has a slope of -132>z
degrees/decade (-2.3>z rad/decade).
Figure E.15 depicts the straight-line approximation for z = 0.3 and
shows the actual phase angle plot. We see that the straight line is a good
approximation of the actual curve near the corner frequency, but the
error is quite large near the two points where the straight lines intersect.
In Example E.4, we summarize our discussion of Bode diagrams.

0.62 5 4.812z
0
158
Actual curve
0 2308
2158
z 5 0.1
2308
z 5 0.3 2608
2458
z 5 0.707
2608
u (v) 2908
2758 4408Ndecade
u (v) (7.67 radNdec)
2908
21208
21058
21208
21358 21508
21508
21658 21808
1.6 5 4.81z
21808
0.2 0.4 1.0 2 4 8 1.0 2.0
u u
Figure E.14 ▲ The effect of z on the phase angle Figure E.15 ▲ A straight-line approximation of the phase
plot. angle for a pair of complex poles.
 E.8 Phase Angle Plots for Complex Poles 783

EXAMPLE E.4

a) Compute the transfer function, H(s), for the cir- Note that for the quadratic term, u = v>10. The am-
cuit shown in Fig. E.16. plitude of H(jv) in decibels is
250 mH AdB = 20 log10 0 1 + jv>25 0
1
v 2 v
- 20 log10 c ` 1 - a b + j0.4a b ` d,
1V 10 10
1
vi vo
2 and the phase angle is
40 mF
u(jv) = c1 - b1,
2
where
Figure E.16 ▲ The circuit for Example E.4. -1
c1 = tan (v>25),
b) Make a straight-line amplitude plot of
20 log10 0 H(jv) 0 . -1
0.4(v>10)
b1 = tan .
c) Use the straight-line amplitude plot to determine 1 - (v>10)2
the type of filter represented by this circuit and
Figure E.17 shows the amplitude plot and includes the
then estimate its cutoff frequency.
plots of the two terms that make up AdB.
d) Find the actual cutoff frequency.
e) Make a straight-line phase angle plot of H(jv). 60
f) Using the plot in (e), find the phase angle at the
estimated cutoff frequency found in (c). 40
20 log10 1 1 jvN25
g) Find the phase angle at the actual cutoff frequen- 20
cy found in (d).
0
AdB AdB 5 20 log10H(jv)
Solution 220
a) Transform the circuit in Fig. E.16 to the s-domain 240
and then use voltage division to get 220 log10 12
v 2
1 j 0.4
v

10 10
R 1 260
s +
L LC 280
H(s) = . 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
R 1
s2 + s + v (rad s)
L LC
Figure E.17 ▲ The amplitude plot for Example E.4.
Substituting the component values from the cir-
cuit gives
c) The straight-line amplitude plot in Fig. E.17 indi-
4(s + 25) cates that the circuit is a low-pass filter. At the cutoff
H(s) = . frequency, the amplitude of H(jv) is 3 dB less than
s2 + 4s + 100
the amplitude in the passband. From the plot, we
b) The first step in making Bode diagrams is to put predict that the cutoff frequency is approximately
H(jv) in standard form. Because H(s) contains a 13 rad>s.
quadratic factor, we first check the value of z. We d) To solve for the actual cutoff frequency, replace s with
find that z = 0.2 and vn = 10, so jv in H(s), compute the expression for 0 H(jv) 0 , set
s>25 + 1 0 H(jvc) 0 = 11 > 12 2 Hmax = 1 > 12, and solve for vc.
H(s) = ,
1 + (s>10)2 + 0.4(s>10) First,
from which
0 1 + jv>25 0 lc1 4(jv) + 100
H( jv) = . H(jv) = .
0 1 - (v>10)2 + j0.4v>10 0 lb1
2
(jv) + 4(jv) + 100
784 Bode Diagrams

Then, f) From the phase angle plot in Fig. E.18, we estimate

the phase angle at the estimated cutoff frequency of
2(4vc)2 + 1002 1 13 rad > s to be -65°.
0 H(jvc) 0 = = .
2(100 - v2c )2 + (4vc) 2 12 g) We can compute the exact phase angle at the actual
Solving for vc gives us cutoff frequency by substituting s = j16 into the trans-
fer function H(s):
vc = 16 rad>s.
4(j16 + 25)
H(j16) = .
e) Figure E.18 shows the phase angle plot, as well as plots 2
(j16) + 4(j16) + 100
of the two angles c1 and –b1. Note that the straight-
Computing the phase angle, we see
line segment of u(v) between 1.0 and 2.5 rad>s does
not have the same slope as the segment between u(jvc) = u(j16) = -125.0°.
2.5 and 100 rad>s. Note the large error in the predicted angle. In general,
straight-line phase angle plots do not give satisfactory
1358 results in the frequency band where the phase angle is
changing. The straight-line phase angle plot is useful
908 only in predicting the general behavior of the phase
c1(v) angle, not in estimating actual phase angle values at
458
particular frequencies.
08
u (v)
2458
u (v)
2908
2b1(v)
21358

21808
1 5 10 50 100 5001000
v (radNs)

Figure E.18 ▲ The phase angle plot for Example E.4.

APPENDIX

F An Abbreviated Table of
Trigonometric Identities
1. sin(a { b) = sina cosb { cosa sinb

2. cos(a { b) = cosa cosb | sina sinb

a + b a - b
3. sina + sinb = 2 sin cos
2 2

a + b a - b
4. sina - sinb = 2 cos a b sin a b
2 2

a + b a - b
5. cosa + cosb = 2 cos a b cos a b
2 2

a + b a - b
6. cosa - cosb = -2 sin a b sin a b
2 2

7. 2 sina sinb = cos(a - b) - cos(a + b)

8. 2 cosa cosb = cos(a - b) + cos(a + b)

9. 2 sina cosb = sin(a + b) + sin(a - b)

10. sin2a = 2 sina cosa

11. cos2a = 2 cos2a - 1 = 1 - 2 sin2a

1 1
12. cos2a = + cos2a
2 2

1 1
13. sin2a = - cos2a
2 2

tana { tanb
14. tan(a { b) =
1 | tana tanb

2 tana
15. tan2a =
1 - tan2a
785
 APPENDIX

G An Abbreviated Table of
Integrals
e ax
L
1. xe axdx = (ax - 1)
a2

e ax 2 2
L
2. x 2e ax dx = (a x - 2ax + 2)
a3

L
1 x
3. x sinax dx = 2
sinax - cosax
a a

L
1 x
4. x cosax dx = 2
cosax + sinax
a a

e ax
L
5. e ax sinbx dx = (a sinbx - b cosbx)
a + b2
2

e ax
L
6. e ax cosbx dx = (a cosbx + b sinbx)
a2 + b2

Lx + a
dx 1 x
7. 2 2
= tan - 1
a a

L
dx 1 x 1 x
8. 2 2 2
= 2
a 2 2
+ tan - 1 b
(x + a ) 2a x + a a a

sin(a - b)x sin(a + b)x

L
9. sinax sinbx dx = - , a2 ≠ b2
2(a - b) 2(a + b)

sin(a - b)x sin(a + b)x

L
10. cosax cosbx dx = + , a2 ≠ b
2(a - b) 2(a + b)

786
 An Abbreviated Table of Integrals 787

cos(a - b)x cos(a + b)x

L
11. sinax cosbx dx = - - , a2 ≠ b2
2(a - b) 2(a + b)

L
x sin2ax
12. sin2ax dx = -
2 4a

L
x sin2ax
13. cos2ax dx = +
2 4a

p
∞ 2 , a 7 0;

L0 a + x
a dx
14. 2 2
= • 0, a = 0;
-p
2 ,a 6 0

∞ p

L0
sinax , a 7 0;
15. dx = e -2p
x 2 ,a 6 0

a 2x 2 - 2
L
2x
16. x 2 sinax dx = sinax - cosax
a2 a3

a 2x 2 - 2
L
2x
17. x 2 cosax dx = 2
cosax + sinax
a a3

e ax 2b2
L
18. e ax sin2 bx dx = c 1a sinbx - 2b cosbx2 sinbx + d
a2 + 4b2 a

e ax 2b2
L
19. e ax cos2 bx dx = 2 2
c 1a cosbx + 2b sinbx2 cosbx + d
a + 4b a
 APPENDIX

H Common Standard
Component Values
Resistors (5% tolerance)[Ω]
10 100 1.0 k 10 k 100 k 1.0 M
120 1.2 k 12 k 120 k
15 150 1.5 k 15 k 150 k 1.5 M
180 1.8 k 18 k 180 k
22 220 2.2 k 22 k 220 k 2.2 M
270 2.7 k 27 k 270 k
33 330 3.3 k 33 k 330 k 3.3 M
390 3.9 k 39 k 390 k
47 470 4.7 k 47 k 470 k 4.7 M
560 5.6 k 56 k 560 k
68 680 6.8 k 68 k 680 k 6.8 M

Capacitors
10 pF 22 pF 47 pF
100 pF 220 pF 470 pF
0.001 mF 0.0022 mF 0.0047 mF
0.01 mF 0.022 mF 0.047 mF
0.1 mF 0.22 mF 0.47 mF
1 mF 2.2 mF 4.7 mF
10 mF 22 mF 47 mF
100 mF 220 mF 470 mF

Inductors
Value Current Rating
10 mH 3A
100 mH 0.91 A
1 mH 0.15 A
10 mH 0.04 A

788
Answers to Selected Problems
Chapter 1 3.14 a) 1008 Ω , 336 Ω

1.1 249.6 gigawatt-hours b) 3 W

1.6 a) 3.456 s 3.26 a) 150 mA
b) 175,000 cell lengths/week b) 5.4 V
1.12 a) -100 W; power is being delivered by the box c) 3.6 V
b) Leaving d) 1 V
c) Gain 3.34 2.8 A
1.19 a) 937.5 mW 3.37 a) 49,980 Ω
b) 1.875 mJ b) 4980 Ω
1.24 a) 102 mW c) 230 Ω
b) 4.29 J d) 5 Ω
1.34 a Pdel = a Pabs = 2280 W 3.51 a) 900 Ω
b) 25 mA
Chapter 2
c) 800 Ω, 180 mW
2.6 a) 20 V
d) 900 Ω, 90 mW
b) 8 W (absorbed)
3.60 a) 97.70 Ω
2.12 a) -5 mA
b) 45.166 W
b) 50 mW
3.62 1.18 A, 391.34 W
c) 5 mA; 50 mW
3.73 a) 0.2, 0.75
2.15 100 Ω resistor
b) 384, 200
2.19 a) 2.93 A, 0.7 A
b) 351.6 V
c) a Pdel = a Pabs = 1050 W
Chapter 4
2.29 a) 10 A in parallel with 5 Ω
4.2 a) 8
b) 80 W
b) 3
2.33 45 V, 8.75 W
c) 4
2.42 1800 W, which is 1>2 the power for the circuit in
Fig. 2.41 d) Top-most and left-most meshes cannot be used,
as they both contain current sources

Chapter 3 4.5 a) i4 + i6 - i5 - I = 0

3.5 a) 9.5 kΩ, 0.78 kΩ, 22.2 Ω, 85.34 Ω b) derivation

b) 42.1 mW, 1.14 W, 220.5 W, 34.13 mW 4.11 a) 8 A, 2 A, 6 A, 2 A, 4 A

3.12 a) 41.66 V b) 360 W

b) 20.83 mA 4.13 120 V, 96 V

c) 5 W 4.18 1.35 kW
789
790 Answers to Selected Problems

4.22 a) -37.5 V, 75 W 5.44 a) -19.9844

b) -37.5 V, 75 W b) 736.1 mV
c) Part (b), fewer equations c) 5003.68 Ω
4.32 a) 0.1 A, 0.3 A, 0.2 A d) -20, 0, 5000 Ω
b) 0.38 A, 0.02 A, -0.36 A 5.49 a) 2 kΩ
4.40 2700 W b) 12 mΩ
4.43 a) 2.71 mA
b) 2 mW Chapter 6
c) 5.16 mW
6.2 a) i = 0 t 6 0
4.49 740 W i = 4t A 0 … t … 25 ms
4.54 a) Mesh current method i = 0.2 - 4t A 25 … t … 50 ms
b) 0.09 mW i = 0 50 ms … t
c) No b) v = 0 t 6 0
d) 222 mW v = 2V 0 6 t 6 25 ms

4.62 a) -0.85 A v = -2 V 25 6 t 6 50 ms
v = 0 50 ms 6 t
b) -0.85 A
p = 0 t … 0
4.68 8 mA down in parallel with 10 kΩ
p = 8t W 0 … t … 25 ms
4.72 a) 29.262 V
p = 8t - 0.4 W 25 6 t … 50 ms
b) -8.55% p = 0 50 ms … t
4.79 150 Ω w = 0 t … 0
2
4.88 2.5 Ω and 22.5 Ω w = 4t J 0 … t … 25 ms
2
4.93 a) 25 V w = 4t - 0.4t

b) 31.25 W + 10 * 10 -3 J 25 … t … 50 ms
w = 0 50 ms … t
4.105 39.583 V, 102.5 V
4
6.21 a) -50 * 10 t + 15 V
b) 106t V
Chapter 5
c) 1.6 * 106t - 12 V
5.5 -15 V
d) 52 V
5.11 a) 0 … s … 0.40
e) 60 v (V)
b) 556.25 mA
50
5.13 0 … Rf … 60 kΩ 40
30
5.20 a) 10.54 V 20
b) -4.55 V … vg … 4.55 V 10 t (ms)
0
c) 181.76 kΩ 0 10 20 30 40 50

5.27 a) -15.1 V
b) 34.3 kΩ 6.27 10/3 nF with an initial voltage drop of 15 V; 10 mF
c) 250 kΩ with an initial voltage drop of 25 V
5.30 a) 16 V 6.31 a) -20e -25t V, t Ú 0
b) -4.2 V … vb … 3.8 V b) -16e -25t + 21 V, t Ú 0
5.34 2994 Ω … Rx … 3006 Ω -25t
c) -4e - 21 V, t Ú 0
 Answers to Selected Problems 791

d) 320 mJ 7.36 a) 100e -4000t A, t Ú 0 + ; 140 + 8e -4000t 2 V, t Ú 0 +

e) 2525 mJ b) 40V, – 40 V
f) 2205 mJ 7.47 52 ms
g) 2525 - 320 = 2205 7.53 a) 100 V
di2 dig b) - 80 V
6.39 a) 0.2 + 10i2 = -0.5
dt dt c) 1000 mS
di2 dig
b) 0.2 + 10i2 = 5e -10t and -0.5 = 5e -10t d) 910.93 mS
dt dt
c) ( -53.125e -10t + 6.25e -50t ) V, t Ú 0 7.57 1-50 + 80e -200t 2 V, t Ú 0

d) -46.875 V 7.60 3.67 ms

6.45 a) 0.95 7.68 a) 40 - 40e -5000t mA, t Ú 0

b) 24 mH b) 10e -5000t V, t Ú 0+

c) 2.5 c) 16 - 16e -5000t mA, t Ú 0

6.50 0.8 nWb>A, 1.2 nWb>A d) 24 - 24e -5000t mA, t Ú 0

6.53 a) (2.1, 4.3); (3.2, 2.5); (2.1, 2.5); (3.2, 4.3) e) Yes

b) Zoom in 7.72 - 14.34 V

c) Zoom out 7.80 -5 V, 0 … t … 5 s;

-5e -0.1(t - 5) V, 5s … t 6 ∞

Chapter 7 7.88 83.09 ms

t

RC L0 b
1
7.3 a) 1 A 7.94 a) (v - va)dy
b) 2 ms b) Output is the integral of the difference between
c) 1e -500t A, t 7 0; -160e -500t V, t Ú 0 + ; vb and va, scaled by a factor of 1>RC
-90e -500t V, t Ú 0 + c) 120 ms
d) 34.6% 7.105 73 beats per minute
7.9 a) 0 A, 100 mA, 0 V
b) 400 mA, 100 mA, –20 V Chapter 8
c) 500 mA, 0 A, 0 V
8.2 31.67e -500t - 6.67e -2000t V, t Ú 0
-4000t
d) 0.1e A
8.7 a) 1.25 H, 125 mF, -200 V>s, 5 V
e) (0.5 - 0.1e -4000t ) A
b) (2000t - 75)e -80t mA, t Ú 0 +
-4000t
f) -20e V
8.11 100e -400t cos 300t -
-2402t
7.19 a) -8.89e A t Ú 0
800e -400t sin 300t V, t Ú 0
b) 131.59 mJ
8.13 - 300e -250t + 400e -1000t V, t Ú 0
c) 1.498t -501.4t -1276.3t
8.28 4 + 1.86e - 3.86e A, t Ú 0
7.23 a) 59.4e -1000t V, t Ú 0
8.39 8 kΩ, 2 H, 7.5 mA, 0
b) 9.9e -1000t mA, t Ú 0 +
8.50 (20 - 10,000te -500t - 20e -500t) V, t Ú 0
7.29 a) 8 kΩ
8.56 a) 25e -30,000t sin 40,000t V
b) 0.25 mF
b) 23.18 ms
c) 2 ms
c) 9.98 V
d) 648 mJ
d) 100.73e -6000t sin 49,638.7t V, 29.22 ms, 83.92 V
e) 1139 ms
792 Answers to Selected Problems

8.63 a) 0 … t … 0.5 - s: vo1 = -1.6t V, vo = 10t 2 V 9.15 a)

+
0.5 s … t … tsat: vo1 = (0.8t - 12) V, 25 V j25 V

vo = ( -5t 2 + 15t - 3.75) V I

b) 3.5 s 1 2j62.5 V
25 2608 V
8.64 0 … t … 0.5 s: vo1 = ( -0.8e -t
+ 0.8e -2t
) V, 2

vo = (10 - 20e -t + 10e -2t) V

t Ú 0.5 s: vo1 = (0.4 - 0.91e -2(t - 0.5)) V, b) 554.7l -3.69°
vo = ( -5 + 19.42e -(t - 0.5) - 12.87e -2(t - 0.5)) V c) 554.7 cos1500t - 3.69°2 mA
8.67 a) 6.33 pF
9.17 a) 160 + j120 mS
b) 5.03 sin(4p * 109t) V, t Ú 0
b) 160 mS
c) 120 mS
Chapter 9 d) 10 A

9.3 a) 25 V 9.29 -120 cos 8000t V

b) 200 Hz 9.35 500 rad>s

c) 1256.64 rad>s 9.42 2>3 Ω

d) 1.0472 rad 9.48 ( -80 + j40) V in parallel with (30 + j10) Ω

e) 60° 9.54 188.43l -42.88° V

f) 5 ms 9.64 -25 sin 5000t V

g) 416.67 ms 9.77 a) 0.3536

h) 25 cos 400pt V b) 2 A

i) 2.29 ms 9.82 1250l -45° Ω

9.9 a) 3 -17.94e -5333.33t + 9.84 a) 247 + j 7.25 V

150 cos1 4000t - 96.87°24 mA, t Ú 0 b) -j32 Ω, 241 + j8 V

b) Transient: -17.94e -5333.33t mA c) -26.90 Ω
Steady-state: 150 cos1 4000t - 96.87°2 mA
9.88 a) 0 A
c) 38.44 mA
b) 0.436l0° A
d) 150 mA, 4000 rad/s, - 96.87°
c) Yes
e) Current lags voltage by 36.87°
9.11 a) 28.38 cos(200t + 170.56°) Chapter 10
b) 141.33 cos(50t - 94.16°) 10.1 a) 129.41 W(abs), 482.96 VAR(abs)
c) 16.7 cos(5000t + 170.52°) b) -11.65 W(del), 43.47 VAR(abs)
d) 0 c) -63.39 W(del), -135.95 VAR(del)
9.12 a) 200 Hz d) 257.12 W(abs), -306.42 VAR(del)
b) - 90° 10.2 a) No [40.1 A(rms)]
c) 2.5 Ω b) Yes [66.2 A(rms)]
d) 40l -90° 10.8 8 mW
e) j2.5 Ω 10.14 a) 15.81 V(rms)
b) 62.5 W
 Answers to Selected Problems 793

10.17 a) 227.81l2.52° V(rms); 24.54l24.05° V(rms) 11.11 a) 15.24 A(rms)

b) b) 6583.94 V(rms)

250 2.528 V 11.12 a) 3.95l -18.4° A (rms), 3.95l101.6° A (rms),

227.81 08 V
3.95l -138.4° A (rms)
b) 216.51l -30° V (rms), 216.51l90° V (rms),
jXIl
RIl (R 5 1 æ)
(X 5 2 æ)
216.51l -150° V (rms)
Il 10.97 236.878A c) 123.16l -1.45° V (rms), 123.16l118.55° V (rms),
123.16l -121.45° V (rms)
d) 213.31l -31.45° V (rms), 213.31 l88.55° V (rms),
250 24.058 V 213.31l -151.45° V (rms)
24.54 08 V 11.15 21.64l121.34° A(rms)
11.16 174.84l33.39° V (rms)
RIl
(R 5 1 æ)
11.25 11257.2l40.72° VA
Il jXIl (X 5 2 æ)
11.27 a) 3352.33l17.35° VA
b) 692.82 V (rms)
101.88 –36.878 A
11.35 6990.62 V(rms)
10.27 a) 0.96 (lag), 0.28; 0.6 (lead), -0.8; 0.8 (lead), -0.6
11.45 a) proof
b) 0.74 (lead), -0.67
b) 2592 var, -2592 var, 3741.23 var, -4172.80 var
10.41 a) 2000 - j2000 Ω
11.54 a) 16.71 μF
b) 3.125 mW
b) 50.14 μF
c) R = 1.8 kΩ and C = 47 nF gives 3.03 mW
10.49 a) 360 mW Chapter 12
b) 4000 Ω, 0.1 mF
12.3 a) -3(t + 5)u(t + 5) + 30u(t) + 3(t - 5)u (t - 5)
c) 443.1 mW
b) 5(t + 4)u(t + 4) - 10(t + 2)u(t + 2) +
d) 450 mW 10(t - 2)u(t - 2) - 5(t - 4)u(t - 4)
e) 4000 Ω, 66.67 nF 1
12.10
f) Yes 4
4
10.52 a) 12.03l54.3 (rms) 12.20 a)
(s - 3)(s + 5)
b) 10.33 W 1 1 s cos 2 4 sin 2
b) [ - 2 + 2 ]
c) 0.88 % 2 s s + 4 s + 4
1 1 s + 1
10.60 a) 125 c) c + d
2 s + 1 (s + 1)2 + 16
b) 26.28125 W 1 4 8
d) + 2
+
10.67 a) 15.63 kWh s (s - 2) (s - 4)3
b) 11.72 kWh 1
log { 2ss + 4 }
2
e)
2
c) 9.16 kWh a
12.22 a) -
d) 6.64 kWh s + a
s
b)
Chapter 11 1s + a2 2
a2
11.1 a) abc c)
s + a
b) acb a2
d)
s + a
794 Answers to Selected Problems

80000 13.16 a) 3 1 - 1137.98e -175t cos (139t +

12.26
(s + 2000)(s + 8000) 151.62°) 4 u(t) A
12.40 a) 3 e -t + 5e -2t + 2e -4t 4 u(t)
b) 3 127.16 e -175t cos (139t + 66.84°)] u(t) V
-2t -3t -5t
b) 3 10 + 5e - 8e + e 4 u(t)
c) Yes
12.41 a) 0.53 (t - 4) u(t - 4) +(t - 8) u(t - 8) 4
13.19 3 44 cos 1100t - 153° 2 +
b) 5t + 1.5(t - 1)2 u(t - 1) - 3u(t - 2)
52e -20.83t cos135.10t + 39.7°2 4 mA
2
(t-2) u(t-2)
c) 4t 2 - (t - 1)2 u(t - 1) - 4 + 13.35 a)
2 IL
2
(t-3) u(t-3)
1
2
r
d) Sinpt[u(t - 0.5) - u(t - 1)] R 1/sC gC sL
s vc

12.42 b) 3 60 - 40te -2t - 60e -2t 4 u(t) 2

-t -t
c) 3 12te + 0.6e
+ 3.35e -3tcos(4t + 100.305°) 4 u(t) where R = 1 kΩ, C = 6.25 nF,
r = -240 V, L = 16 mH, p = -0.24 A
12.43 b) 3 10te -t cos(t - 90°) + 10e -t cos(t - 90°) 4 u(t)
-240(s + 160,000)
d) 5d′(t) - 15d(t) + 3 10e -2t - 4e -5t 4 u(t) b)
s + 160,000s + 10 10
2

12.50 a) 8, 0 0.24(s + 97,500)

c)
b) 8, 10 s2 + 160,000s + 10 10
c) 22, 0 d) 3 400e -80,000t cos(60,000t + 126.87°) 4 u(t) V

d) 250, 490 e) 3 0.5e -80,000t cos(60,000t - 16.26°) 4 u(t) A

12.54 zero at -3 rad>s, poles at 0 and two at -2 rad>s; 13.36 3 18.27 * 10 -5 2e -99t - e -250t 4 u1t2 A
zero at -5 rad>s, poles at ( -3 + j4) rad>s, 13.38 3 96e -5t - 96e -20t 4 u(t) V
( -3 - j4) rad>s and two at -1 rad>s 32 * 104(s + 320)
12.57 0.8282 13.43 a)
s(s + 400)(s + 600)
b) 3 426.67 + 320e -400t - 746.67e -600t 4 u(t) V
Chapter 13
25
3 s2 + 47190s + 9.52 * 10 8 4 13.50 a) ; no zeros, pole at -25 rad>s
s + 25
13.4 a)
s s
b) ; zero at 0, pole at -25 rad>s
b) zeros at -23.59 * 103 + j 29.94 * 109rad>s, s + 25
-23.59 * 103 - j 29.94 * 109rad>s; Pole at 0 s
c) ; zero at 0, pole at -2000 rad>s
19.8 * 109s s + 2000
13.5 a) 2 2000
s + 1.98 * 106s + 99 * 1010 d) ; no zeros, pole at -2000 rad>s
b) zero at z1 5 0; s + 2000
Poles at 0.2 s
e) ; zero at 0, pole at -3200 rad>s
-990 + j 100 krad>s, - 990 - j100 krad>s s + 3200
-104(s + 5000)
13.9 a) 13.55 a)
s(s + 25,000)
3328 150 V b) zero at -5000 rad>s, poles at 0
S
75 1 and -25,000 rad>s
0.3 S
S 2 Io c) 3 -2000t - 0.32 + 0.32e -25,000t 4 u(t) V
13.62 e -t V, 0 … t … 1 s; (1 - e)e -t V, 1 s … t … ∞

250 13.80 4.4 cos(20t - 33.57°) V

b)
(s + 23.27)(s + 476.73) 13.90 a) 0.6 A
c) (0.551e -23.27t - 0.551e -476.73t)u(t) A b) - 0.2 A
 Answers to Selected Problems 795

c) 0.4 A 14.34 4 kΩ
d) - 0.2 A 14.42 a) 397.89 Ω, 3.17 mH
6
e) 0.4e -10 tu1t2 A b) 4.42 kHz, 3.62 kHz
-106t
f) -0.4e u1t2 A c) 800 Hz
6
g) 3 1 -1.6 * 10 -3 2d1t2 4 - 3 1600e -10 tu1t2 4 V 14.51 a) 0.39 H, 0.1 mF
13.94 a) 0A, 2522 A b)  V697 Hz  =  V941 Hz  = 0.707 Vpeak  ;
1449p(122.92 22s - 3000p22)  V770 Hz  =  V852 Hz  = 0.948 Vpeak 
b)
(s + 1475p)(s2 + 14,400p2) c) 0.344 Vpeak 
30022
+ , [178.8222e -1475pt
(s + 1475p)
+ 122.0622 cos(120pt + 6.85°)] V, Chapter 15
30022 V 15.1 a) 67.16 Ω, 212.21 Ω

c) 122.0622 cos(120pt + 6.85°) V b)

d)
750 nF
v0 (V)
500
212.21 V
400
300 1 2
67.16 V 1
200 vi 1
vo
100
2 2
0 t (ms)
2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
2100 15.8 a) 4.08 kΩ, 22.94 kΩ
2200 b)

22.94 kV
Chapter 14
1 2
14.1 a) 3819.72 Hz
3.9 nF 4.08 kV 1
1
b) 0.7071l - 45°, 0.9923l - 7.125°, vi vo
0.124l - 82.875° 2 2

c) 14.142 cos(24,000t - 45°) V,

19.846 cos(3000t - 7.125°) V,
15.15 a) 1 H, 0.05 Ω, 1 F
2.48 cos(192,000t - 82.875°) V
b) 2.5 H, 5 kΩ, 250 pF
14.7 a) 31.42 Ω
c)
b) 3419.98 Hz
250 pF 2.5 H
c) With 33 Ω resistor, 5252.11 Hz
1 1
14.13 a) 5.305 kΩ
vi 5 kV vo
b) 333.86 Hz 2 2
14.17 a) 150 Ω
15.23 a) 20 mH, 2.5 mF
b) 680 kΩ
b) 13.42 cos(10,000t - 166.57°) mA
14.25 a) 5 kΩ, 50 mH
15.30 57.49 Hz, 1500 Hz, 20.44 Ω, 553.59 Ω
b) 3.52 kHz, 2.88 kHz
15.31 RL = 7.142 kΩ, RH = 877.19 Ω, and if
c) 636.62 Hz Ri = 1 kΩ then Rf = 5 Ω
796 Answers to Selected Problems

15.34 a) 3 75
16.3 + 12.5 cos vot -
b) -32.65 dB p

p n =a
150 ∞ cos 1np>22cos 1nvot2
15.58 a) R1 = 2 Ω , R2 = 20>790 Ω , R3 = 40 Ω V
2,4,6 11 - n2 2
b) 16.11 a) 2 p rad>s
b) yes
10 nF 63.64 V c) No
kV d) Yes
2

a
1 10 nF 1
∞ 2(np)2 + 4
16.22 a) 6.36 cos (nv0t - un) A
1 n = 1,3,5, c n2
vi 40.29 V vo
2 un = tan -1( np
2 )
2
b) 14.8 A
15.60 a) See component values in part (b)
16.28 a) [1.9999 cos(200t + 0.48°) +0.6662 cos (600t +
b)
177.85°) + 0.286 cos(1400t - 176.66°) V
0.5 mF 0.5 mF
2 b) Fifth harmonic
1 1 16.35 1.85 W
1
2V 16.39 a) 117.55 V(rms)
79.6 V 79.6 V
1 mF b) -2.04%
39.8 V
2 vo c) 69.2765 V(rms), -0.0081%
vi

1 Vm Vm
16.44 C 0 = , Cn = 2 3 1 + j2pn - C -j2pn 4 ,
2 n 12p22
2 77.6 V
2 n = {1, {2, {3, c

s2 + 64 * 106p2 16.50 a)
c) An(mA)
s2 + 800ps + 64 * 106p2 200
180
15.62 R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 = 400 kΩ, C 1 = 7.96 nF
150

90.56
100
Chapter 16
16.1 a) 785.4 rad>s, 78.54 krad>s 50 38.2
26.03 19.1 15.4 12.73
b) 125 Hz, 12.5 Hz
0
nv0
c) 25 V, 0 0 v0 2v0 3v0 4v0 5v0 6v0

100 pk
d) aka = sin , b = 0;
pk 2 ka 140
u8
122.988
120 pk
akb = sin , k odd, akb = 0; 120
pk 2 101.988 97.268
120 100 908 908 908
for k even, bkb = 3 1-cos ( kp ) 4 80
pk
for k odd, bkb = 0 for k even 60

a
40
100 ∞ 1 np
e) 25 + a sin cos nv0tb V, 20
p n=1 n 2
0

a
120 ∞ 1 np 0 v0 2v0 3v0 4v0 5v0 6v0 nv0
a sin cos nv0t + 2 sin nwotb V
p n = 1,3,5 n 2
 Answers to Selected Problems 797

b) 1
c)
200
|Cn|(mA) 1 + j 2p (f + 0.5)
180 p
d) a b e -a|v|
a
e) 2 p d(v)
100 t # sin 3 (v + v0)(t>2) 4
17.19 a)
2 (v + v0)(t>2)
45.28 45.28
t # sin 3 (v - v0)(t>2) 4
13.02
19.1 19.1
13.02 9.55 +
6.37 7.7 9.55 7.7 6.37 2 (v - v0)(t>2)
26 25 24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6n b) F(v) S p3 d(v - v0) + d(v + v0) 4
17.28 a) 3 416.67e -20t - 250e -100t 4 u(t) +
166.67e 100t u( -t) V
u8
150
122.488 b) 166.67 V
101.988 97.268
908 908 908
c) 166.67 V
d) 1416.67e -20t - 250e -100t 2u 1t2 V
e) Yes
26 25 24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
17.30 0.024 cos 11000t + 90°2 A
17.40 a) 3 ( -24e -t + 32e -5t>2)u(t) + 8e tu( -t) 4 V
2908 297.268 2908 2908
2101.988
2150
b)
2122.488
Vg(v)
60
400
16.57 a) , 2000 rad>s, 16 * 10 8 rad2 >sec2 50
313
b) 3 -80 cos v0t - 0.50 cos(3v0t + 91.07°) 40
30
+ 0.17 cos(5v0t + 90.60°) 4 V
20
10
Chapter 17 v
-2A vt cos 1vt>22- 2 sin 1vt>22 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
17.1 a) j ` `
t v2
b) 0 c)
50 Vo(v)
c)
40
|F(v)|
5 30
4 20
3 10
2 v
1 25 24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5

v d) 900 J
2200 2150 2100 250 0 50 100 150 200
e) 320 J
f) 95.95%
10e -j3v
17.5 a) g) 99.75%
25 + v2
b) 2 j sinv
798 Answers to Selected Problems

Chapter 18 b) y11 = 20 mS; y12 = 30 nS;

y21 = 5 mS; y22 = 20 nS
18.2 y11 = 0.159S; y12 = -0.114S;
18.21 b11 = 0.656 + j0.105; b12 = 7.69 Ω;
y21 = -0.114S, y22 = 0.129S
b21 = -0.08S; b22 = 1
18.10 h 11 = 500 Ω; h 12 = 10 -5;
18.31 a) -100 V(rms)
h 21 = 100; h 22 = 2 mS
b) 200 mW
18.13 g11 = 12.5 mS; g12 = 1.5;
c) 1.6 μW
g21 = -250; g22 = 50 MΩ
18.33 217.29
18.14 a) y11 = 20 mS; y12 = 30 nS;
18.38 3750 V
y21 = 5 mS; y22 = 20 nS
Index
A resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC)
circuits for, 331–336, 338
natural response of series RLC
circuits, 327
a-, b-, and c-phase voltage references, 442 Thévenin equivalent circuits for, step response of parallel RLC
ac circuits, balancing power in, 419–420 153–154 circuits, 320
Active circuit elements, 58 Amplitude plots, 772–776, 779–781 Angular frequency (v), 348
Active filter circuits, 600–645 accuracy of, 775–776 Appliance power ratings, 409–410
advantages of, 600, 636 complex poles, 779–781 Artificial pacemaker design, 249, 283
bandpass filters, 608–611, 626–627, corrections to, 780–781 Attenuation, 564
628–630, 636–637 straight-line, 772–776, 779–781 Average power (P), 405–412, 417,
bandreject filters, 611–615, 626, Amplitude spectrum, 673–675, 678, 422, 429, 453–454, 458–461, 463,
630–633, 636–637 691–692 667–669, 678
bass volume control, 601, 633–635 Fourier series and, 673–675, 678 absorbed, 422
block diagram for, 609 Fourier transform transition of, appliance power ratings, 409–410
Bode plots for, 602–603, 608, 691–692 balanced three-phase circuits,
611–612, 615–616, 630, 633 Amplitude, 348 453–454, 458–461, 463
broadband (low-Q) filters, Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), calculations for, 405–410, 417, 429,
609–615, 636 207, 227–228 453–454, 667–669
Butterworth filters, 619–628, 636–637 Analog meters, 99–100, 108 Fourier series applications,
cascading filters, 609–611, 615–619, Analysis methods, 125, 127, 130, 133, 667–669, 678
636–637 135, 138, 182, 252, 258, 262, 266, maximum power transfer (Pmax), 422
first-order, 602–605, 636 270, 308, 311, 315, 320, 327, 515 measurement of, 458–461, 463
fourth-order, 617–618, 622–623 analyzing a circuit with an ideal op periodic functions ( f(t)) and,
higher-order, 615–628, 636 amp, 182 667–669, 678
high-pass filters, 604–605, 626, 636 basics version of the mesh-current power factor (pf) for, 407, 429
low-pass filters, 602–603, 607, method, 133 root-mean-square (rms) value for,
615–619, 621–623, 636 basic version of the node-voltage 410–412
narrowband (high-Q) filters, method, 125 sinusoidal steady-state circuits,
628–633, 637 complete form of the mesh-current 405–410, 417, 422, 429
op amp filters, 603–605, 607, method, 138 wye (Y) loads, 453–454
608–628, 636 complete form of the node-voltage
prototypes, 603–605, 636 method, 130
scaling, 605–608, 636 finding the RC natural response, 258 B
Active high-Q filter response, 647, finding the RC step response, 266 Back-substitution method, 749–750, 754
675–677 finding the RL and RC natural and Balanced three-phase circuits, 440,
Addition/subtraction operations, 482, step response, 270 444–445, 463. See also Three-
701, 757 finding the RL natural response, 252 phase circuits
Admittance (Y), 364, 389 finding the RL step response, 262 Bandpass filters, 566–567, 578–588,
Ammeter, 98, 99–100, 108 Laplace-transform circuit analysis 593, 608–611, 626–627, 628–630,
Amplification ratio, 227–228 method, 515 636–637, 710–711
Amplifier circuit analysis, 75, 130–131, modified step 3 for the mesh- active, 608–611, 626–627, 628–630,
139, 153–154, 280–282, 284, current method, 135 636
331–336, 338. See also Operational modified step 3 for the node- bandwidth (b) for, 578, 581–582,
amplifiers voltage method, 127 584, 593
cascading connections, 331–336, 338 natural response of an overdamped block diagram for, 609
integrating-amplifier, 280–282, 284, or underdamped parallel RLC Bode plot for, 608, 629
331–336, 338 circuit, 311 broadband, 609–611, 636
Kirchhoff’s laws for, 75 natural response of an overdamped Butterworth, 626–627, 636
mesh-current method, 139 parallel RLC circuit, 308 cascaded, 609–611
node-voltage method, 130–131 natural response of parallel RLC center frequency (vo) for, 578,
Ohm’s law for, 75 circuits, 315 580–582, 593

799
800 Index

Bandpass filters (Continued) corner frequency for, 775–776 s domain representation,

cutoff frequency (vc) for, 580–581, high-pass filters, 604 513–514, 549
584 low-pass filters, 602–604, 616 symbols for, 217
design of, 583–585 magnitude plots, 615–616 voltage to current (v–i) relation-
frequency and time domain narrowband (high-Q) filters, 630, 633 ships, 218, 357–358, 389
relationships, 587–588 phase angle plots, 776–778, 782–784 Cascading connections, 331–336,
frequency of, 566–567 real, first-order poles and zeros, 338, 609–611, 615–628, 636–637,
frequency response plot, 567 771–772 736–739
narrowband, 628–630, 637 straight-line plots, 772–784 active filters, 609–611, 615–628,
op amp filters, 608–611, 626–627, 636 Branches, 122–124 636–637
parallel RLC circuit, 583–585 Broadband (low-Q) filters, 609–615, bandpass filters, 609–611
parameters of, 578 636 Bode magnitude plot for, 616
Parseval’s theorem for, 710–711 bandpass, 609–611, 636 Butterworth filters, 619–628,
qualitative analysis, 579 bandreject, 611–615, 636 636–637
quality factor (Q) for, 578, 582, 584 Bode plots for, 609, 611–612 fifth-order, 621
quantitative analysis, 579–582 Butterworth filters, 619–628, 636–637 fourth-order filters, 617–618
resonant frequency (vo) for, 578 bandpass, 626–627, 636 high-pass filters, 626, 636
series RLC circuit, 579–583, 585–587 bandreject, 626, 636 identical first-order filters, 615–619
transfer function (H(s)) for, 587 cascading, 619–628, 636–637 integrating-amplifiers, 331–336, 338
Bandreject filter, 566–567, 588–591, 593, circuit analysis, 619, 621–623 low-pass filters, 615–619, 621–623, 636
611–615, 626, 630–633, 636–637 high-pass, 626, 636 op amp filters, 615–619
active, 611–615, 626, 630–633, low-pass, 619, 621–623 two-port circuits, 736–739
636–637 order of, 624–625 Center frequency (vo), 578, 580–582,
Bode plots for, 612, 633 transfer functions (H(s)) for, 590, 593
broadband, 611–615, 636 620–621 Characteristic determinant, 750–751
Butterworth, 626 transition region, 624–625 Characteristic equations, 303–304, 321,
center frequency (vo) for, 590 325, 327–329, 337
cutoff frequency (vc) for, 590 parallel RLC circuits, 303–304,
design of, 590–591 C 321, 337
frequency of, 566–567 Capacitance (C), 211, 217, 223–226, series RLC circuits, 325, 327–329
frequency response plot, 567 237–238, 239 Circuit analysis, 39–43, 68–76, 96–98,
narrowband, 630–633, 637 equivalent, 224–225 103–108, 120–177, 178–209, 248,
op amp filters, 611–615, 636 series–parallel combinations, 252, 258, 262, 266, 269–270,
parallel RLC circuit, 591 223–226 274–282, 284, 301, 336–337,
qualitative analysis, 588–589 touch screens values of, 211, 237–238 346–401, 510–563, 564–599, 601,
quantitative analysis, 589–590 Capacitive circuits, power for, 407 633–635, 705–707, 709–713
series RLC circuit, 588–591 Capacitors, 210, 217–221, 223–224, amplifiers, 75, 130–131, 139, 153–154
transfer function (H(s)) for, 589, 591 226–227, 239, 357–358, 389, bass volume control, 601, 633–635
Bandwidth (b), 578, 581–582, 584, 513–514, 542–543, 549, 788 circuit design and, 39–40
590, 593 circuit analysis of, 217–221, 542–543 circuit models for, 41
Bass volume control circuit analysis, circuit component values, 788 clock for computer timing, 301,
601, 633–635 circuit parameter of, 217 336–337
Bilateral configurations, 143–144 current to voltage (i–v) relation- component models for, 41
Black box concept, 88 ships, 218 current division, 97–98, 107–108,
Block diagrams, 609 displacement current, 217–218 364
Bode plots (diagrams), 602–604, duality (symmetry) of, 226–227, 239 delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) transforma-
608, 611–612, 615–616, 630, 633, energy in, 210, 219, 239 tions, 103–106, 108, 366–368
771–784 equivalent circuits for, 224–225, dependent sources and, 73–76,
active filter analysis using, 602–604, 513–514, 549 126–128, 135–136, 150
608, 611–612, 616 impulse function (Kd(t)) for, 542–543 Fourier transforms for, 705–707,
amplitude plots, 772–776, 779–781 in series, 223 709–713
bandpass filters, 608, 630 Laplace transform method for, frequency-selective circuits,
bandreject filters, 611–612, 633 513–514, 542–543, 549 564–599
broadband (low-Q) filters, 609, multiple, 224–225 household distribution, 347,
611–612 parallel, 223–224 387–388
cascading filters, 615–616 passive behavior of, 210, 239 ideal basic circuit element, 42
complex poles, 778–784 phasor relationships, 357–358, 389 ideal circuit components, 39–40
complex zeros, 778–779 power in, 210, 218–219, 239 integrating-amplifiers, 280–282, 284
 Index 801

Kirchhoff’s laws for, 68–72, 515 dependent sources, 56, 59, 73–76, 78 lumped-parameter systems, 35–36
Laplace transform in, 510–563 electrical radiator examples of, 55, magnetic coupling, 35
Laplace transform method for, 76–77 net charge, 35
515–516, 549 electrical sources, 56 open, 65
maximum power transfer, 120, equivalent circuits in s domain, passive sign convention for, 42–45
154–156, 163 513–514, 549 power, 31, 43–48, 61–62
mesh-current method, 120, 132–143, in series, 69, 78 pushbutton telephone, 565, 592
162–163, 382–375 inductance (L), 222–237, 239, resistive, 60–63, 86–119
natural response method, 248, 252, 512–513, 549 short, 65
258, 269–270, 284 Kirchhoff’s laws for, 67–72, 73–75, surge suppressors for, 511, 548
node-voltage method, 120, 124–132, 78 transient effects on, 473, 502–504
140–143, 162–163, 372–373 Laplace transform method and, voltage (v), 40–41, 43–45, 62
nonplanar circuits for, 122 512–515 voltage-divider, 92–94, 107
Norton equivalent circuits for, 120, loops (closed path), 68, 78 Wheatstone bridge, 101–103, 108
148–151, 163 model construction, 64–66 Clock for computer timing, circuit
Ohm’s law for, 70–71, 514 nodes, 67, 78 analysis of, 301, 336–337
operational amplifiers (op amps), Ohm’s law for, 60–61, 70–71, Closed path (loop), 68, 78
178–209 73–75, 78, 512 Coefficient of coupling, 235–236,
passive sign convention for, 42–43 passive, 58 239
physical prototypes, 40 resistance (R), 60–63, 512, 549 Common mode input, 192
planar circuits for, 122 s domain representation, 512–514, Common mode rejection ratio
resistive circuits, 96–98, 107–108, 549 (CMRR), 193–195, 201
121, 143–146, 159–162 symbols for, 56–57 Communication systems, 32–33
s domain, 514–516, 549 voltage sources, 56–59, 78 Complex numbers, 755–760
sensitivity analysis, 121, 159–162 Circuit models, 41, 55, 60–66, 75–77, addition/subtraction of, 757
sequential switching and, 274–278, 182–183, 195–198, 200–201, arithmetic operations, 757–758
284 720, 740 graphical representation of,
simultaneous equations for, advantage of, 41 756–757
122–124 amplifier, 75 identities for, 758–759
sinusoidal steady-state, 346–401 approximation for, 66 integer power of, 759
source transformation, 120, 143–146, construction of, 64–66, 71–72 multiplication/division of, 757
149, 162, 368–371 electrical behavior of components, 65 notation for, 755–756
step response method, 248, 262, 266, electrical effects from, 65 polar form, 755–756
269–270, 284 electrical radiator, 55, 76–77 rectangular form, 755–756
superposition, 120, 157–159, 163 flashlight (electrical system), 64–66, roots of, 759–760
surge suppressors and, 511, 548 67–69 Complex power, 412–421, 429,
terminal behavior and, 146–154, operational amplifiers (op amps), 454–455
180–184 182–183, 195–198, 200–201 apparent power (magnitude),
terminals, 146–154 resistors, 60–63 413, 429
Thévenin equivalent circuits for, terminal measurements for, 66, balanced three-phase circuits,
120, 146–154, 163 71–72 454–455
transformers, 375–384, 389 two-port, 720, 740 balancing power in ac circuits,
voltage division, 96–98, 107, 362 Circuit theory, 35–36 419–420
Circuit components, 39–41, 65, 352, Circuits, 30–53, 60–63, 86–119, 473, calculations for, 412–421, 429
606, 788 502–504, 511, 548, 565, 592 defined, 412
electrical behavior of, 65 analysis of, 39–40 delta (Δ) loads, 454–455
ideal, 39–40 current (i), 40–41, 43–45, 61 parallel loads and, 418–419
models, 41, 65 current-divider, 95, 107 phasors for, 415–416
scale factors, 606 delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) equivalent, power calculations for, 412–421,
steady-state current, 352 103–106, 108 429, 454–455
transient current, 352 electrical charge, 40–41 power triangle relationship, 413
values, 788 electrical effects, 35 units for, 412–413, 429
Circuit elements, 54–85, 222–237, 239, electrical engineering and, 30–37 wye (Y) loads, 454
512–514, 549 energy and, 43–45 Computer systems, 33
active, 58 frequency ( f ) and, 35 Condition of equivalence, 144
capacitance (C), 223–226, 239, ideal basic element, 42–43 Conductance (G), 61, 364
513–514, 549 International System of Units (SI) Continuous functions, 474–475
current sources, 56–59, 78 for, 37–39 Control systems, 33
802 Index

Convolution, 533–539, 549, 702–703 resistor-inductor (RL) circuit differential mode input, 192
Fourier operational transforms, expression, 250–252 ideal op-amp model for, 190–195,
702–703 sinusoidal source, 348–349 201
frequency domain, 703 steady-state analysis and behavior negative feedback in, 190
integral, 533–539, 549, 703 of, 346, 352, 355–361, 381–383 Differential mode input, 192
memory, concept of using, 538–539 steady-state component, 352 Differentiation, operational trans-
output signal from, 537–538 step response inductor, 317–318 forms for, 482–483, 701
time domain, 702 transient component, 352 Digital meters, 101, 108
transfer function (H(s)) in, Current coil, 458, 463 Digital signal filtering, 689, 713–714
533–539, 549 Current-divider circuit, 95, 107 Direct approach for Fourier series,
weighting function and, 538 Current division, 97–98, 107–108, 364 663–665
Cosine functions, 659–660, 678, frequency domain, 364 Dirichlet’s conditions, 649
697–698 resistive circuit analysis, 97–98, Discontinuities of circuits, 475–478,
Cramer’s method, 750–752 107–108 504. See also Impulse function;
Critically damped response, 314–317, Current sources, 56–59, 78 Step function
319–321, 325–327, 328–329, 337 Current to voltage (i–v) relationships, Discontinuous functions, 474–475
natural response, 314–317, 325–328, 213–214, 218 Displacement current, 217–218
337 Cutoff frequency (vc), 568–570, 572, Domain translation, Laplace trans-
parallel RLC circuits, 314–317, 580–581, 584, 590, 592 form for, 484–485
319–321, 337 bandpass filters, 580–581, 584 Dot convention, 227–229, 239,
series RLC circuits, 325, 325–327, bandreject filter, 590 382–383
329 bandwidth (b) relationship to, 581 ideal transformers, 382–383
step response, 319–321, 328–329 center frequency (vo) relationship mutual inductance, 227–229, 239
Current (i), 40–45, 61, 67–68, 69, 78, to, 581 polarity and, 227–229, 239, 382–383
86, 98–101, 108, 180–184, 200, defined, 568–570, 592 procedure for determining, 228–229
212–214, 217–221, 250–252, half-power frequency, 569 Duality, 132, 226–227, 239. See also
258, 317–318, 346, 348–349, 352, low-pass filters, 568–570, 572 Symmetry
355–361, 381–383, 445, 446–447, RL circuit filters, 572 Dual-tone multiple-frequency
450–451, 463, 667–669 RLC circuit filters, 581, 584 (DTMF) design, 565
balanced three-phase circuits, 445, Dynamo, 56
446–447, 450–451, 463
capacitors, 217–221 D
defined, 41 d’Arsonval meter movement, 99 E
displacement, 217–218 Damped radian frequency (vd), 310, Effective value, 411
dot convention for, 382–383 321, 327, 329 Efficiency, power system optimization
electric charge and, 40–42 Decaying exponential function, 480 for, 154
Fourier series applications, 667–669, Decibels (dB), 769–770 Electric power transmission and
frequency domain and, 355–361, Delta (Δ) interconnection, 104 distribution, 441, 461–463
381–383 Delta (Δ) loads, 454–455 Electrical charge, 40–41
ideal transformer ratios, 381–383 Delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) transforma- Electrical engineering, 30–37
inductor relationships, 212–214 tions, 103–106, 108, 366–368 balancing power, 31
initial inductor (I0), 251 equivalent circuits, 103–106, 108 circuit theory for, 35–36
input constraint, 182 frequency domain, 366–368 communication systems, 32–33
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), Dependent sources, 56, 59, 73–76, computer systems, 33
67–68, 69, 78, 360–361 126–128, 135–136, 150, 158–159 control systems, 33
line, 445, 446–447, 450–451, 463 analysis of circuits with, 73–76, interaction of systems, 34
measurement of, 86, 98–101, 108 126–128, 135–136, 158–159 power systems, 33
natural response and, 250–252, 258 circuit elements as, 56, 78 problem-solving strategy, 36–37
Ohm’s law for, 61, 78 interconnections of, 59 profession of, 30
op-amp terminals, 180–184, 200 mesh-current method for, 135–136 signal-processing systems, 33
periodic, 667–669 node-voltage method for, 126–128 Electrical radiator circuits, 55, 76–77
phase, 446–447, 450–451, 463 Ohm’s law for, 73–75 Electrical sources, 56. See also Sources
polarity of, 382–383 superposition for, 158–159 Electrodynamic wattmeter, 458–461,
polarity reference, 42 Thévenin equivalent circuits of, 150 463
power and energy relationship to, Derived units, 38 Energy, 43–45, 210, 215–217, 219,
43–45 Difference-amplifier circuit, 190–195, 201 235–237, 239, 254, 258, 402,
resistor power in terms of, 61 common mode input, 192 707–713, 714
resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit common mode rejection ratio capacitors and, 210, 219, 239
expression, 258 (CMRR) for, 193–195, 201 inductors and, 210, 215–217, 239
 Index 803

mutual inductance and, 235–237, 239 Flashlight (electrical system) circuit inverse, 691
natural response and, 254, 258 model, 64–66, 67–69 Laplace transforms for, 694–696
power and, 43–45 Fourier coefficients, 649–658, 677 limiting values, 690–691, 693–698
Parseval’s theorem for, 707–713, even-function symmetry, 653–654 mathematical properties of,
714 Fourier series of periodic function 699–700
power calculations for delivery found with, 658 operational transforms, 700–704
of, 402 Fourier series of triangular wave- Parseval’s theorem for, 707–713, 714
resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit form using, 651–652 periodic to aperiodic transition, 688,
expression, 258 half-wave symmetry, 655–656 691, 714
resistor-inductor (RL) circuit odd-function symmetry, 654–655 periodic voltage pulse from, 691
expression, 254 periodic functions ( f (t)) for, steady-state response from, 706
storage in magnetically coupled 649–658 time-domain (f(t)), 690–691,
coils, 235–237, 239 quarter-wave symmetry, 656–657 699–700
Equivalent capacitance (Ceq), 225 symmetry effects on, 653–658, 677 transient response from, 705–706
Equivalent circuits, 89–90, 222–225, trigonometric form of, 650–652 Fourth-order filters, 617–618, 622–623
446–449, 463, 512–514, 549, Fourier series, 646–687 Frequency (v), 352, 389, 566–570, 572,
761–768 active high-Q filter response, 647, 578, 580–582, 592–593, 649, 677
capacitance (Ceq), 224–225, 675–677 bandpass filter, 566–567
513–514, 549 amplitude spectrum, 673–675, 678 bandreject filter, 566–567
ideal transformers in, 765–768 average-power calculations, center (vo), 578, 580–582, 593
inductance (Leq), 222–223, 224, 667–669, 678 cutoff (vc), 568–570, 572, 580–581,
512–513, 549 direct approach, 663–665 590, 592
magnetically coupled coils and, exponential form of, 670–672, 678 fundamental (v0), 649, 677
761–765 Fourier coefficients, 649–658, 677 half-power, 569
π-equivalent circuit, 762–763 fundamental frequency (v0), 649, 677 harmonic, 649, 677
resistance (Req), 89–90, 512, 549 harmonic frequency, 649, 677 high-pass filter, 566
s domain representation, 512–514, periodic functions (f(t)), 646, infinite, 572
549 648–650, 667–670, 677 low-pass filter, 566–570, 572
single-phase, 446–449, 463 periodic response and, 646, 648 passband, 566, 592
T-equivalent circuit, 761 periodic voltage applications, passive filters, 567, 577, 587, 593
Equivalent inductance (Leq), 224 659–665, 667–669, 673–675 resonant (vo), 578
Essential branches and nodes, 122–124 phase spectrum, 673–675, 678 steady-state response, 352, 389
Even periodic function, 653–654 phasor domain circuit transforma- stopband, 566, 592
Exponential form of Fourier series, tion, 659–660, 678 zero, 572
670–672, 678 quality factor (Q), 647 Frequency domain, 355–385, 389,
RC circuit application, 661–665 474, 485, 488–502, 504–505, 573,
root-mean-square (rms) value, 587–588, 688, 690–691, 699–700,
F 669–670, 678 702–703, 714
Faraday’s law, 231–232 sine and cosine terms for, bandpass filters, 587–588
Feedback, see Negative feedback 659–660, 678 convolution in, 703
Feedback resistors, 333–336, 338 steady-state response and, 649–650, current division in, 364
Filters, 564, 566–567. See also Active 661–666, 678 delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) transforma-
filter circuits; Frequency; symmetry functions, 653–658, 677 tions, 366–368
Frequency-selective circuits waveforms, 646, 648, 651–657, 661, final-value theorem for, 500–502, 505
Final-value theorem, 500–502, 505 663–664, 678 Fourier transform (F(v)), 688,
First-order active filters, 602–605, 636 Fourier transform, 688–719 690–691, 699–700, 702–703, 714
Bode plots for, 602–604 amplitude spectrum, 691–692 frequency-selective circuit analysis,
frequency response plots for, circuit applications, 705–707, 573, 587–588
602–603 709–713 impedance (Z) and, 358–359,
high-pass filters, 604–605, 636 convergence of integral, 692–694 361–366, 368–371, 389
low-pass filters, 602–603, 636 derivation of, 690–692 initial-value theorem for, 500–502, 505
op amp filter design, 603, digital signal filtering, 689, 713–714 inverse Laplace transforms for,
604–605 frequency-domain (F(v)), 690–691, 488–498, 504
prototypes, 603–605, 636 699–700 Kirchhoff’s laws in, 360–361
First-order circuits, 248, 250, 284. See frequency-domain representation, Laplace transform (F(s)), 474, 485,
also Resistor-capacitor (RC) 688, 714 488–502, 504–505
circuits; Resistor-inductor (RL) integrals used in, 690, 692–694, low-pass filters, 573
circuits 699–700 node-voltage method in, 372–373
804 Index

Frequency domain (Continued)

Norton equivalent circuits for,
parallel RLC, 583–585, 591
pushbutton telephone circuits,
I
368–369 565, 592 Ideal basic circuit element, 42–43
operational Laplace transform qualitative analysis, 567–569, 572, Ideal transformers, 379–384, 389,
for, 485 574, 579, 588–589 425–426, 765–768
operational transforms, 702–703 quantitative analysis, 570–571, current (i) ratios, 381–383
parallel impedance combination, 574–575, 579–582, 589–590 dot convention for, 382–383
363, 365 series RC, 571–572, 574–575 equivalent circuits with, 765–768
partial fraction expansion, 489–498 series RL, 567–568, 570–571, frequency domain analysis, 379–384
passive circuit elements in, 355–359 575–576 impedance matching using, 384
phasor transforms and, 353, 355–359 series RLC, 579–583, 585–587, limiting values of, 379–381
poles of F(s), 498–500, 504 588–591 maximum power transfer in, 425–426
rational functions (F(s)) and, transfer function (H(s)) for, 573, polarity of voltage and current,
488–498 577, 587, 589, 591 382–383
series impedance combination, Functional Laplace transforms (t), steady-state analysis of, 379–384, 389
362–363, 365 475, 480–481, 504 symbol for, 382
source transformations for, Fundamental frequency (v0), 649, 677 voltage (v) ratios, 381–383
368–371 Ideal versus realistic op-amp models,
steady-state circuit analysis in, 201, 42–43
355–385, 389 G Identities for complex numbers,
Thévenin equivalent circuits for, Gain, 181 758–759
368–369, 371 Galvanometer, 101 Immitance, 724
time domain (t) relationships, 474, Generator, 56 Impedance (Z), 358–359, 361–366,
500–502, 505, 573 Graphical representation of complex 368–371, 376–377, 389, 421–425, 450
translation in, 485, 702 numbers, 756–757 admittance (Y) and, 364, 389
voltage division in, 362 balanced three-phase circuits, 450
voltage to current (v–i) relation- conductance (G) and, 364
ships in, 358–359 H current division and, 364
zeros of F(s), 498–500, 504 Half-power frequency, 569 defined, 358
Frequency of lumped-parameter Half-wave periodic function, 655–656 frequency domain simplifications,
systems, 35 Harmonic frequency, 649, 677 358–359, 361–366, 368–371, 389
Frequency response, 564 High-pass filters, 566, 573–578, linear transformer circuit analysis
Frequency response plots, 566–567, 592–593, 604–605, 626, 636 using, 376–377, 389
602–604, 608, 612 active, 604–605, 626, 636 maximum power transfer conditions
bandpass filter, 567 Bode plot for, 604 and restrictions from, 421–425
bandreject filter, 567 Butterworth, 626, 636 parallel combination, 363, 365
Bode plots, 602–604, 608, 612 cascading, 626, 636 passive circuit elements, 358–359
first-order active filters, 602–604 design of, 575–576, 604–605 phasors and, 358–359
high-pass filter, 566, 604 first-order, 604–605, 636 reactance and, 359
ideal, 566–567 frequency of, 566 reflected (Zr), 376–377, 389
low-pass filter, 566, 603 frequency response plots for, self-, 376
magnitude plot, 566 566, 604 series combination, 362–363, 365
phase angle plot, 566 frequency-selective circuit analysis, source transformations using, 368–371
Frequency scaling, 606, 636 566, 573–578, 592–593 steady-state analysis using, 358–359,
Frequency-selective circuits, 564–599 loading, 576 361–366, 389, 376–377
attenuation of, 564 op amp filter design, 604–605 susceptance (B) and, 364
bandpass filters, 578–588, 593 prototypes, 604–605, 636 voltage division and, 362
bandreject filters, 588–591, 593 qualitative analysis, 574 voltage to current (v–i) relation-
center frequency (vo) for, 578, quantitative analysis, 574–575 ships and, 358–359
580–582, 593 second-order, 626, 636 wye- and delta-connected relation-
cutoff frequency (vc) for, 568–570, series RC circuits, 574–575 ships, 450
572, 580–581, 584, 590, 592 series RL circuits, 575–576 Impedance matching, 384
filter categories, 566–567 transfer function (H(s)) for, 577, Improper rational functions, 488,
filters as, 564, 592 593 497–498
frequency and time domain rela- Household appliance ratings, 409–410 Impulse function (Kd(t)), 477–479,
tionships, 573, 587–588 Household distribution circuit, 347, 504, 542–548, 549
high-pass filters, 573–578, 592–593 387–388 capacitor circuit analysis, 542–543
low-pass filters, 567–573, 592 Hybrid parameters, 724, 725 circuit analysis using, 542–548, 549
 Index 805

derivatives of, 479 Initial-value theorem, 500–502, 505 tee (T), 104
discontinuities of circuits and, Input constraints, 181–182, 200 testing ideal sources, 58–59
477–478 In-series circuit elements, 69, 78. See wye (Y), 104
impulsive sources, 545–548 also Series-connected circuits International System of Units (SI),
inductor circuit analysis, 543–545 Instantaneous power, 404–405, 406, 37–39
Laplace transform method and, 429, 455–456 Internet of Things (IoT), 207
542–548, 549 balanced three-phase circuits, Inverse Fourier transform, 691
Laplace transform of, 478–479 455–456 Inverse Laplace transforms, 488–498,
sifting property, 478–479 calculations for, 404–405, 406, 429, 504
strength (K) of, 477, 504 455–456 distinct complex roots of D(s),
switching operations, 542–545 sinusoidal steady-state circuits, 491–493
unit impulse function (d(t)), 477, 504 404–405, 406, 429 distinct roots of D(s), 489–490
variable parameter function, time-invariant, 455–456 improper rational functions, 488,
477–478 Instantaneous real power, 406 497–498
voltage drop and, 544–545 Integer power of complex numbers, 759 partial fraction expansion,
Independent sources, 56, 59, 78 Integrals, 474, 483–484, 533–539, 489–498
Induced voltage, 227–229, 231–232, 239 549, 690–691, 692–694, 699–700, proper rational functions, 489–497
Inductance (L), 212, 222–237, 239, 786–787 rational functions (F(s)) and,
375–376, 379–380 convergence of, 692–694 488–498
circuit parameter of, 212 convolution, 533–539, 549 repeated complex roots of D(s),
equivalent, 222–223, 224 Fourier transforms, 690, 692–694, 496–496
mutual, 210, 227–237, 239 699–700 repeated real roots of D(s),
series–parallel combinations, frequency-domain function (F(v)) 494–495
222–226 and, 699–700 s-domain and, 488–498, 504
self-, 227–228, 231–232, 234–235, Laplace transforms, 474, 483–484 transform pairs for, 497
239, 375–376, 379–380 table of, 786–787 Inverse phasor transform, 354
steady-state transformer analysis time-domain function (F(t)) and, Inverting-amplifier circuit, 184–186,
and, 375–376, 379–380 699–700 196, 200–201
Inductive circuits, power for, 406–407 transfer function (H(s)) use of, ideal op-amp model for, 184–186,
Inductor current, 317–318 533–539, 549 200
Inductors, 210, 212–217, 222–223, Integrating-amplifier, 280–282, 284, negative feedback in, 185
226–227, 239, 356–357, 389, 331–336, 338 realistic op-amp model for,
512–513, 543–545, 549, 788 cascading connections, 331–336, 338 196, 201
circuit analysis of, 212–217, 543–545 feedback resistors and, 333–336, 338
circuit component values, 788 first-order circuit analysis, 280–282,
current to voltage (i–v) relation- 284 K
ships, 213–214 second-order circuit analysis, Kirchhoff’s laws, 67–72, 73–75, 78,
duality (symmetry) of, 226–227, 239 331–336, 338 88–89, 122–123, 360–361, 515
energy in, 210, 215–217, 239 step response of, 333 amplifier circuit analysis using, 75
equivalent circuits for, 222–223, 224, Integration, operational transforms circuit analysis using, 68–75, 78
512–513, 549 for, 701 current law (KCL), 67–68, 69, 78,
impulse function (Kd(t)) for, Interconnections, 58–59, 64–65, 86, 88–89, 360–361
543–545 88–92, 103–106, 107–108 dependent sources and, 73–75
in series, 222 circuit model creation for, 64–65 frequency domain and, 360–361
Laplace transform method for, delta (Δ), 104 loop (closed path) for, 68
512–513, 543–545, 549 delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) equivalent nodes for, 67
magnetic field and, 212 circuits, 103–106, 108 Ohm’s law and, 70–71
multiple, 222–223, 224 dependent sources, 59 parallel-connected circuits and, 89
parallel, 222–223 independent sources, 59 s domain use of, 515
passive behavior of, 210, 239 parallel-connected resistors, 86, series-connected (in-series) circuits
phasor relationships, 356–357, 389 89–92, 107 and, 88
power in, 210, 214–215, 239 pi (π), 104 simultaneous equations from,
s domain representation, pi-to-tee (π-to-T) equivalent 122–123
512–513, 549 circuits, 103–106, 108 steady-state analysis using,
symbols for, 212 resistive circuits, 86, 88–92, 103–106, 360–361
voltage to current (v–i) relation- 107–108 unknown voltage found from, 74
ships, 212–213, 356–357, 389 series-connected resistors, 86, 88, 107 voltage law (KVL), 68, 70, 78, 88,
Infinite frequency, 572 series–parallel simplification, 90–91 360–361
806 Index

L integral of, 474, 483–484

inverse transforms, 488–498, 504
power calculations for, 418–419,
421–425, 453–458
Lagging/leading power factors, 407, 429 lumped-parameter circuits and, resistive, 155–156
Laplace transform method, 510–563 486–488, 504 unspecified, 457–458
circuit analysis in s domain, 514–516 operational transforms, 475, wye (Y), 453–454
circuit analysis using, 510–563 481–486, 504 Loop (closed path), 68, 78, 122
circuit elements in s domain, partial fraction expansion for, Low-pass filters, 566, 567–573, 592,
512–514 488–498 602–603, 615–619, 621–623, 636,
convolution integral and, poles of F(s), 498–500, 504 711–712
533–539, 549 problem-solving uses, 472 active, 602–603, 615–619, 621–623, 636
equivalent circuits for time and s-domain, 474, 480–486, 488–502, Bode plots for, 602–604, 616
frequency domains, 513–514 504–505 Butterworth, 621–623, 636
impulse function and, 542–548, 549 step function (Ku(t)), 475–476, 504 cascading connections, 615–619,
impulsive sources and, 545–548 time domain (f(t)), 474–486, 621–623, 636
Kirchhoff’s laws in s domain, 515 500–502, 504–505 cutoff frequency (vc) for, 568–570,
multiple mesh circuit analysis, transform pairs, 480–481, 497 572
521–522 transient effects on circuits, 473, design of, 571, 572, 603
mutual inductance circuit analysis, 502–504 first-order active, 602–603, 636
525–526 unilateral (one-sided) behavior of, fourth-order active, 617–618,
natural response using, 517 474–475 622–623
Ohm’s law in s domain, 512, 514 unit impulse function (d(t)), frequency and time domain
partial fraction expansions for, 477, 504 relationships, 573
530–533 unit step function (u(t)), 475, 504 frequency of, 566
procedure for, 515–516, 549 zeros of F(s), 498–500, 504 frequency response plots for, 566,
RC circuit analysis, 517 Level shifting, 227–228 602–604
RLC circuit analysis, 517–518 Limiting values, 690–691, 693–698 frequency-selective circuit analysis,
s-domain applications, 523–524, cosine functions, 697–698 567–573, 592
527–528 elementary functions, 698 half-power frequency, 569
s-domain equivalent circuits, 513–514 Fourier transforms derived using, infinite frequency, 572
sinusoidal source circuit analysis, 690–691 op amp filter design, 603
519–520 Fourier transforms of, 693–698 Parseval’s theorem for, 711–712
sinusoidal steady-state response signum functions, 697 prototype, 603, 636
and, 539–541, 549 unit step function, 697 qualitative analysis, 567–569, 572
step response using, 517–518 Line current, 445, 446–447, 450–451, 463 quantitative analysis, 570–571
superposition applications, 527–528 Line spectra, 673 series RC circuits, 571–572
surge suppressor analysis, 511, 548 Line voltage, 445, 446–447, 463 series RL circuits, 567–568, 570–571
Thévenin equivalent circuit from, Linear simultaneous equations, transfer function (H(s)) for,
523–524 746–754. See also Simultaneous 573, 592
time-invariant circuits, 532–533, 549 equations zero frequency, 572
transfer function (H(s)) and, Linear transformer circuits, Lumped-parameter circuits, 35–36,
528–541, 549 375–379, 389 486–488, 504
voltage to current (v-i) equations frequency domain analysis of, frequency (f) of, 35
for, 512–513, 549 375–379 Laplace transform for, 486–488, 504
Laplace transform, 472–509, 694–696 reflected impedance (Zr), systems of, 35–36
applications of, 486–488 376–377, 389
continuous and discontinuous self-impedance, 376
functions, 474–475 steady-state analysis, 375–379, 389 M
defined, 474 winding (primary and secondary), 375 Magnetic coupling, 35
final-value theorem for, 500–502, 505 Loads, 155–156, 418–419, 421–425, Magnetic fields, inductors and, 212
Fourier transforms from, 694–696 453–458 Magnetically coupled coils, 235–237,
frequency domain (F(s)), 474, balanced three-phase circuits, 239, 273–274, 761–765
480–486, 488–502, 504–505 453–458 energy storage in, 235–237, 239
functional transforms, 475, delta (Δ), 454–455 equivalent circuits for, 761–765
480–481, 504 impedance (Z) conditions and mutual inductance and, 235–237, 239
impulse function (Kd(t)), restrictions, 421–425 π-equivalent circuit, 762–763
477–479, 504 maximum power transfer, 155–156, step response of circuit with,
initial-value theorem for, 421–425 273–274
500–502, 505 parallel, 418–419 T-equivalent circuit, 761
 Index 807

Magnitude plot, 566 special cases for, 136–140 parallel RLC circuits, 300,
Magnitude scaling, 605–606, 636 steady-state circuit analysis, 302–324, 337
Maximum power transfer 373–375 power (p) expression for, 254, 258
Maximum power transfer (Pmax), 120, supermesh and, 137–138 resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, 248,
154–156, 163, 421–427, 429 Modulation, 702 256–260, 269–274, 284, 517
average power absorbed, 422 Motor, 56 resistor-inductor (RL) circuits, 248,
circuit analysis for, 120, 154–156, Multiplication operations, 481, 701, 250–256, 269–274, 284
163 758 resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC)
ideal transformer analysis, 425–426 Mutual inductance, 210, 227–237, 239, circuits, 302–317, 324–328, 330,
impedance (Z) conditions and 525–526 336–338
restrictions, 421–425 coefficient of coupling for, 235–236, resonant radian frequency (v0), 304,
power calculations for, 421–427, 239 321, 325, 327
429 concept of, 232–234 series RLC circuits, 300, 324–328,
resistive loads, 155–156 dot convention, 227–229, 239 330, 338
sinusoidal steady-state analysis of, energy storage in magnetically steady-state response for, 255
421–427, 429 coupled coils, 235–237, 239 symbols for, 302
system optimization and, 154 Laplace transform method for, time constant (t), 251–252, 254–255,
with load restrictions, 424 525–526 257, 284
without load restrictions, 423 mesh-current method for, 227–230 transient response of, 255
Measurement, 37–39, 86, 98–101, 108, polarity of induced voltages, underdamped response, 310–314,
458–461, 463, 725, 728, 769–770 227–229, 232, 239 325–328, 337
ammeter for, 98, 99–100, 108 procedure for determining dot voltage (v) expressions for, 254,
analog meters for, 99–100, 108 markings, 228–229 257, 302
current, 86, 98–101, 108 s domain circuit, 525–526 Negative feedback, 181–183, 185, 186,
d’Arsonval meter movement, 99 self-inductance and, 227–228, 188, 190, 200
decibels (dB), 769–770 231–232, 234–235, 239 difference-amplifier circuit, 190
digital meters for, 101, 108 input voltage constraints and,
electrodynamic wattmeter for, 181–182
458–461, 463 N inverting-amplifier circuit, 185
International System of Units (SI), Narrowband (high-Q) filters, 628–633, op-amp circuit analysis and,
37–39 637 181–183
power, 458–461, 769–770 bandpass, 628–630, 636 summing-amplifier circuit, 186
resistance, 101–103, 108 bandreject, 630–633, 637 voltage constraint and, 181–182,
three-phase circuits, 458–461, Bode plots for, 630, 633 200
two-port circuit parameters from, Natural response, 248, 250–260, Neper frequency (a), 304, 321, 325,
725, 728 269–274, 284, 302–317, 324–331, 327, 329, 337
unit prefixes, 38–39 336–338, 517 parallel RLC circuits, 304, 321,
voltage, 86, 98–101, 108 characteristic equation for, 303–304, 337
voltmeter for, 98, 100, 108 325, 327, 337 series RLC circuits, 325, 327, 329
Wheatstone bridge, 101–103, 108 circuit phase analysis using, 248 Net charge, 35
Memory, concept of using convolution clock analysis for computer timing, Neutral terminal, 443
integral, 538–539 301, 336–337 Node voltage, 125
Mesh, 122 critically damped response, 314–317, Node-voltage method, 120, 124–132,
Mesh circuit analysis, Laplace 325–328, 337 140–143, 162–163, 372–373
transform method for, 521–522 current (i) expression for, 250–252, amplifier circuit analysis, 130–131
Mesh current, 132–133 258 circuit analysis process, 124–126,
Mesh-current method, 120, 132–143, damped radian frequency (vd), 310, 129–130, 162–163
162–163, 227–230, 373–375 321, 327–328 dependent sources and, 126–128
amplifier circuit analysis, 139 energy (w) expression for, 254, 258 duality of, 132
circuit analysis process, 120, general solution for, 269–274, 284 frequency-domain circuit analysis,
132–143, 162–163 initial inductor current (I0), 251 372–373
dependent sources and, 135–136 Laplace transform method for, 517 mesh-current method compared to,
duality of, 132 method for, 252, 258, 269–270, 284, 140–143
frequency-domain circuit analysis, 308, 311, 326–327 special cases for, 128–132
373–375 Neper frequency (a), 304, 325, steady-state circuit analysis,
mutual inductance and, 227–230 327, 337 372–373
node-voltage method compared to, overdamped response, 307–310, supernodes and, 129–130
140–143 325–328, 337 Nodes, 67, 78, 122–124
808 Index

Noninverting-amplifier circuit, negative feedback in, 181–182, 185, series–parallel simplification, 90–91
187–190, 196–198, 200–201 186, 188, 190, 200 two-port, 736–737
ideal op-amp model for, 187–190, noninverting-amplifier circuit, Parallel RLC circuits, 300, 302–324,
200 187–190, 196–198, 200 337, 583–585, 591
negative feedback in, 188 open-loop operation, 185 bandpass filters, 583–585
realistic op-amp model for, realistic models, analysis of, bandreject filters, 591
196–198, 201 195–198, 201 bandwidth (b), 584
Nonplanar circuits, 122 sensors, 207, 227–228 characteristic equation for, 303–304,
Norton equivalent circuits, 120, summing-amplifier circuit, 186–187, 321, 337
148–151, 163, 368–369 200 critically damped voltage response,
frequency domain simplification, symbols for, 180 314–317, 319–321, 337
368–369 terminals, 180–184, 200 cutoff frequency (vc), 584
impedance (Z) in, 368–369 voltage (v), 180–184, 200 damped radian frequency (vd),
source transformation, 120, 148–151, Operational transforms, 475, 481–486, 310, 321
163, 368–369 504, 700–704 frequency-selective circuits,
terminal circuit simplification using, addition and subtraction, 482, 701 583–585, 591
120, 148–151, 163 convolution in frequency domain, natural response of, 302–317, 337
703 Neper frequency (a), 304, 321, 337
convolution in time domain, 702 overdamped response, 307–310,
O defined, 475, 504 319–321, 337
Odd periodic function, 654–655 differentiation, 482–483, 701 parameters of, 304–305
Ohm’s law, 60–61, 70–71, 73–75, 78, 89, Fourier, 700–704 quality factor (Q), 584
512, 514 integration, 483–484, 701 resonant radian frequency (v0),
amplifier circuit analysis using, 75 Laplace, 475, 481–486, 504 304, 321
circuit analysis using, 70–71, 73–75, 78 modulation, 702 second-order differential equations
dependent sources and, 73–75 multiplication by a constant, for, 302–305
electrical resistance and, 60–61, 78 481, 701 step response of, 317–324, 337
Kirchhoff’s law and, 70–71 scale changing, 485, 702 symbols for, 302
parallel-connected circuits and, 89 translation in frequency domain, underdamped response, 310–314,
s domain use of, 512, 514 485, 702 319–321, 337
Op amp filters, 603–605, 607, 608–628, translation in time domain, Parasitic resistance, 65
636 484–485, 702 Parseval’s theorem, 707–713, 714
bandpass, 608–611, 626–627, 636 Overdamped response, 307–310, bandpass filter application,
bandreject, 611–615, 636 319–321, 325–327, 328–329, 337 690–691
Butterworth, 619–628 natural response, 307–310, 325–328, energy calculations using, 707–713,
cascading, 615–619 337 714
design of, 603, 604–605 parallel RLC circuits, 307–310, Fourier transform time-domain
first-order active, 603, 604–605, 319–321, 337 functions, 707–713, 714
615–619 series RLC circuits, 325–327, 329 graphic interpretation of, 709
higher-order active, 615–628 step response, 319–321, 328–329 low-pass filter application, 711–712
high-pass, 604–605 rectangular voltage pulse applica-
low-pass, 603, 607 tion, 712–713
scaling, 607 P Partial fraction expansion, 489–498,
Open circuit, 65 Parallel-connected circuits, 86, 89–92, 530–533
Open-loop operation, 185 107, 222–224, 363, 365, 418–419, distinct complex roots of D(s),
Operational amplifiers (op amps), 736–737. See also Parallel RLC 491–493
178–209. See also Op amp filters circuits distinct roots of D(s), 489–490
common mode rejection ratio capacitors, 223–224 improper rational functions, 488,
(CMRR) for, 193–195, 201 circuit elements, 89 497–498
current (i), 180–184, 200 combining, 89–90 inverse Laplace transforms and,
difference-amplifier circuit, frequency domain, 363, 365 489–498
190–195, 201 impedance (Z) combined in, 363, proper rational functions, 489–497
gain, 181 365 repeated complex roots of D(s),
ideal model, analysis of, 182–183, inductors, 222–223 496–496
200–201 Kirchhoff’s current law for, 89 repeated real roots of D(s), 494–495
input constraints, 181–182, 200 Ohm’s law for, 89 s domain use of, 489–498, 530–533
inverting-amplifier circuit, 184–186, power calculations for, 418–419 transfer function (H(s)) in, 530–533
196, 200 resistors, 86, 89–92, 107 transform pairs for, 497
 Index 809

Passband frequency, 566, 592 Periodic waveforms, 646, 648 self-inductance, 232
Passive circuit elements, 58, 210, 239, Phase angle (f) of, 348 voltage and current references, 42
355–359, 389 Phase angle plots, 566, 776–778, Poles, 498–500, 504, 530, 771–772,
capacitors, 210, 239, 357–358, 389 782–784 778–784
defined, 58 complex poles, 782–784 amplitude plots, 778–781
frequency domain, 355–359 frequency response and, 566 complex, 778–784
impedance (Z) and, 358–359 straight-line, 776–778, 782–784 frequency domain (F(s)), 498–500,
inductors, 210, 239 Phase current, 446–447, 450–451, 463 504
phasor transforms and, 353, 355–359 Phase sequences for three-phase phase angle plots, 782–784
reactance and, 359 circuits, 442, 463 real, first-order, 771–772
resistors, 355–356, 389 Phase spectrum, 673–675, 678 transfer functions (H(s)), 530
voltage to current (v–i) relation- Phase voltage, 446–447, 463 Ports, 720
ships in, 358–359 Phase windings, 443 Potential coil, 458, 463
Passive filters, 567, 577, 587, 593 Phasor diagrams, 385–387, 442, 447 Power, 31, 43–48, 61–62, 154–156, 163,
Passive sign convention, 42–45 Phasor transform, 353–361 210, 214–215, 218–219, 239, 254,
Period of time (T), 348 frequency domain and, 353, 258, 406–407, 412–413, 419–420,
Periodic current, average-power 355–359 429, 441, 455–456, 461–463
calculations and, 667–669 inverse, 354 ac circuits, 419–420
Periodic functions (f(t)), 646, 648–658, phasor representation as, 353 algebraic sign of, 44–45
667–670, 677–678 voltage to current (v–i) relation- balance of in circuits, 31, 47–48
average power calculations with, ships, 355–359, 389 balanced three-phase circuits, 441,
667–669, 678 Phasors, 352–359, 415–416, 659–660, 461–463
defined, 646, 677 678. See also Phasor transforms capacitive circuits, 407
Dirichlet’s conditions, 649 capacitor voltage to current (v–i) capacitors and, 210, 218–219, 239
even, 653–654 relationships, 357–358, 389 current and voltage relationship to,
Fourier coefficients and, 649–651, 677 complex power calculations using, 43–45
Fourier series of found with 415–416 defined, 44
symmetry, 658 concept of, 352–353 electric transmission and distribu-
Fourier series representation, Fourier series transformation to tion, 441, 461–463
649–650, 667–669 phasor domain, 659–660, 678 energy and, 43–45
fundamental frequency (v0), 649, 677 impedance (Z) and, 358–359 inductive circuits, 406–407
half, 655–656 inductor voltage to current (v–i) inductors and, 210, 214–215, 239
harmonic frequency, 649, 677 relationships, 356–357, 389 maximum power transfer,
odd, 654–655 reactance and, 359 154–156, 163
periodic voltage and, 667–669 representation, 353 natural response and, 254, 258
quarter, 656–657 resistor voltage to current (v–i) passive sign convention for, 44–45
root-mean-square (rms) value of, relationships, 355–356, 389 polarity reference, 44–45
669–670, 678 sinusoidal functions and, 352–355 resistive circuits, 406
steady-state response from, 649–650 steady-state analysis using, resistive load transfer, 155–156
symmetry effects, 653–658, 677 352–358 resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit
waveforms, 646, 648–657 Pi (π-equivalent circuit, 762–763 expression, 258
Periodic response, 646, 648 Pi (π) interconnection, 104 resistor-inductor (RL) circuit
Periodic to aperiodic transition, 688, Pi-to-tee (π-to-T) equivalent circuits, expression, 254
691, 714 103–106, 108 resistors, 61–62
Periodic voltage, 659–665, 667–669, Planar circuits, 122 time-invariant, 455–456
673–675, 691 Polar form of complex numbers, units for, 407, 412–413, 429
amplitude spectra for, 673–675 755–756 Power calculations, 402–439,
average-power calculations Polarity, 42, 44–45, 227–229, 232, 239, 453–458, 463
expressed from, 667–669 382–383 apparent power, 413, 429
Fourier series applications, 659–665, arrows for reference of, 42, 44 appliance ratings for, 409–410
667–669, 673–675 coil current and voltage, 382–383 average power (P), 405–412, 417,
inverse Fourier transform and, 691 dot convention for, 227–229, 239, 422, 429, 453–454
phase spectra for, 673–675 382–383 balanced three-phase circuits,
phasor domain circuit transforma- ideal transformers, 382–383 453–458, 463
tion and, 659–660 induced voltages, 227–229, balancing power in ac circuits, 419–420
sine and cosine terms for, 659–660 232, 239 complex power, 412–421, 429,
steady-state response and, 661–665 mutual inductance, 227–229, 239 454–455
waveforms, 661, 663–664 power reference, 44–45 delta (Δ) loads, 454–455
810 Index

Power calculations (Continued) Quantitative analysis, 570–571, pi-to-tee (π-to-T) equivalent

energy delivery and, 402 574–575, 579–582, 589–590 circuits, 103–106, 108
instantaneous power, 404–405, 406, bandpass filters, 579–582 power for, 406
429, 455–456 bandreject filters, 589–590 resistor value measurements,
lagging/leading factors for, 407, 429 high-pass filters, 574–575 101–103, 108
maximum power transfer (Pmax), low-pass filters, 570–571 series connections, 86, 88, 107
421–427, 429 Quarter-wave periodic function, series–parallel simplification, 90–91
parallel loads and, 418–419 656–657 source transformation, 143–146,
phasors for, 415–416 149, 162
power factor (pf) for, 407, 429 touch screens, 87, 106–108
reactive factor (rf) for, 407, 429 R voltage-divider circuit, 92–94, 107
reactive power (Q), 405–410, 417, Rational functions (F(s)), 488–498 voltage division, 96–98, 107
429, 454–455 improper, 488, 497–498 Wheatstone bridge, 101–103, 108
root-mean-square (rms) value for, inverse Laplace transforms and, Resistive loads, 155–156
410–412 497–498 Resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits,
sinusoidal steady-state analysis, proper, 489–497 248–250, 256–260, 266–274,
402–439 transform pairs for, 497 277–283, 517, 571–572, 574–575,
standby (vampire) power, 403, Reactance, 359 661–665
427–428 Reactive factor (rf), 407, 429 analysis phases for, 248
unspecified loads, 457–458 Reactive power (Q), 405–410, 417, 429, artificial pacemaker design,
wye (Y) loads, 453–454 454–455 249, 283
wye-delta (Y-Δ) circuits, 456–457 balanced three-phase circuits, current (i) expression, 258
wye-wye (Y-Y) circuits, 456 454–455 cutoff frequency (vc), 572
Power consumption, 427 calculations for, 405–410, 417, 429, energy (w) expression, 258
Power equation, 44 454–455 first-order circuits as, 248, 250, 284
Power factor (pf), 407, 429 delta (Δ) loads, 454–455 Fourier series application, 661–665
Power measurement, 458–461, 463, sinusoidal steady-state analysis, frequency-selective analysis of,
769–770 405–410, 417 571–572, 574–575
balanced three-phase circuits, wye (Y) loads, 454 general solution for, 269–274, 284
458–461, 463 Reciprocal two-port circuits, 729–730, high-pass filters, 574–575
bels, 769 740 integrating-amplifier circuit
decibels (dB), 769–770 Rectangular form of complex analysis, 280–282, 284
electrodynamic wattmeter for, numbers, 755–756 Laplace transform method for, 517
458–461, 463 Rectangular waveforms, 648 low-pass filters, 571–572
current coil, 458, 463 Reflected impedance (Zr), 376–377, natural response of, 248, 256–260,
potential coil, 458, 463 389 269–274, 284, 517
power gain, 769–770 Resistance (R), 60–63, 65, 78, 89–90, periodic voltage in, 661–665
two-wattmeter method, 459–460, 463 101–103, 108 power (p) expression, 258
wattmeter reading calculations, conductance (G) and, 61 sequential switching, 274, 277–278,
460–461 equivalent (Req), 89–90 284
Power systems, 33, 347, 387–388 measurement of, 101–103, 108 steady state response, 661–665
Power triangle, 413 Ohm’s law and, 60–61, 78 step response of, 248, 266–274, 284
Problem-solving strategy, 36–37 parasitic, 65 time constant (t), 257, 284
Proper rational functions, 488–497. See resistors as models of, 60–63 unbounded response, 278–279, 284
also Partial fraction expansion Wheatstone bridge circuit for, voltage (v) expression, 257
Prototypes, 40, 603–605, 636 101–103, 108 Resistor-inductor (RL) circuits,
Pushbutton telephone circuits, 565, Resistive circuits, 86–119, 143–146, 248–256, 261–265, 269–279, 284,
592 149, 162, 406 567–568, 570–571, 575–576
analysis of, 96–98, 107–108, 143–146, analysis phases for, 248
149, 162 current (i) expression, 250–252
Q current-divider circuit, 95, 107 cutoff frequency (vc), 570
Qualitative analysis, 567–569, 572, 574, current division, 97–98, 107–108 energy (w) expression, 254
579, 588–589 delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) equivalent first-order circuits as, 248, 250, 284
bandpass filters, 579 circuits, 103–106, 108 frequency-selective analysis of,
bandreject filters, 588–589 interconnections, 86, 88–92, 103–106 567–568, 570–571, 575–576
high-pass filters, 574 measurement of voltage and general solution for, 269–274, 284
low-pass filters, 567–569, 572 current, 86, 98–101, 108 high-pass filters, 575–576
Quality factor (Q), 578, 582, 590, 584, 647 parallel connections, 86, 89–92, 107 low-pass filters, 567–568, 570–571
 Index 811

natural response of, 248, 250–256, symbols for, 302, 317 transfer function (H(s)) and,
269–274, 284 timing signals, 301 532–541, 549
power (p) expression, 254 underdamped voltage response, transient, 255, 705–706
qualitative analysis, 574 310–314, 319–321, 326–327, unbounded, 278–279, 284
quantitative analysis, 574–575 328–329, 337 underdamped, 310–314, 319–321,
sequential switching, 274–277, 284 voltage expressions for, 302 325–327, 328–329, 337
step response of, 248, 261–265, Resistors, 60–63, 78, 89–92, 121, unit impulse (h(t)), 532–539
269–274, 284 159–162, 355–356, 389, 512, 549, 788 weighting function for, 538
time constant (t), 251–252, circuit component values, 788 Root-mean-square (rms) value, 349,
254–255, 284 conductance (G) and, 61 410–412, 669–670, 678
unbounded response, 278–279, 284 equivalent circuits for, 89–90, 512, 549 effective value as, 411
voltage (v) expression, 254 multiple, 89–90 periodic functions (f(t)), 669–670,
Resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) Ohm’s law for, 60–61, 78 678
circuits, 300–345, 517–518, phasor relationships, 355–356, 389 power calculations using, 410–412
579–587, 588–591, 665–666 power in terms of current, 61 sinusoidal sources and, 349
bandwidth (b), 581–582, 584 power in terms of voltage, 62 Roots of complex numbers, 759–760
center frequency (vo), 580–582 resistance (R) models, 60–63
characteristic equations for, s domain representation, 512, 549
303–304, 321, 325, 327, 329, 337 sensitivity analysis of, 121, S
clock for computer timing, 301, 159–162 s domain, 474, 480–486, 488–502,
336–337 series–parallel simplification, 504–505, 510–563. See also
critically damped voltage response, 90–91 Frequency domain
314–317, 319–321, 326–327, signals in phase, 356 circuit analysis in, 514–516
328–329, 337 voltage to current (v–i) relation- circuit elements in, 512–514
cutoff frequency (vc), 581, 584 ships, 355–356, 389 final-value theorem for, 500–502, 505
damped radian frequency (vd), 310, Resonant frequency (vo), 578 initial-value theorem for, 500–502,
321, 329 Resonant radian frequency (v0), 304, 505
direct approach for, 319–320, 321, 325, 327, 329 inverse Laplace transforms for,
665–666 parallel RLC circuits, 304, 321 488–498, 504
Fourier series approach for, 665–666 series RLC circuits, 325, 327, 329 Kirchhoff’s laws in, 515
frequency-selective circuit analysis, Response, 248, 250–274, 269–274, Laplace transform method
579–587, 588–591 278–279, 284, 300–345, 351–352, applications, 510–563
indirect approach for, 318–319 389, 532–541, 549, 705–706 Laplace transform (F(s)) of,
inductor current for, 317–318 critically damped, 314–317, 319–321, 488–502, 504–505
integrating amplifiers in cascade, 325–327, 328–329, 337 mutual inductance circuit in,
331–336, 338 damped radian frequency (vd), 310, 525–526
Laplace transform method for, 321, 327, 329 Ohm’s law in, 512, 514
517–518 Fourier transforms for, 705–706 operational transforms for, 475,
natural response of, 302–317, general solution for, 269–274, 284 481–486, 504
324–328, 330, 336–338 memory, concept of, 538–539 partial fraction expansion, 489–498,
Neper frequency (a), 304, 321, 325, natural, 248, 250–260, 269–274, 284, 530–533
329, 337 302–317, 324–328, 330, 336–338 poles of F(s), 498–500, 504, 530
overdamped response, 307–310, overdamped, 307–310, 319–321, rational functions (F(s)) and,
319–321, 326, 328–329, 337 325–327, 328–329, 337 488–498
parallel, 300, 302–324, 337, 583–585, resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, superposition applications in,
591 248, 256–260, 266–274, 527–528
quality factor (Q) for, 582, 584 278–279, 284 Thévenin equivalent circuit in,
resonant radian frequency (v0), 304, resistor-inductor (RL) circuits, 248, 523–524
321, 325, 329 250–256, 261–265, 269–279, 284 time domain (t) relationships, 474,
second-order differential equations resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) 481–486, 500–502, 505
for, 302–305 circuits, 300–345 transfer function (H(s)), 528–541,
series-connected, 300, 302, 324–331, sinusoidal, 351–352, 389, 532–541, 549 549
338, 579–583, 585–587, 588–591 steady-state analysis of, 346, transform pairs, 480–481, 497
square-wave voltage and, 351–352, 389 zeros of F(s), 498–500, 504, 530
665–666 steady-state, 255, 346, 351–352, 389, Scale change, 485, 702
steady-state response of, 665–666 532–541, 549, 706 Scaling, 605–608, 636
step response of, 317–324, 328–331, step, 248, 261–274, 284, 317–324, circuit component scale factors, 606
333, 337–338, 517–518 328–331, 337–338 filter design using, 606
812 Index

Scaling (Continued) bandwidth (b), 581, 590 Sinusoidal response, 351–352, 389,
frequency, 606, 636 center frequency (vo), 580, 590 539–541, 549
low-pass op-amp filter, 607 characteristic equation for, 325, frequency (v) of, 352, 389
magnitude, 605–606, 636 327–329 steady-state analysis of, 351–352, 389
series RLC filter, 606–607 critically damped response, 325, steady-state current component,
Second-order circuits, 302. See also 325–327, 329 352
Resistor-inductor-capacitor cutoff frequency (vc), 580–581, 590 steady-state solution characteristics,
(RLC) circuits frequency-selective circuits, 352
Second-order filters, 626 579–583, 585–591 transient current component, 352
Seebeck effect, 227 natural response of, 300, 302, transfer function (H(s)) and,
Self-impedance, 376 324–331, 338 539–541, 549
Self-inductance, 227–228, 231–232, Neper frequency (a), 325, 327, 329 Sinusoidal sources, 346–351, 389,
234–235, 239, 375–376, 379–380 overdamped response, 325–327, 329 519–520
Faraday’s law for, 231–232 quality factor (Q), 582, 590 amplitude of, 348
mutual inductance and, 227–228, resonant radian frequency (v0), 325, angular frequency (v), 348
234–235, 239 327, 329 current behavior and, 346
polarity of induced voltages, scaling, 606–607 current (i), 348–349
227–229, 232, 239 step response of, 328–331, 338 Laplace transform method for,
steady-state transformer analysis symbols for, 302 519–520
and, 375–376, 379–380 underdamped response, 325–327, period of time (T), 348
voltage drop, 227 329 phase angle (f) of, 348
Sensors, op-amp circuit analysis for, Short circuit, 65 root-mean-square (rms) value,
207, 227–228 Sifting property, 478–479 349–351
Sensitivity analysis of resistors, 121, Signal-processing systems, 33 steady-state analysis and, 346–351,
159–162 Signals in phase, 356 389
Sequential switching, 274–278, 284 Signum functions, 697 steady-state response from, 347,
circuit analysis and, 274–278, 284 Simplification techniques, 90–91, 351–352
defined, 274 103–106, 143–146, 149 voltage (v), 348–350
resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits with, delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) Smartphones, 207
274, 277–278, 284 transformation, 103–106 Source transformation, 120, 143–146,
resistor-inductor (RL) circuits with, series–parallel simplification, 149, 162, 368–371
274–277, 284 90–91 bilateral configurations, 143–144
Series-connected (in-series) circuits, 69, source transformation, 143–146, condition of equivalence for, 144
78, 86, 88, 107, 222–223, 362–363, 365, 149 defined, 143
567–568, 570–572, 574–576, 736–737. Simultaneous equations, 122–124, frequency-domain circuit simplifica-
See also Series RLC circuits 746–754 tion, 368–371
black box concept, 88 applications of, 751–754 impedance (Z) for, 368–371
capacitors, 223 back-substitution method for, Norton equivalent circuits from,
circuit elements, 69, 78 749–750, 754 149, 368–369
combining, 88 calculator and computer methods resistive circuit simplification, 120,
frequency domain, 362–363, 365 for, 747–749, 752–754 143–146, 149, 162
frequency-selective circuits, characteristic determinant of, steady-state circuit analysis,
567–568, 570–572, 574–576 750–751 368–371
high-pass filters, 574–576 circuit analysis using, 122–124 Thévenin equivalent circuits from,
impedances (Z) combined in, Cramer’s method for, 750–752 149, 368–369, 371
362–363, 365 essential nodes and branches for, Sources, 56–59, 73–76, 346–351, 389,
inductors, 222 123–124 519–520, 545–548
Kirchhoff’s laws for, 88 Kirchhoff’s laws for, 122–123 active circuit elements, 58
low-pass filters, 567–568, 570–572 linear, 746–754 current, 56–59, 78
resistors, 86, 88, 107 number of, 122–124 dependent, 56, 59, 73–76, 78
two-port circuits, 736–737 solution of, 746–754 direct current (dc), 58
Series–parallel connections, 90–91, Sine functions, 659–660, 678 electrical, 56
736–737 Single-phase equivalent circuits, impulsive, 545–548
simplification of, 90–91 446–449, 463 ideal, 56–59, 78
two-port circuits, 736–737 Sinusoidal circuits, 346–401, 402–439 independent, 56, 59, 78
Series RLC circuits, 300, 302, 324–331, power calculations, 402–439 interconnections of, 58–59
338, 579–583, 585–591, 606–607 steady-state analysis, 346–401 Laplace transform method for,
bandpass filters, 579–583, 585–587 Sinusoidal function, 480 545–548
bandreject filter, 588–591 Sinusoidal rectifiers, 646, 648 passive circuit elements, 58
 Index 813

sinusoidal, 346–351, 389, 519–520 Step function (Ku(t)), 475–476, 504 dependent sources and, 158–159
symbols for, 56–57 discontinuities of circuits and, Laplace transform method using,
voltage, 56–59, 78 475–476, 504 527–528
Square-wave voltage, 661, 665–666 finite duration representation, 476 s domain applications, 527–528
Square waveforms, 648, 661 unit step function (u(t)), 475, 504 Surge suppressor analysis, 511, 548
Standby (vampire) power analysis, Step response, 248, 261–274, 284, Susceptance (B), 364
403, 427–428 317–324, 328–331, 333, 337–338, Switching operations, impulse function
Steady-state analysis, 346–401 517–518 (Kd(t)) for, 542–545
admittance (Y), 364, 389 characteristic equation for, 321, 329 Symmetric two-port circuits, 729–730,
challenges of, 346 circuit analysis using, 248 740–741
delta-to-wye (Δ-to-Y) comparison of RC and RL Symmetry, 132, 226–227, 239, 653–658,
transformations, 366–368 circuits, 269 677
frequency domain of, 355–385 critically damped response, capacitors, 226–227, 239
household distribution circuit, 347, 319–321, 328–329 duality as, 132, 226
387–388 damped radian frequency (vd), even-function, 653–654
impedance (Z) for, 358–359, 321, 329 Fourier coefficient, effects on,
361–366, 368–371, 389 direct approach for, 319–320 653–658, 677
Kirchhoff’s laws for, 360–361 general solution for, 269–274, 284 Fourier series of periodic function
mesh-current method, 373–375 indirect approach for, 318–319 found with, 658
node-voltage method for, 372–373 inductor current for, 317–318 half-wave, 655–656
Norton equivalent circuit for, 368–370 inductor voltage versus time, 264–265 inductors, 226–227, 239
parallel impedances, 363–366 integrating-amplifier analysis of, 333 odd-function, 654–655
passive circuit elements, 355–359 magnetically coupled coils and, quarter-wave, 656–657
phasor diagrams for, 385–387 273–274
phasor transforms for, 353–361 Laplace transform method for,
phasors, 352–359 517–518 T
responses, 255, 351–352 method for, 262, 266, 269–270, 284 T-equivalent circuit, 761
series impedances, 362–363 Neper frequency (a), 321, 329 Tee (T) interconnection, 104
sinusoidal sources for, 346–351, 389 overdamped response, 319–321, Terminals, 66, 71–72, 146–154, 180–184,
source transformations for, 368–371 328–329 200, 720–745
Thévenin equivalent circuit for, parallel, 300, 317–324 circuit behavior and, 146–154,
368–371 resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, 248, 180–184
transformers, 375–384, 389 266–274, 284 current of, 180–184, 200
voltage to current (v–i) resistor-inductor (RL) circuits, 248, measurements for circuit
relationships, 355–359, 389 261–265, 269–274, 284 construction, 66, 71–72
Steady-state current component, 352 resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) negative feedback and, 181–182,
Steady-state response, 255, 346, circuits, 317–324, 328–331, 200
351–352, 389, 539–541, 549, 337–338, 517–518 Norton equivalent circuits and,
649–650, 661–666, 678, 706 resonant radian frequency (v0), 321, 148–151
direct approach to, 663–666, 678 329 operational amplifier (op amp),
Fourier series approach for, series-connected, 300, 328–331 180–184, 200
649–650, 661–666, 678 symbols for, 302, 317 ports, 720
Fourier transforms for, 706 underdamped response, 319–321, symbols for, 180
periodic functions used for, 328–329 Thévenin equivalent circuits and,
649–650 Stopband frequency, 566, 592 146–154
periodic voltage and, 661–665 Straight-line plots, 772–784. See also two-port circuits, 720–745
RC circuit periodic voltage Amplitude plots; Phase angle Terminals, 66, 71–72, 146–154, 180–184,
response, 661–665 plots 200, 720–745
RLC circuit square-wave voltage Strength (K) of impulse function, 477, Terminated two-port circuits,
response, 665–666 504 731–736
sinusoidal analysis conditions, 346 Summing-amplifier circuit, 186–187, Thévenin equivalent circuits, 120,
sinusoidal sources of, 346, 351–352 200 146–154, 163, 368–369, 371, 523–524
square-wave voltage and, Supermesh, 137–138 amplifier circuit analysis using,
665–666 Supernodes, 129–130 153–154
time constant (t) and, 255 Superposition, 120, 157–159, 163, dependent sources and, 150
transfer function (H(s)) and, 527–528 impedance (Z) in, 368–369
539–541, 549 circuit analysis using, 120, 157–159, frequency-domain circuit simplifica-
waveforms of, 663–664 163 tion, 368–369,371
814 Index

Thévenin equivalent circuits final-value theorem for, 500–502, weighting function, 538
(Continued) 505 zeros of, 530
Laplace transform method for, Fourier transform (f(t)), 690–691, Transform pairs, 480–481, 497
523–524 699–700, 702, 707–713, 714 Transformers, 375–384, 389, 765–768
resistance directly from circuit, frequency domain (s) relationships, current (i) ratios, 381–383
151–154 474, 500–502, 505, 573, 587–588 dot convention for, 382–383
s domain, 523–524 functional transforms, 475, equivalent circuits with, 765–768
source transformation for, 149, 480–481, 504 frequency domain analysis of,
368–369, 371 impulse function (Kd(t)), 375–384
terminal circuit simplification using, 477–479, 504 ideal, 379–384, 389, 765–768
120, 146–151, 163 initial-value theorem for, 500–502, impedance matching, 384
voltage of, 180–184, 200 505 limiting values of, 379–381
Three-phase circuits, 440–471 Laplace transform (f(t)), 474–475, linear circuits, 375–379, 389
a-, b-, and c-phase voltage 481–486, 500–502, 504–505 polarity of voltage and current,
references, 442 low-pass filters, 573 382–383
average power measurement in, operational transforms for, 475, reflected impedance (Zr), 376–377,
458–461, 463 481–486, 504, 702 389
balanced conditions, 440, 444–445, Parseval’s theorem, 707–713, 714 self-impedance of, 376
463 sifting property and, 478–479 self-inductance of, 375–376,
basic circuit use and characteristics, step function (Ku(t)), 475–476, 504 379–380
440, 442 transform pairs, 480–481, 497 steady-state analysis of, 375–384,
delta (Δ) loads, 454–455 translation in, 702 389
electric power transmission and unit impulse function (d(t)), steady-state analysis, 375–384, 389
distribution, 441, 461–463 477, 504 voltage (v) ratios, 381–383
impedance relationships, 450 unit step function (u(t)), 475, 504 winding (primary and secondary),
instantaneous power in, 455–456 Time-invariant circuits, 532–533, 549 375
line current, 445, 446–447, 450–451, 463 Time-invariant instantaneous power, Transient current component, 352
line voltage, 445, 446–447, 463 455–456 Transient response, 255, 705–706
neutral terminal for, 443 Timing signals, 301 Transition region, 624–625
phase current, 446–447, 450–451, 463 Touch screens, 87, 106–108, 211, Transmission parameters, 724, 728
phase sequences, 442, 463 237–238 Triangular waveforms, 646, 648,
phase voltage, 446–447, 463 capacitance of, 211, 237–238 651–652
phase windings, 443 resistive circuits of, 87, 106–108 Trigonometric identities, 785
phasor diagrams for, 442, 447 Transfer function (H(s)), 528–541, 549, Twin-T notch filter, 630
power calculations in, 453–458, 463 573, 577, 587, 589, 591, 592–593, Two-port circuits, 720–745
single-phase equivalent circuit for, 620–621 cascaded, 736–739
446–449, 463 bandpass filters, 587, 593 conversion table for parameters,
unspecified loads, 457–458 bandreject filters, 589, 591, 593 727
voltage sources, 443 Butterworth filters, 620–621 hybrid parameters, 724, 725
wye (Y) loads, 453–454 circuit analysis and, 529–530, immitance, 724
wye-delta (Y-Δ) circuit analysis, 532–533 interconnected, 736–739, 741
450–453, 456–457 convolution integral and, 533–539, measurements for parameters of,
wye-wye (Y-Y) circuit analysis, 549 725, 728
444–449, 456 defined, 528–529 model assumptions, 720, 740
Time constant (t), 251–252, 254–255, frequency-selective circuit analysis parallel, 736–737
257, 284 using, 573, 577, 587, 592–593 parameters for, 723–731, 740
resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, 257, high-pass filters, 577, 593 reciprocal, 729–730, 740
284 Laplace transform method for, relationships among, 726–727, 729
resistor-inductor (RL) circuits, 528–541, 549 series-connected, 736–737
251–252, 254–255, 284 low-pass filters, 573, 592 series-parallel, 736–737
significance of, 254–255 partial fraction expansion and, symmetric, 729–730, 740–741
steady-state response and, 255 489–498, 530–533 terminal equations for, 722, 740
transient response and, 255 poles of, 530 terminated, 731–736
Time domain (t), 474–486, 500–502, sinusoidal steady-state response transmission parameters, 724, 728
504–505, 573, 587–588, 690–691, and, 539–541, 549 unknown circuit characterization,
699–700, 702, 707–713, 714 time-invariant circuits, 532–533, 549 721, 739–740
bandpass filters, 587–588 unit impulse response (h(t)) and, z parameters, 724–725, 731–734
convolution in, 702 532–539 Two-wattmeter method, 459–460, 463
 Index 815

U Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), 68,

70, 78, 360–361
W
Unbounded response, 278–279, 284 line, 445, 446–447, 463 Watt (W), unit of, 412–413, 429
Underdamped response, 310–314, measurement of, 86, 98–101, 108 Waveforms, 646, 648, 651–657, 661,
319–321, 325–327, 328–329, 337 mutual inductance and, 227–229, 663–664, 678
natural response, 310–314, 325–328, 232, 239 even periodic function, 653–654
337 natural response expressions for, half-wave periodic function, 655–656
parallel RLC circuits, 310–314, 254, 257, 302 odd periodic function, 654–655
319–321, 337 negative feedback and, 181–182, 200 periodic functions for, 646, 648
series RLC circuits, 325–327, 329 Ohm’s law for, 61, 78 periodic voltage, 661, 663–664
step response, 319–321, 328–329 op-amp terminals, 180–184, 200 periodic, 646, 648
Unilateral (one-sided) Laplace Parseval’s theorem for, 712–713 quarter-wave periodic function,
transform, 474–475 phase, 446–447, 463 656–657
Unit impulse function (d(t)), 477, 504 phasor notation for, 442 rectangular, 648
Unit impulse response (h(t)), 532–539 periodic, 659–665, 667–669, 673–675 sinusoidal rectifiers, 646, 648
Unit prefixes, 38–39 polarity of, 227–229, 232, 239, 382–383 square, 648, 661
Unit step function (u(t)), 475, 480, 504, polarity reference, 42 square-wave voltage, 661
697 power and energy relationship to, steady-state response, 663–664
Unknown circuit characterization, 43–45 symmetry of periodic functions
721, 739–740 resistor power in terms of, 62 represented as, 653–657
resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, triangular, 646, 648, 651–652
257 Wavelength (l), 35
V resistor-inductor (RL) circuits, 254 Weighting function, 538
Vampire (standby) power analysis, resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) Wheatstone bridge, 101–103, 108
403, 427–428 circuits, 302, 665–666 Winding (primary and secondary),
Volt-amp reactive (VAR), unit of, 407, sinusoidal source, 348–350 375, 443
413, 429 square-wave, 661, 665–666 Wye (Y) interconnection, 104
Volt-amps (VA), unit of, 412–413, steady-state analysis and, 348–350, Wye (Y) loads, 453–454
429 360–361, 382–383 Wye-delta (Y-Δ) circuits, 450–453,
Voltage (v), 40–45, 62, 68, 70, 74, 78, unknown found using Kirchhoff’s 456–457
86, 98–101, 108, 180–184, 200, laws, 74 analysis of balanced, 450–453
212–214, 227–229, 231–232, 239, Voltage-divider circuit, 92–94, 107 power calculations for, 456–457
254, 257, 302, 348–350, 360–361, Voltage division, 96–98, 107, 362 Wye-wye (Y-Y) circuits, 444–449, 456
382–383, 442, 445–447, 463, Voltage drop, 227, 544–545 analysis of balanced, 444–449
659–669, 673–675, 712–713 Voltage sources, 56–59, 78, 443 power calculations for, 456
a-, b-, and c-phase references, 442 Voltage to current (v–i) relation-
balanced three-phase circuits, 442, ships, 212–213, 218, 355–358, 389,
445–447, 463 512–513, 549 Z
defined, 41 capacitors, 218, 357–358, 389 z parameters, two-port circuits,
dot convention for, 382–383 circuit analysis and, 212–213, 218 724–725, 731–734
electric charge and, 40–42 inductors, 212–213, 356–357, 389 Zero frequency, 572
Fourier series applications, 659–669, Laplace transform method using, Zeros, 498–500, 504, 530, 771–772,
673–675 512–513, 549 778–779
frequency domain, 360–361, 382–383 phasor domain of, 355–358, 389 Bode plots and, 771–772, 778–779
ideal transformer ratios, 381–383 resistors, 355–356, 389 complex, 778–779
induced, 231–232 steady-state analysis and, 355–358, frequency domain (F(s)), 498–500, 504
inductor relationships, 212–214 389 real, first-order, 771–772
input constraint, 181–182 Voltmeter, 98, 100, 108 transfer functions (H(s)), 530
 NATURAL RESPONSE OF A Equations for analyzing the natural response of
TABLE 8.4
SERIES RLC CIRCUITS series RLC circuits
R 1
1. Determine the initial capacitor voltage (V0) Characteristic equation s2 + s + = 0
L LC
and inductor current (I0) from the circuit.

vd = 2v20 - a 2
Neper, resonant, and R 1
A LC
2. Determine the values of A and V0 using
damped frequencies a = v0 =
the equations in Table 8.4. 2L
s1 = -a + 2a 2 - v20, s2 = - a - 2a 2 - v20
3. If A2 7 V20, the response is overdamped Roots of the characteristic
and i(t) = A1e s1t + A2e s2t, t Ú 0; equation
If A2 6 V20 the response is underdamped and
i(t) = B1e -at cos vdt + B2e -at sin vdt, t Ú 0; a 2 7 v20 : overdamped i(t) = A1e s1t + A2e s2t, t Ú 0
If A2 = V20, the response is critically damped i(0 +) = A1 + A2 = I0
and i(t) = D1te -at + D2e -at, t Ú 0. di(0 +) 1
4. If the response is overdamped, calculate = s1A1 + s2A2 = 1 -RI0 - V0 2
dt L
s1 and s2 using the equations in Table 8.4;
If the response is underdamped, calculate a 2 6 v20 : underdamped i(t) = B1e -at cos vdt + B2e -at sin vdt, t Ú 0
Vd using the equation in Table 8.4. i(0 +) = B1 = I0
5. If the response is overdamped, calculate
di(0 +) 1
A1 and A2 by simultaneously solving the = -aB1 + vdB2 = 1 - RI0 - V0 2
equations in Table 8.4;
dt L
If the response is underdamped, calculate B1 a 2 = v20 : critically damped i(t) = D1te -at + D2e -at, t Ú 0
and B2 by simultaneously solving the equations i(0 +) = D2 = I0
in Table 8.4;
di(0 +) 1
If the response is critically damped, calculate = D1 - aD2 = 1 -RI0 - V0 2
D1 and D2 by simultaneously solving the equa- dt L
tions in Table 8.4.
(Note that the equations in the last three rows assume that the reference direction for the current
6. Write the equation for i(t) from Step 3 using
in every component is in the direction of the reference voltage drop across that component.)
the results from Steps 4 and 5; find any desired
component voltages.

STEP RESPONSE OF A
SERIES RLC CIRCUITS Equations for analyzing the step response of series RLC
TABLE 8.5
1. Determine the initial capacitor volt-
circuits
age (V0), the initial inductor current (I0), R 1 V
and the final capacitor voltage (Vf) from Characteristic equation s2 + s + =
L LC LC
the circuit.

vd = 2v 20 - a 2
2. Determine the values of A and V0 Neper, resonant, and R 1
A LC
using the equations in Table 8.5. damped frequencies a = v0 =
2L
3. If A2 7 V20, the response is

s1 = -a + 2a 2 - v 20, s2 = - a - 2a 2 - v 20
overdamped and vC(t) = Vf + A′1e s1t Roots of the characteristic
+ A′2e s2t, t Ú 0 +; equation
If A2 6 V20, the response is under-
damped and vC(t) = Vf + B′1e -at cos vdt a 2 7 v 20 : overdamped vC(t) = Vf + A′1e s1t + A′2e s2t, t Ú 0
+ B′2e -at sin vdt, t Ú 0 +; vC(0 +) = Vf + A′1 + A′2 = V0
If A2 = V20, the response is critically
damped and vC(t) = Vf + D′1te -at
dvC(0 +) I0
= s1A′1 + s2A′2 =
+ D′2e -at, t Ú 0 + . dt C
4. If the response is overdamped,
a 2 6 v 20 : underdamped vC(t) = Vf + B′1e -at cos vdt + B′2e -at sin vdt, t Ú 0
calculate s1 and s2 using the equations
in Table 8.5; vC(0 +) = Vf + B′1 = V0
If the response is underdamped, calcu-
dvC(0 +) I0
late Vd using the equation in Table 8.5. = -aB′1 + vdB′2 =
5. If the response is overdamped, dt C
calculate A1 ′ and A2 ′ by simultaneously
solving the equations in Table 8.5; a 2 = v 20 : critically vC(t) = Vf + D′1te -at + D′2e -at, t Ú 0
If the response is underdamped, calcu- damped vC(0 +) = Vf + D′2 = V0
late B1 ′ and B2 ′ by simultaneously solving
the equations in Table 8.5;
dvC(0 +) I0
= D′1 - aD′2 =
If the response is critically damped, dt C
calculate D1 ′ and D2 ′ by simultaneously (Note that the equations in the last three rows assume that the reference direction for the current
solving the equations in Table 8.5.
in every component is in the direction of the reference voltage drop across that component.)
6. Write the equation for vC(t) from Step 3
using the results from Steps 4 and 5;
find the inductor voltage and any desired
branch currents.
 GLOBAL
EDITION

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