GRADE 10

1ST PERIOD CHEMISTRY LESSON

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Definition: Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, compositions, structures, and the changes
that matter undergoes. Matter is what makes up our bodies, our belongings, our physical environment,
and in fact our universe. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Branches of chemistry
Chemistry is typically divided into several branches because of its diversity. It also has cross-disciplinary
and more specialized field of studies. Some of these include:
1. Inorganic Chemistry – deals with elements other than carbon and their compounds. For
example, Sulphur and its compounds, oxides of carbon and carbonates, and oxygen and its
compound.
2. Organic Chemistry – studies carbon and its compounds excluding its oxides and
carbonates. alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and alcohols are few fundamental exemplars of
organic compounds.
3. Physical Chemistry – studies how matter and energy interact. It combines chemistry with
physics. Thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are two of the core branches of physical
chemistry.
4. Analytical Chemistry – uses qualitative and quantitative observation to identify and
measure the physical and chemical properties of substances.
5. Medicinal chemistry – deals with physiologically active compounds such as chloroquine,
aspirin, and so on.
6. Biochemistry – deals with the effects of chemicals on living cells.
7. Industrial Chemistry – considers applications of chemistry in industries.
8. Environmental Chemistry – investigates the possible adverse effects of chemistry on the
environment.
9. Nuclear Chemistry – deals with how subatomic particles come together and makes nuclei.

Uses of Chemistry
The knowledge of chemistry has contributed greatly towards providing our basic needs and
improving the quality of our life. These include:
 Food: The use of fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides have helped to increase food
production. Chemical processes are designed to preserve and store food for long time.
 Clothing: Through intensive chemical research, man-made textile fibers are produced
 Military: Chemistry has contributed to the discovery and description of the behavior of
chemical substances such as explosives used by the military. The gunpowder used by the
earliest guns was made by mixing Sulphur, charcoal, and potassium trioxonitrate (V).
 Housing: To overcome the present need for housing and increase use of land space
especially in cities: many high-rise buildings are being constructed. These buildings need
 materials like cement, concrete, steel, bricks and tiles which are produced by chemical
industries.
 Medicine: Health is wealth. The health life that many people enjoy is due to the variety of
medicines that are available as a result of chemical research and technology.
 Transportation: Modern transportation system is an essential feature of today’s world. This
rapid development from carts pulled by animals to the latest air-craft was made possible by
chemicals producing suitable fuels and structural materials like alloys.

Adverse effects of chemistry

Chemical processes and products also have negative effects on our daily life. These include:
1. Corrosion of Iron: Corrosion of iron occurs when iron is exposed to water and air (oxygen).
it can be regarded as the slow deterioration of iron to iron (III) oxide. Rusting can be
prevented by application of protective coating, oiling and greasing, application of
sacrificial metal and so forth.
2. Pollution: One of the main adverse effects of chemical industries is the pollution of our
environment by:
 chemical wastes from factories and oil refineries
 radioactive wastes from nuclear plants
 oil spillage, exhaust from motor vehicles
 pesticides, fertilizers and acid rain
3. Drug Abuse: Drug abuse and drug addiction are major problems in our society. Drugs that
are abuse are heroin, cocaine and morphine.

Assignment #1: Name at least ten (10) careers in the field of chemistry.

contributors of chemistry
A. Jabir Ibn Hayyan: A Muslim astronomer, philosopher and scientist, became one of the first
to use scientific methods to study materials.
B. Antoine Lavoisier: Developed the metric system, postulated the law of conservation of
mass, and printed the first modern chemistry textbook.
C. Robert Boyle: Developed the Boyle’s law of gases.
D. Joseph Priestly: disproved the idea that air was an indivisible element. He showed that it
was, instead, a combination of gases when he isolated oxygen and went on to discover seven
other discrete gases.
E. John Dalton: An English scientist formulated the exact definition of atoms.
F. Dmitri Mendeleev: A Russian Chemist developed the first periodic table.
G. James Chadwick: An English physicist discovered neutron.
H. Soren Sorensen: A Danish chemist invented the pH scale.
I. Henry Moseley: An English physicist said that elements are arranged in order of their
increasing atomic number on the periodic table.
J. Evangelista Torricelli: An Italian Scientist invented the barometer.
Brief History and Development of Chemistry
The foundation of chemistry was firstly erected in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements
by Aristotle. Aristotle stated that water, air, earth, and fire are the fundamental elements from which
everything is formed as combination.
In the fourth century, the art of alchemy raised, taking magic into the study of natural substances
with the aims of changing elements into gold, prolonging life, and curing illnesses. Those who
supported this philosophy were called alchemists. Alchemists conceptualized chemical elements into
the first rudimentary periodic tables and introduced the process of distillation to Western Europe.
They were the first to extract metals from ores and compose various inorganic acids and bases. In
addition, the ancient Egyptians were some of the forerunners of alchemy around 2000 BC, and much
of the early intellect in Egypt was linked to embalming the dead and religious ritual.
In the 18th century, a German chemist named Georg Ernst Stahl propounded that substances burn in
the presence of phlogiston. His work is considered as the Theory of Phlogiston.

Later, the conceptions of Stahl were somersaulted by a French chemist, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier,
who stated that combustion always occurs in the presence of oxygen (a dephlogisticated gas).

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
All sciences, including the social sciences, use variations of what is called scientific method – a
logical procedure with defined steps used to solve problems. The primary step is carefully defining or
identifying the problem. However, there are four (4) salient steps involved in scientific method:
observation, hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion.
 Observation – is the act of noting and recording of events or information by the senses. The
information gathered is called data. A data can be either quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data deals with numerical values (1, 2, 3, etc.), while qualitative data pertains to
general knowledge about the system (color, height, property….).
 Hypothesis – is a proposed explanation for a problem based on observation. It can be tested
by further observations or experiments.
 Experiment – is a test under controlled conditions made to either demonstrate a known truth
or determine the validity of a hypothesis. In performing an experiment, there are factors that
do change while others do not. Those factors that do not change are called controls whereas
factors that do change are termed as variables.
 Conclusion – is a final statement about a natural phenomenon. A conclusion into law, a brief
statement or mathematical expression of a relationship between a constant phenomenon.
Before a law becomes theory, a unifying principle that explains a body of facts, it must be
tested and confirmed by many people.

MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Definition of Matter
Science interprets nature in terms of energy and matter. Matter, the material of which the universe is
composed, may be defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. All matter is composed of
atoms, which are extremely small chemically indivisible particles. Additionally, there are numerous
kinds of matter, which are organized by their compositions and properties.

States of Matter
Matter exists in three physical states which are gas, liquid, and solid.

Characteristics of Gases
1. Lack definite shape and definite volume
2. Particles are very far apart
3. Possess very weak attractive forces between particles
4. Particles move freely
5. May be expanded or compressed within relatively wide limits
6. Completely fill any container which it is introduced

Characteristics of Liquids
1. Lack definite shape; take the shape of its container
2. Possess definite volume
3. Particles are slightly close together
4. Has weaker attractive forces than solids
5. Particles are free to move past neighboring particles

Characteristics of Solids
1. Have definite shape and definite volume
2. Particles are close together
3. There are strong attractive forces between particles
4. Particles vibrate in all directions.

Phase Changes
Phase change is a process in which matter changes from one state to another when heated or cool. It
affects the following features of matter: particle arrangement, energy of particles, and distance
between particles.

PHASE CHANGES

Melting Solid to liquid

Freezing Liquid to solid

Evaporation Liquid to gas

 Condensation Gas to liquid

Sublimation Solid to gas

Deposition Gas to solid

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
A matter may be characterized by its intrinsic properties, which are attributes that distinguish it
from all other types of matter. Properties such as density, color, physical state, melting point,
hardness, and electrical conductivity are known as physical properties because they can be observed
without causing any change in the chemical composition of the matter. Moreover, physical properties
that are used to describe matter can be classified as: extensive property and intensive property.
Extensive property depends on the amount of matter in the sample e.g. mass, volume, and length.
On the contrary, intensive property depends on the type of matter e.g. hardness, density, and boiling
point.

The chemical properties of matter are those that describe the chemical changes (chemical reactions)
that matter undergoes. For example, rusting, flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity and heat of
combustion.

TYPES OF CHANGE
All matter can undergo two popular changes: physical and chemical changes.

Physical Changes: A physical change is one which is easily reversed and produces no new
substances. Grinding, cutting, dissolution, magnetization, and demagnetization are some examples.

Chemical Changes: Chemical change is the transformation in which a new substance is formed and
is not easily reversed. Physical means cannot be used to separate the components. Burning of
substances, for example, is a chemical change. Other examples of chemical changes are:
1. Addition of water to calcium oxide (quicklime): CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
2. Rusting of iron in moist air: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + XH2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.XH2O(s)
3. Burning magnesium ribbon in Bunsen: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
4. Reaction of metals and calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) with dilute acids.
Zn(S) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(s) +H2(g)
CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq)
5. Reactions of some metals with water to produce the corresponding alkalis and hydrogen gas:
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g).

Assignment #2: Classify each of the following changes as either a physical or a chemical change.
(a) The melting of a candle wax (b) The dissolution of common salt in water. (c) The addition of
water to quicklime (d) The dissolution of copper in concentrated trioxonitrate (V) acid.
ELEMENTS, MIXTURES, AND COMPOUNDS
In chemistry, matter has been further classified into elements, mixtures, and compounds.

Elements: An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by ordinary
chemical process. Elements constitute the building blocks of all other substances. There are 118
known elements. Ninety of them, occur naturally, while the rest are made artificially in the
laboratory. Elements are arranged according to their atomic number and are group into metals,
metalloids and non-metals.

Element Property Examples

Metals Good conductor of electricity Iron, Tin, Lead, Zinc etc.

Metalloids Semi-conductor of electricity Silicon, Boron, Arsenic,

Tellurium, etc.

Non-metals Non-conductor of electricity Oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen,

etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-

METALS

Metals Non-metals

All metals except mercury are generally Non-metals may be gases, e.g. Oxygen,
solids under ordinary conditions, e.g. Zinc, Hydrogen, Argon etc.
Aluminum, Tin, etc.

Metals have high melting and boiling points Non-metals except carbon have low melting
and boiling points

Metals are good conductors of heat and Non-metals except graphite are poor
electricity, e.g. aluminum conductors of heat and electricity

Metals are malleable. i.e. can be hammered Non-metals are brittle, i.e. cannot be
into different shapes and are ductile, i.e. can hammered.
be drawn into wire

They possess characteristic luster They do not possess characteristic luster

except carbon

They exist as crystal lattice held by strong Non-metal except diamond exist as covalent
metallic bonds molecules held together by weak forces
Compounds: A compound is a substance formed when two or more different elements are
chemically joined together. A compound is formed as a result of a chemical change, and it is a
new substance with different properties from the substance(s) from which it was formed.
The component elements of a compound are present in fixed ratio by mass. For example,
calcium trioxocarbonate (IV), CaCO3, is a compound formed as the result of chemical reaction
among compound elements – calcium, carbon, and oxygen.

Mixtures: Mixtures are combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains
its individual properties. Therefore, substances are not chemically combined, just mixed
physically. Based on the distribution of the components, mixtures can either be classified as
homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous mixture – is a mixture in which the composition of the substances is constant

throughout and are indistinguishable. Another name for homogeneous is referred to as solution,
mixture of solute and solvent e.g. air. wine, brass, milk, blood and so forth.

Heterogeneous mixture – is a mixture wherein the individual substances remain distinct and are
distinguishable. Heterogeneous mixtures may form suspensions, lumps due to insolubility e.g.
sand and water, granite, salad, sandwich and so on.

Assignment #3: Classify the following substances as an element, a mixture or a compound (i)
Limestone (ii) Soil (iii) Antimony (iv) bronze (v) sugar (vi) gold

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

Mixtures Compounds

It may be homogeneous or heterogeneous It is always homogeneous

The constituents are not chemically bound The component elements are chemically
together and can be easily separated by bound together and cannot be separated by
physical means physical means

The constituents can be together in ratio by The components elements are present in a
mass. Hence, a mixture cannot be represented fixed ratio by mass. Hence, a compound can
by a chemical formula be represented by a chemical formula

The properties of mixture are the sum of those The properties of a compound differ entirely
of its individual constituents from those of its component elements

Mixture is not usually accompanied by Usually accompanied by one or more of these

 external effects such as explosion, evolution effects
of heat or volume change

STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES OF MIXTURES

There are many different physical methods used to separate a wide variety of mixtures. The
particular method employed for any given mixture depends upon the properties of its
constituents, such differences in solubilities, boiling points, sublimation, rates of diffusion, rates
of movement over an absorbent medium or magnetic properties. These include:
1. Evaporation: This used recover a solid solute from a solution through heating to dryness. For
example, recovering sodium chloride in water. evaporation employs the principle of different
vapour pressures and the solvent is sacrificed in the process.
2. Filtration: It is employed for mixture of an insoluble particle (solute) in a liquid. It involves
the use of filter paper. the liquid that passes through the filter paper is called FILTRATE,
while the RESIDUE is the insoluble particle remaining on the filter. For example, mixture of
sand and water.
3. Magnetization: It involves the use of magnet to pick magnetic particles from the non-
magnetic ones. A mixture of iron fillings and sulfur powder can be separated by this method.
A bar magnet is used to stir the mixture and the iron fillings stick to the magnet, leaving the
sulphur behind.
4. Separating Funnel Method: This is used for mixture of two or more immiscible liquids e.g.
kerosene and water, palm oil and water etc. The liquid with the highest density stays down
and is recovered first.
5. Sublimation: The vapours of certain substances, when cooled, condense directly to become
solid. These solids, when heated also change directly to the gaseous state without going
through the liquid state. This physical change is called sublimation. Iodine, benzoic acid,
sulphur, iron (II) chloride and ammonium chloride are common examples of substances that
sublime. These substances can be separated from other solids by sublimation, e.g. mixture of
iodine and sodium chloride.
6. Distillation: This is just a method of purifying a liquid taking advantage of its wide boiling
point. The liquid is heated to its boiling point and its vapour is condensed through a condenser
back to the liquid.
7. Fractional distillation: This is adopted for mixtures of two or more miscible liquids with
close boiling points. the liquid with the lowest boiling point is collected as the first distillate,
while the one with the highest boiling point comes last e.g. ethanol and water.
8. Crystallization: this is used to separate salts which can easily be decomposed by heat from
their solutions, examples are hydrated salt e.g. Cu(NO 3)2 . 3H2O, FeSO4. 7H2O.
Crystallization employs the principle of differences in melting point of the substances.
9. Fractional Crystallization: This is used to separate mixture of different solutes with
different solubilities at different temperatures in a given solvent.
10. Precipitation: This is a method of separation which uses advantage of difference in
solubility of solid in two different liquids that are miscible. E.g. FeSO 4 dissolved in water can
be precipitated out by adding ethanol, a miscible liquid with water but not a suitable solvent
for FeSO4.
11. Chromatography: This is used to separate mixture of colors. The commonest, which is
ascending paper chromatography, makes use of a strip of chromatographic or filter paper.

Assignment #4: State what separation method you would use for the following mixtures: (a)
kerosene and water (b) alcohol and water (c) Silver chloride (solid) and sodium trioxonitrate (v)
(aqueous)

Chemical Symbols
The symbol of elements is a letter or two used to represent names of elements. The modern
system of representing elements with symbols was suggested by Berzelius in 1814. This employs
the first letter of the name as its symbol. Elements with the first letter of their names as their
symbols include:
1. Hydrogen – H
2. Boron – B
3. Carbon – C
4. Nitrogen – N

Berzelius’ rule cannot be universally applied because 105 elements have to share 26 alphabets.
Therefore, where the first alphabet has been adopted, a symbol consisting of the first letter
printed in capital together with one other in small letter from its name is used. elements with the
first and one other letter of their names as symbols comprise
1. Helium – He
2. Lithium – Li
3. Beryllium – Be
4. Neon – Ne
In some other cases, especially the metals, the Latin names of the elements are used as the source
of the symbols.
Latin names of Symbols of Elements

Elements Latin name symbol

Sodium Natrium Na

Potassium Kalium K

Iron Ferrum Fe

Copper Cuprum Cu
 Silver Argentum Ag

Tin Stannum Sn

Antimony Stibium Sb

Gold Aurum Au

Mercury Hydragyrum Hg

Lead Plumbum Pb

Chemical formulae
Chemical formulae are shorthand forms of represented forms of representing molecules of
compounds. It shows the atoms and proportion of these presence in a molecule of the compound is
written is by interchanging the valencies of the atoms/ radicals present. Formulae for compounds
contain the symbols of the different elements that combined chemically to form the compound. The
two or more atoms that are joined together are represented by writing their symbols side by side as
shown in the table below.

Compounds and their formulae

COMPOUNDS FORMULAE

Copper (II) oxide CuO

Potassium chloride KCl
Mercury (II) chloride HgO
Hydrogen chloride HCl

If more than one atom of an element is present in a compound, the number of atoms of each
component element is written as a subscript after the symbol of the element. A subscript is the
number written to the right of a symbol below, expressing the number of atoms of each element in the
formulae, e.g. H2O, NH3, CaCO3, etc.

Radicals: Radicals are groups of atom carrying charges that keep their identity and react as a single
unit. Each radical is treated as a single unit in a molecular formula. When more than one unit of a
radical is present in a molecule, the formula is written by enclosing the radical within parentheses
with the relevant numerical subscript after the parentheses, e.g. Ca(NO3)2, Al2(SO4)3, Fe(OH)3, etc.

RADICALS
Radicals Oxidation Number Valency Name
NO3- -1 1 Nitrate

ClO3- -1 1 Chlorate

MnO4- -1 1 Permanganate

OH- -1 1 Hydroxide

CO32- -2 2 Carbonate

SO42- -2 2 Sulfate

CrO42- -2 2 Chromate

PO43- -3 3 Phosphate

NH4+ +1 1 Ammonium

HCO3- -1 1 Hydrogen carbonate

HSO4- -1 1 Hydrogen sulfate

METALS
Elements Oxidation number Valency

K +1 1

Na +1 1

Mg +2 2

Ca +2 2

Al +3 3

Fe +2 or +3 2 or 3

Cu +1 or +2 1 or 2

Zn +2 2

Pb +2 0r +4 2 or 4

NONMETALS
Elements Oxidation number Valency

Cl -1 1

F -1 1
Br -1 1

S -2, -4, or -6 2, 4, 6

I -1 1

P -3 or -5 3 or 5

O -2 or (-1 in peroxides) 2

N -3 0r -5 3 or 5

H -1 (in metal hydride only) 1

Rules for Writing Formula:

1. Identify the symbol of the cation (first part of the name) and the anion. Most anions will
end in ide.
2. Identify the valence or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the
symbol
3. Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion. You ask
yourself do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero.
4. Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become
the subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.
For example what is the formula of Copper (I) Oxide?
 Identify the symbols of the cation and anion
 Copper is Cu and Oxide is O
 Identify the charge for each and place above the symbol in parenthesis
 For Copper (I) that would be 1+ and for Oxide that would be 2-
 Balance the positive and negative charges
 Since each Copper is 1+ and each Oxide is 2- then it will take two Cu + to balance one
oxide with a 2- so that

2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0. The numbers outside the parenthesis become the subscripts in the formula
Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol they go with. Cu2O

o Also note that all binary compounds end in "ide"

What is the formula of Calcium Nitride?

 Identify the symbols of each part of the name
 Calcium symbol is Ca and Nitride symbol is N
 Identify the charge for each
 Calcium belongs from Group 2 which always has a +2 and Nitride will be a single
Nitrogen with a -3 charge
 Balance charge
 Since Calcium is +2 and Nitride is -3 the only way to balance them is to have three
Calcium's and two nitrides
  Write the symbol beginning with the symbol that is first in the name and include the
subscript after each symbol. Ca3N2
Naming Compounds
Ionic compounds: Many ionic compounds are binary compounds, compounds formed from just
two elements. For binary ionic compounds the first element named is the metal cation followed
by the nonmetallic anion. The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name and
adding “-ide”, e.g. NaCl (sodium chloride), Al 2O3 (aluminum oxide), and ZnI2 (zinc iodide). In
addition, for ternary compounds, compounds consisting of three elements, as well as transition
metals, the following guidelines are applicable:
 Name metal first
 Specify charge of metal cation with Roman numeral in parentheses
 If monatomic anion, add “-ide” to the root of the element.
 If polyatomic anion, use name of ion

Molecular Compounds: Molecular compounds are binary compounds of nonmetals. In naming,

molecular compounds, the following guideline should be considered:
 Use prefixes for both elements present (“mono”- usually omitted for the first element).
 Add “-ide” to the root of the second element
 examples: HCl (hydrogen chloride), SiC (silicon carbide), CO 2 (carbon dioxide), and
N2O4 (dinitrogen tetroxide). Prefixes commonly used are given in the table below.

Prefix Meaning
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5

Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular compounds containing hydrogen. These
include B2H6 (diborane), PH3 (phosphine), CH4 (methane), SiH4 (silane), NH3 (ammonia), H2O
(water), and H2S (hydrogen sulfide).

Naming of Compound Using IUPAC Nomenclature

The IUPAC uses oxidation numbers in naming compounds. The sum of the oxidation numbers
for a compound is zero. This can be done by adding the oxidation number of elements in a
compound. Examples: Na2SO4 (sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI)), NO (nitrogen (II) oxide), CO 2
(carbon (VI) oxide, and potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII).

Differences between Mass and Weight: Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object,
whereas weight considers the force that gravity exerts on an object. The mass of a substance is
constant and does not depend on its location, but weight does. Mass and weight have the units of
kilogram (kg) and newton (N), respectively.

Temperature: Temperature (T) is a measure of how hot or cold a substance is relative to another
substance. Heat is the energy that flows between objects that are at different temperatures.
Temperature is related to the direction of that energy flow: when two objects at different temperatures
touch, energy flows from the one with the higher temperature to the one with the lower temperature
until their temperatures are equal. In the laboratory, the most common means for measuring
temperature is the thermometer, a device that contains a fluid that expands when it is heated.

The three temperature scales most important for us to consider are the Celsius (°C, formerly called
centigrade), the Kelvin (K), and the Fahrenheit °F) scales.

Formulas Involved in Temperature Calculations

1. Conversion from Celsius to kelvin: T (in K) = T (in ℃ ) + 273.15
2. Conversion from Kelvin to Celsius: T (in ℃ ) = T (in K) - 273.15
5℃
3. Conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius: T (in ℃ ) = (℉ - 32℉ ) ×
9℉
9℉
4. Conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit: T (in °F) = × ℃+32 ℉
5℃

Sample Problem
1. Change the following temperature measures to the given units: (a) 98.6 ℉ to ℃ (b) -40℃ to ℉
(c) 25℃ to K (d) 303K to ℃

EVALUATION POINTS
Test ------------------------- 50 pts
Quiz ------------------------ 20 pts
Assignment ---------------- 10 pts
Pop Quiz ------------------- 10 pts
Class participation -------- 5 pts
Attendance ---------------- 5 pts
TOTAL -------------------- 100%

Prepared by: Enssah Fayia Momoh