1.

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)

The OSI model is a theoretical framework that defines how different networking protocols
interact and allows for standardization of networking tasks. It helps to understand how data
travels through a network from one device to another.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

o Purpose: Deals with the physical transmission of raw data over a
communication medium (e.g., cables, fiber optics, radio waves).
o Key Responsibilities:
 Conversion of data to signals (electric, light, or radio waves).
 Handling of the medium (copper wire, fiber optics, wireless channels).
 Ensuring signal strength and bit timing.
 Physical aspects of network devices like cables, NICs, and hubs.
o Devices/Protocols:
 Cables: twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic.
 Network Interface Cards (NICs).
 Repeaters, hubs, and modems.
 Standards: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth, and USB.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
o Purpose: Ensures that data transferred between two directly connected nodes
is error-free and in the correct format.
o Key Responsibilities:
 Framing: Breaking data into smaller frames for transmission.
 MAC (Media Access Control) addressing: Unique identifiers for
network devices.
 Error detection and correction: Checks and ensures no corruption in
data transmission.
 Flow control: Manages data transmission rate between devices.
o Devices/Protocols:
 Bridges, switches (Layer 2 switches), and NICs.
 Protocols: Ethernet, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), HDLC (High-
Level Data Link Control), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):
o Purpose: Handles routing of data packets across multiple networks and
ensures that data reaches its destination.
o Key Responsibilities:
 Logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing between different
networks.
 Determining the best path for data transfer based on routing
algorithms.
 Fragmentation and reassembly of packets for transmission over
different networks.
o Devices/Protocols:
 Routers, Layer 3 switches.
 Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path
 First), BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), RIP (Routing Information
Protocol).
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):
o Purpose: Manages end-to-end data transfer between devices, ensuring that
data is sent reliably and efficiently.
o Key Responsibilities:
 Segmentation and reassembly: Splits large data into smaller segments
and ensures they are reassembled correctly at the destination.
 Error detection and correction at the end-to-end level.
 Flow control to avoid congestion.
 Reliable transmission (with acknowledgments) or unreliable
transmission (without acknowledgment).
o Protocols:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable,
connection-oriented communication, error-checking, and flow control.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers faster, connectionless
communication with no error recovery, typically used for streaming,
gaming, and real-time applications.
 SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol).
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):
o Purpose: Manages sessions or connections between applications, ensuring
that data is synchronized and correctly ordered.
o Key Responsibilities:
 Establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections between
applications.
 Managing dialogue control, ensuring that data can flow in both
directions (full-duplex or half-duplex).
 Synchronizing data flow and maintaining session state.
o Protocols:
 NetBIOS, SMB (Server Message Block), RPC (Remote Procedure
Call), PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol), NFS (Network File
System).
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
o Purpose: Translates and formats data for the application layer, ensuring that it
can be understood across different platforms.
o Key Responsibilities:
 Data encoding: Formats and encodes data (e.g., from ASCII to
EBCDIC).
 Data compression: Reduces data size for efficient transmission.
 Encryption and decryption: Secures data by encoding it during
transmission.
o Protocols:
 SSL/TLS (for secure communication).
 JPEG, GIF, PNG (image formats).
 ASCII, EBCDIC (character encodings).
 MPEG (video compression).
7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
o Purpose: Directly interacts with end-user applications and provides network
services to them.
o Key Responsibilities:
  Provides protocols that allow applications to communicate over the
network.
 Provides services such as email, file transfer, web browsing, etc.
o Protocols:
 HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/ Secure HTTP).
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
 SMTP/POP3/IMAP (Email Protocols).
 DNS (Domain Name System).
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol).

2. TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

The TCP/IP model is a simplified 4-layer model that serves as the framework for internet
communication. Unlike the OSI model, it is the actual architecture used by the internet.
The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model:

1. Link Layer:
o Corresponds to both the Physical Layer and Data Link Layer in the OSI
model.
o Defines how devices interact with the transmission medium.
o Protocols: Ethernet, ARP, PPP, and Wi-Fi.
2. Internet Layer:
o Corresponds to the Network Layer in OSI.
o Responsible for routing and addressing. Data packets are assigned IP
addresses here.
o Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol): IPv4 and IPv6.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for diagnostics (e.g.,
Ping).
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Used for multicast
communication.
3. Transport Layer:
o Responsible for reliable data transfer across networks.
o Protocols:
 TCP: Connection-oriented, reliable communication, with flow control
and error correction.
 UDP: Connectionless, fast, unreliable communication, used in real-
time applications.
 SCTP: Provides reliable, message-oriented communication, combining
aspects of both TCP and UDP.
4. Application Layer:
o Corresponds to the Application, Presentation, and Session Layers in OSI.
o Includes all higher-level protocols used by applications.
o Protocols: HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, DNS, SMTP, POP3, IMAP.
3. IP Addressing

IP addressing allows devices on a network to be uniquely identified and located. IP addresses

are assigned to devices to route data correctly across the internet or private networks.

IPv4 Addressing:

 32-bit Address: Divided into 4 octets, each containing 8 bits.

 Decimal Representation: E.g., 192.168.1.1.

Private IP Addresses: Not routable on the internet, used in local networks.

Private IP addresses (which are internal value only) allow for an entirely
separate set of addresses within a network. They allow access to the network
without taking up a public IP address space. However, devices using these, private IP addresses
cannot be reached by internet users.

o Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.

o Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255.
o Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.

Public IP addresses

A public IP address is an IP address that can be accessed directly over the internet and is
assigned to your network router by your internet service provider (ISP). Your personal device
also has a private IP that remains hidden when you connect to the internet through your
router’s public IP, They can be allocated by a user’s ISP to identify the location of their device.

Devices using these IP addresses are accessible from

anybody using the internet. Public IP addresses are used by

» DNS servers
» network routers

»directly-controlled computers.

Using a public IP address to connect to the internet is like using a P.O. box for your snail
mail, rather than giving out your home address. It’s a little bit safer, but a lot more visible.

IPv6 Addressing:

 128-bit Address: Divided into 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits.

 Notation: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.
 IPv6 solves the address exhaustion problem faced by IPv4 and provides greater
address space.
Subnetting:

 Divides a network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks (subnets).

 The subnet mask (e.g., 255.255.255.0) specifies which part of the IP address refers to
the network and which part refers to the host.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

 An improved system of IP addressing and routing. For

example, 192.168.0.0/24 represents an IP address with 24 bits allocated to the
network part.

4. Domain Name System (DNS)

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable domain names into machine-
readable IP addresses. DNS is essential for the functioning of the internet.

Key Concepts of DNS:

 Domain Name: The address used by users to access resources on the internet
(e.g., www.example.com).
 DNS Resolver: The client-side component that queries DNS servers to resolve
domain names to IP addresses.
 DNS Server: A server that responds to DNS queries and provides the IP address of a
requested domain name.
 Zone: A portion of the DNS database that is managed by a specific organization or
administrator.

DNS Records:

 A Record: Resolves a domain to an IPv4 address.

 AAAA Record: Resolves a domain to an IPv6 address.
 MX Record: Defines mail servers for the domain.
 CNAME Record: Provides alias names for a domain.
 NS Record: Indicates authoritative name servers for a domain.

5. Routing Protocols (RIP)

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an interior gateway protocol used to determine the
best path for routing packets in an IP network.

Key Features:

 Distance Vector Protocol: RIP uses the number of hops as the metric to find the best
path.
  Maximum Hops: RIP has a maximum hop count of 15. A network with 16 or more
hops is considered unreachable.
 Periodic Updates: RIP routers send updates every 30 seconds to share their routing
table with neighbors.

RIP Versions:

 RIP v1: Classful routing, does not support subnetting or CIDR.

 RIP v2: Supports classless routing, multicast updates, and uses subnet masks to
enable more efficient routing.

6. Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an advanced link-state routing protocol designed to solve
some of the limitations of RIP.

Key Features of OSPF:

 Link-State Protocol: Each OSPF router maintains a complete map of the network
and independently calculates the best route.
 Fast Convergence: OSPF quickly adjusts to network changes, ensuring rapid
recovery from link failures.
 Area-Based Routing: Divides large networks into smaller areas to reduce the size of
routing tables.
 Uses Dijkstra's Algorithm: Computes the shortest path first based on the network's
topology.