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10th Class Chemistry Comprehensive Study Material

Detailed Explanations | Experiments | Numerical Problems
Author: Ravikumar Valaparla
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Chapter 1: Chemical Reactions and Equations
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1.1 Introduction
A chemical reaction is a process in which substances (reactants) transform into new
substances (products). This process is accompanied by energy changes—either the release
(exothermic) or absorption (endothermic) of heat. Chemical reactions are fundamental to
everyday life, from combustion in engines to biological processes in our bodies.

1.2 Types of Chemical Reactions

• Combination Reaction: Two or more reactants form one product.
Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
• Decomposition Reaction: A compound breaks down into simpler substances.
Example: 2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
• Single Displacement Reaction: A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element
from a compound.
Example: Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
• Double Displacement Reaction: Exchange of ions between two compounds.
Example: AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO₃

1.3 Balancing Chemical Equations

The law of conservation of mass states that atoms are neither created nor destroyed. To
balance equations:
a) Write the unbalanced equation.
b) Count the number of atoms for each element.
c) Adjust coefficients to balance the atoms on both sides.
Practice: Balance the equation: C₃H₈ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O.

1.4 Experiment: Reaction of Iron with Copper Sulfate

Materials: Iron nail, Copper sulfate (CuSO₄) solution.
Procedure: Immerse an iron nail in a CuSO₄ solution.
Observation: The solution turns green and a reddish-brown deposit forms as copper is
displaced.
Conclusion: This demonstrates that iron is more reactive than copper.

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Chapter 2: Acids, Bases, and Salts
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2.1 Definitions and Properties
• Acids: Substances that release H⁺ ions in water (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄).
• Bases: Substances that produce OH⁻ ions in water (e.g., NaOH, KOH).
• Salts: Products formed from the neutralization reaction between acids and bases (e.g.,
NaCl).

2.2 The pH Scale

- pH < 7: Acidic (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar)
- pH = 7: Neutral (e.g., pure water)
- pH > 7: Basic (e.g., soap solution, ammonia)

2.3 Experiment: Testing pH of Common Substances

Materials: pH paper, lemon juice, soap solution, vinegar.
Procedure: Dip pH paper into each liquid and compare the resulting color with the pH scale
chart.
Observation: Lemon juice shows a pH around 2, while the soap solution shows a pH around
9.

2.4 Numerical Problem

Calculate the pH of a solution if the concentration of H⁺ ions is 1.0 × 10⁻³ M using the
formula:
pH = -log[H⁺].
Solution: pH = 3.

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Chapter 3: Metals and Non-Metals
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3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
• Metals: Malleable, ductile, excellent conductors (e.g., copper, iron).
• Non-Metals: Brittle, poor conductors, often exist as gases or brittle solids (e.g., sulfur,
carbon).

3.2 Reactivity Series

The reactivity series orders metals by their reactivity:
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Au

3.3 Experiment: Reaction of Zinc with Hydrochloric Acid

Materials: Zinc granules, hydrochloric acid.
Procedure: Add zinc granules to a dilute HCl solution.
Observation: Effervescence indicates the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Conclusion: Demonstrates that metals react with acids to produce hydrogen.

3.4 Numerical Example

Determine the mass of copper produced when 65.38 g of Zn reacts with excess CuSO₄
(molar mass: Zn = 65.38 g/mol; Cu = 63.55 g/mol) in the reaction:
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu.
Calculation: 1 mole Zn gives 1 mole Cu, so 65.38 g Zn produces 63.55 g Cu.

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Chapter 4: Carbon and Its Compounds
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4.1 Covalent Bonding and Carbon Compounds
Carbon forms stable covalent bonds due to its four valence electrons. Types of bonds
include:
• Single bonds (e.g., methane, CH₄)
• Double bonds (e.g., ethene, C₂H₄)
• Triple bonds (e.g., ethyne, C₂H₂)

4.2 Functional Groups

Key functional groups:
• Alcohol (-OH): Example – Ethanol
• Aldehyde (-CHO): Example – Formaldehyde
• Carboxylic Acid (-COOH): Example – Acetic acid

4.3 Experiment: Soap and Detergent Action

Materials: Water, oil, soap, detergent.
Procedure: Mix oil with water, add soap or detergent, observe emulsion formation.
Observation: Soap tends to form scum in hard water; detergents are more effective.

4.4 Numerical Problem

Calculate the percentage composition of carbon in methane (CH₄).
Solution: (12.01/(12.01+(4×1.008)))*100 ≈ 75%

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Chapter 5: Periodic Classification of Elements
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5.1 The Periodic Table
Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number. The table is organized into groups
(vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows).

5.2 Periodic Trends

• Across a Period:
- Atomic radius decreases
- Electronegativity increases
- Ionization energy increases
• Down a Group:
- Atomic radius increases
- Ionization energy decreases

5.3 Example Calculation

Estimate the change in atomic radius from sodium (Na) to chlorine (Cl) based on periodic
trends.

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Chapter 6: Chemical Bonding
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6.1 Bond Types
• Ionic Bond: Formed by the transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl).
• Covalent Bond: Formed by the sharing of electrons (e.g., H₂O).
• Metallic Bond: A lattice of positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons (e.g., copper).

6.2 Bonding Theories

Discuss the octet rule, Lewis structures, and the VSEPR model for predicting molecular
shapes.

6.3 Practice Problem

Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and predict its molecular geometry.

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Chapter 7: States of Matter
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7.1 Classification
Matter exists primarily as solids, liquids, or gases.
• Solids: Have a fixed shape and volume (e.g., ice).
• Liquids: Have a fixed volume but no fixed shape (e.g., water).
• Gases: Have neither fixed shape nor volume (e.g., oxygen).

7.2 Properties
Discuss intermolecular forces, compressibility, and density differences between the states.

7.3 Experiment: Phase Change

Observe water transitioning from ice to liquid and then to vapor with temperature changes.

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Chapter 8: Thermodynamics
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8.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
• First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted (ΔU = Q - W).
• Second Law: Entropy of an isolated system increases over time.

8.2 Energy Changes

Discuss endothermic vs. exothermic reactions and the role of activation energy.

8.3 Numerical Problem

Calculate the energy change in a reaction using given enthalpy values.

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Chapter 9: Organic Chemistry
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9.1 Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
• Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds (e.g., methane, CH₄).
• Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond (e.g., ethene, C₂H₄).
• Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond (e.g., ethyne, C₂H₂).

9.2 Isomerism
Discuss structural isomers and stereoisomers in organic compounds.
9.3 Experiment: Combustion of Organic Compounds
Observe the combustion of a hydrocarbon to study the products formed (CO₂ and H₂O).

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Chapter 10: Environmental Chemistry
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10.1 Pollution and Its Impact
• Air Pollution: Emissions of CO, SO₂, NO₂ from industries and vehicles.
• Water Pollution: Contamination from industrial discharge, pesticides, plastics.

10.2 Acid Rain

Formation, effects on ecosystems, and prevention methods.

10.3 Case Study

Analyze the impact of a local industrial area on air and water quality.

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Chapter 11: Chemical Kinetics
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11.1 Reaction Rates
Discuss factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions such as temperature, concentration,
surface area, and catalysts.

11.2 Rate Laws and Mechanisms

Explain how to determine the rate law from experimental data and the concept of reaction
mechanisms.

11.3 Experiment: Measuring Reaction Rate

Materials: Reaction mixture, timer, thermometer.
Procedure: Measure the time taken for a reaction to reach completion under different
conditions.
Observation: Record the effect of temperature on reaction rate.

11.4 Numerical Problem

Calculate the rate constant (k) using the provided experimental data for a first-order reaction.

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Chapter 12: Revision and Exam Preparation
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12.1 Summary of Key Concepts
Review the main topics:
• Chemical reactions, balancing equations
• Acids, bases, salts, and the pH scale
• Properties of metals/non-metals and periodic trends
• Types of chemical bonding and states of matter
• Thermodynamics and organic chemistry fundamentals
• Environmental issues and kinetics
12.2 Practice Questions
• Define a chemical reaction and list its types.
• Explain the pH scale with examples.
• Balance the equation: C₃H₈ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O.
• Discuss the differences between ionic and covalent bonds.

12.3 Tips for Exam Success

• Understand concepts rather than memorize.
• Practice numerical problems regularly.
• Review past exam papers and sample questions.
• Create summary notes and flashcards for quick revision.

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End of Study Material
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