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Questions for Further Study 172 10 The GeoWeb 217
Further Reading 172
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Distributing the Data 222
8 Data Collection 173
10.2.1 Object-Level Metadata 223
8.1 Introduction 173 10.2.2 Geolibraries and Geoportals 225
8.1.1 Data Collection Workflow 175 10.3 The Mobile User 227
8.2 Primary Geographic Data Capture 175 10.3.1 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality 228
8.2.1 Raster Data Capture 175 10.3.2 Location-Based Services 230
8.2.2 Vector Data Capture 179 10.3.3 Issues in Mobile GIS 232
8.3 Secondary Geographic Data Capture 181 10.4 Distributing the Software: GI Services 233
8.3.1 Raster Data Capture Using Scanners 181 10.4.1 Service-Oriented Architecture 234
8.3.2 Vector Data Capture 183 10.5 Prospects 235
8.4 Obtaining Data from External Sources (Data Questions for Further Study 236
Transfer) 187 Further Reading 236
8.4.1 Geographic Data Formats 189
8.5 Capturing Attribute Data 190
8.6 Citizen-Centric Web-Based Data 3 Analysis
Collection 190
8.7 Managing a Data Collection Project 191 11 Cartography and Map Production 237
Questions for Further Study 193
11.1 Introduction 237
Further Reading 193
11.2 Maps and Cartography 241
11.2.1 Maps and Media 245
9 Creating and Maintaining 11.3 Principles of Map Design 246
Geographic Databases 194 11.3.1 Map Composition 247
9.1 Introduction 194 11.3.2 Map Symbolization 248
9.2 Database Management Systems 195 11.4 Map Series 257
9.2.1 Types of DBMSs 196 11.5 Applications 261
9.2.2 Geographic DBMS Extensions 197 11.6 Conclusion 265
9.3 Storing Data in DBMS Tables 198 Questions for Further Study 265
9.4 SQL 201 Further Reading 265
9.5 Geographic Database Types and
Functions 202 12 Geovisualization 266
9.6 Geographic Database Design 205
12.1 Introduction: Uses, Users, Messages,
9.6.1 The Database Design Process 205
and Media 266
9.7 Structuring Geographic Information 206
12.2 Geovisualization, Spatial Query, and User
9.7.1 Topology Creation 206 Interaction 268
9.7.2 Indexing 208 12.2.1 Overview 268
9.8 Editing and Data Maintenance 212 12.2.2 Spatial Query Online and the Geoweb 271
9.9 Multiuser Editing of Continuous 12.3 Geovisualization and Transformation 274
Databases 213
12.3.1 Overview 274
9.9.1 Transactions 213
12.3.2 Cartograms 276
9.9.2 Versioning 213
12.3.3 Remodeling Spatial Distributions as Dasymetric
9.10 Conclusion 214 Maps 278
Questions for Further Study 216 12.4 Participation, Interaction, Augmentation, and
Further Reading 216 Dynamic Representation 280

Contents vii
 12.4.1 Public Participation and Participatory GI Systems 14.6 Conclusion 337
(PPGIS) 280 Questions for Further Study 338
12.4.2 User Interaction and Representation in 2.5-D Further Reading 338
and 3-D 282
12.4.3 Handheld Computing and Augmented
Reality 284 15 Spatial Modeling with GI Systems 339
12.4.4 Visualizing Geotemporal Dynamics 285 15.1 Introduction 339
12.5 Consolidation 288 15.1.1 Why Model? 341
Questions for Further Study 289 15.1.2 To Analyze or to Model? 342
Further Reading 289 15.2 Types of Models 343
15.2.1 Static Models and Indicators 343
13 Spatial Data Analysis 290 15.2.2 Individual and Aggregate Models 343
13.1 Introduction: What Is Spatial Analysis? 290 15.2.3 Cellular Models 347
13.1.1 Examples 292 15.2.4 Cartographic Modeling and Map Algebra 349
13.2 Analysis Based on Location 295 15.3 Technology for Modeling 351
13.2.1 Analysis of Attribute Tables 296 15.3.1 Operationalizing Models in GI Systems 351
13.2.2 Spatial Joins 299 15.3.2 Model Coupling 351
13.2.3 The Point-in-Polygon Operation 300 15.3.3 Cataloging and Sharing Models 352
13.2.4 Polygon Overlay 301 15.4 Multicriteria Methods 352
13.2.5 Raster Analysis 303 15.5 Accuracy and Validity: Testing the
13.3 Analysis Based on Distance 304 Model 354
13.3.1 Measuring Distance and Length 304 15.6 Conclusion 356
13.3.2 Buffering 306 Questions for Further Study 357
13.3.3 Cluster Detection 308 Further Reading 357
13.3.4 Dependence at a Distance 309
13.3.5 Density Estimation 310
13.3.6 Spatial Interpolation 313 4 Policy, Management,
13.4 Conclusion 317 and Action
Questions for Further Study 318
Further Reading 318 16 Managing GI Systems 358
16.1 Introduction 359
14 Spatial Analysis and Inference 319
16.2 Managing Risk 359
14.1 The Purpose of Area-Based Analyses 319 16.3 The Case for the GI System: ROI 360
14.1.1 Measurement of Area 319 16.4 The Process of Developing a Sustainable
14.1.2 Measurement of Shape 320 GI System 366
14.2 Centrality 321 16.4.1 Choosing a GI System: The Classical Acquisition
14.2.1 Centers 322 Model 368
14.2.2 Dispersion 324 16.4.2 Implementing a GI System 373
14.3 Analysis of Surfaces 324 16.4.3 Managing a Sustainable, Operational
14.3.1 Slope and Aspect 324 GI System 375
14.3.2 Modeling Travel on a Surface 326 16.5 Sustaining a GI System—The People and Their
Competences 378
14.3.3 Computing Watersheds and Channels 327
16.5.1 GI System Staff and the Teams Involved 378
14.3.4 Computing Visibility 328
16.5.2 Project Managers 379
14.4 Design 329
16.5.3 Coping with Uncertainty 379
14.4.1 Point Location 330
16.6 Conclusions 380
14.4.2 Routing Problems 332
Questions for Further Study 380
14.5 Hypothesis Testing 334
Further Reading 380
14.5.1 Hypothesis Tests on Geographic Data 335

viii Contents
17 Information and Decision 18.8 Conclusions 433
Making 381 Questions for Further Study 434
Further Reading 434
17.1 Why We Need Information 381
17.1.1 Trade-Offs, Uncertainty, and Risk 383
17.1.2 Organizational Drivers 383
19 Epilog: GISS in the Service
17.2 Information as Infrastructure 386
of Humanity 435
17.2.1 Information for Management 387 19.1 GISS, the Active Citizen, and Citizen Scientists 435
17.3 Different Forms of GI 391 19.1.1 Who Can Help? 436
17.3.1 GI about Individuals 394 19.1.2 Areas Where GISS Contributes 437
17.3.2 More Novel Forms of GI 402 19.2 Context: Our Differentiated World 437
17.3.3 The Changing World of GI 402 19.3 Context: Our Interdependent World 440
17.4 Open Data and Open Government 404 19.4 The Process 441
17.4.1 The Metadata Issue 405 19.4.1 Stage 1: Defining and Describing the Issue 442
17.5 Example of an Information Infrastructure: 19.4.2 Stage 2: Analyzing and Modeling Spatial
The Military 406 Interrelationships 442
17.5.1 Technological Change and the Military 406 19.4.3 Stage 3: Devising Possible Solutions 442
17.5.2 The Military Information Infrastructure 407 19.4.4 Communicating Results and Possible Solutions to
17.5.3 Civilian Spin-Offs 408 Decision Makers 443
17.6 Conclusions 409 19.4.5 Stage 5: Reflect, Learn, and Educate 443
Questions for Further Study 410 19.5 The Grand Challenges 443
Further Reading 410 19.6 Grand Challenges Whose Effects We Can Help to
Ameliorate 445
19.6.1 Population Growth 445
18 Navigating the Risks 411
19.6.2 Poverty and Hunger 446
18.1 Clashes Between Scientists and the 19.6.3 Human Health 448
Judiciary 412
19.6.4 Access to Food, Potable Water, and Boundary
18.2 Business Models for GI-Related Enterprises 412 Disputes 452
18.3 Legal and Regulatory Constraints 414 19.6.5 Coping with Natural Disasters 453
18.3.1 Geography and the Law 414 19.6.6 Coping with Terrorism, Crime, and Warfare 456
18.3.2 Three Aspects of the Law and GI 415 19.6.7 Environmental Sustainability 456
18.4 Privacy and GI Systems 421 19.7 Conclusions 459
18.4.1 Preserving Privacy without Losing the Use of Questions For Further Study 460
Personal Information 422
Further Reading 460
18.5 Public Trust, Ethics, and Coping with the Media 424
18.5.1 Public Trust 424
INDEX 461
18.5.2 Ethics 425
18.5.3 Coping with the Media 426
18.6 Partnerships, Up-Scaling Activities, and Supplementary Materials
Risk Mitigation 426
18.6.1 Spatial Data Infrastructures: The U.S.
Available Online
Experience 427
18.6.2 INSPIRE 429 SM SM Supplementary Materials
18.6.3 UN Initiative on Global Geospatial Information Supplementary Materials 1
Management 430 Powerpoint Slides
18.6.4 Have SDIs Worked? 430 Instructor Manual
18.7 Coping with Spatial Stupidity 432

Contents ix
 FOREWORD
Joe Lobley here, again.
This is the fourth time the “Gang of Four” authors have me on the fast track from the start, and they accepted
asked me to write an introduction to their textbook. I my successful patent filing for the Lobley Precisional
was flattered, so again said yes. Now I know why they Adjustment to differential GPS instead of a dissertation.
keep on doing this: I heard from a Wiley insider that The only problem was the huge fee I had to pay an
market research shows that my stuff is the most read agent to get certified as having passed everything. There
section of the book! And who can resist having his have been so many big legal cases of late between
great thoughts read by 80,000 purchasers (so far) of Apple, Samsung, Google, and the rest over infringement
the book? But next time I’ll charge the Gang. of patents that I must be able to make it big in the “law
Looking at publisher’s blurb for the fourth edition, the and GIS” domain. If I had done it a bit earlier I could
first thing my eagle eyes picked up was the “science have sued one of the street data providers on behalf
and systems” goof right there on the front cover— of users of their error-prone mapping. All I would have
rather than the other way round used previously. I know needed is for the families of a few people drowned after
you won’t pulp the print run just because of this, but driving into a river by following these maps to ask me to
y’know the new title might just be a blessing in dis- act for them. OK, timing is everything.
guise. If you Google “GIS,” I’ve noticed that references I can only see one problem with GIS and law. It
to my general infantrymen colleagues keep popping comes, as you might guess, from government. In the
up on the list, so perhaps the term doesn’t denote United States, government—apart from the military—
the sunrise industry it once was. Today’s bright young mostly and until recently hasn’t seen data as an asset
wannabes (and old tight-fisted cheapskates like me) are to be treasured, protected, and exploited (I could help
more likely to patch together free and open software them). Worse, this plague is spreading. Can you believe
than toe the corporate software line. At the end of that 60 or so national governments—including some
the day, I buy the line the Gang have spun since I first serious ones (but not yet China or India, and Russia
started helping them write, namely that science is more changed its mind)—have signed up to something
exciting than this month’s favorite software release. called the Open Government Partnership? The idea is
Which brings me to my news. Those who have fol- to flagellate themselves by making public commitments
lowed my “most read” contributions will know that life to reform government, foster innovation, and make
in the GI “system garden” has not always been smooth everything transparent. Making almost all government
for me. I’ve tried all sorts of roles, worked in many coun- data free seems to be the way that they will enable
tries as a consultant, started businesses, smooched with armchair auditors to keep watch on their government
governments, and got marooned on a desert island for and politicians. This madness could be a serious barrier
my pains. Despite all my entrepreneurial activities, I’m to my wealth creation if everything everywhere is free.
still not rich. In fact, I’m broke. I’m living in a battered But hey, maybe I could become a super-auditor, identi-
caravan in an alcohol-free Islamic country. Because I fying fraud through use of GIS to bring data together. It
worked for the U.S. military for a time, where I am had would need to include lots of personal data, but privacy
better be secret ’til I raise enough cash to move on. is an outdated concept anyway. My ex-wife Lolita found
So I’ve been rethinking what’s gone wrong, that out when I tracked her philandering throughout
despite my unrivalled experience and scientific skills. Lincolnshire some years ago.
Partly it’s the structure of our industry. I’ve noticed that All this, of course, is about Big Data—another
almost all the job adverts are for relatively lowly paid fashion. We GIS folk have been doing it for years
technical roles, and there are not many highly paid but no one has listened to us. As is normal with new
employees that are data bashers. I want to be one of fashions, big consultancies have proclaimed they are
the top guys, not a technician—I’m too old to keep up experts in it and can change the world. I could try giv-
with techie college graduates when the GIS world is ing them the benefit of my experience. But my best
changing so rapidly. If putting science before systems hope is to work for the U.S. National Security Agency
presents new market opportunities, count me in, guys. or another country’s version of it. Those guys—as
But at the end of the day, science just isn’t where Snowden pointed out—are focused, with clear aims,
the real action is. When Calvin Coolidge was President, limited accountability, and lots of money. My kind of
he said that “the business of America is business.” So folk in fact. The bad guys have to live somewhere so
I’ve retrained: I’ve used my GIS to acquire a three-month the good guys need GIS. . . .
Masters in intellectual property law from a respected
online learning provider—my life-experience credits put Joe Lobley

x Foreword
 DEDICATION
W e dedicate this fourth edition to Roger Tomlinson (1933–2014). Often
called the “Father of GIS,” Roger devoted most of his adult life to promot-
ing the systems, technology, and science of geographic information (GI), as an
integral part of the discipline of geography. In the 1960s he was the prime insti-
gator behind the Canada Geographic Information System, a federal–provincial
project to automate the measurement of Canada’s land resource. In the 1970s
he argued forcefully for a single, integrated technology for handling geographic
information, completed a PhD at University College London, organized ground-
breaking conferences through the aegis of the International Geographical Union,
and founded a consulting practice to advise government agencies on the adop-
tion of GI systems. His approach is ably detailed in his book, Thinking about GIS:
Geographic Information System Planning for Managers (Esri Press), which is now
in its fifth edition, and in the executive seminars he has led at the Esri International
User Conference for many years.
Roger was an unflagging promoter of GI systems, which he saw as an essen-
tial part of humanity’s interaction with its environment and the key to the solution
of many of humanity’s problems. He will be remembered for the force of his
personality, his wit and charm, and his passionate support of the field, which he
did more than perhaps anyone else to establish and support.

Dedication xi
 PREFACE
I t is an old but true adage that everything that hap-
pens, happens somewhere. Throughout the history
of humankind, geography has played a central role in
science. Here we deal with principles, many of which
have endured in changing guises ever since the first
edition of this book appeared in 2001. Where they
many types of decision-making, some of which have exist, we deal with laws akin to those in the physical
life or death, or at least major strategic, impacts. In sciences, but also address the statistical generaliza-
the past 50 years decision-making has benefited tions of the social and environmental sciences. The
enormously, and in very many ways, from access to third driving force of our Gang of Four is geographic
geographic information (GI), the science that under- information itself: we need to know its many charac-
pins it, and the systems technology that enables it. teristics, including quality, if we are to accommodate
The previous edition of this textbook was pub- the inevitable uncertainty that arises when we admix
lished in 2011. Since then our world has changed, different data using a variety of algorithms.
in some respects dramatically. Many of our interac-
tions with information now occur through mobile
devices rather than desktops, laptops, or paper.
The New Vision
Location- (i.e., geographic-) based services have Reflecting this emerging GI ecosystem, we have
been estimated to be worth between $150bn and made a subtle change of title in this, the fourth edi-
$270bn annually. Open Data, Open Software, and tion. The internal structure and content of the book
Open Science have been developing rapidly. The reflects the change. After an introductory chapter,
emergence of Big Data—where our community has we develop a section on principles. This encom-
pioneered many developments—has been hailed passes the nature of geographic data and informa-
by some as obviating many past constraints (such as tion, representing geography, georeferencing, and
ensuring that samples are representative of a known uncertainty. We follow this with the “how”—a section
population). Virtually all data are now collected in on techniques, dealing with GI system software, data
digital form rather than on paper; it is claimed that modeling, data collection, creating and maintaining
more data are now collected every two years than in geographic databases, and the Geoweb. The fourth
the whole of previous human history. Crowdsourcing section on analysis covers cartography, geovisualiza-
has produced many new datasets and changes in the tion, spatial data analysis, inferential spatial analysis,
way we tackle some tasks—such as scanning satel- and spatial modeling. The fifth section covers human
lite images of a huge area of the South Indian Ocean factors in relation to what we now term geographic
for wreckage from Malaysian Airlines MH370 flight, a information science and systems (GISS). It deals with
project organized by DigitalGlobe using imagery from information and decision-making, and with navigat-
its Worldview-2 system. Many governments are at ing the legal, ethical, and many other risks that GISS
last disgorging the information they hold for general practitioners face. The concluding chapter—the
use. And social media data are providing the fuel for Epilog—looks ahead. But it does this not by seeking
real-time analysis of the geotemporal activity patterns to assess technological change, important as that is.
of hundreds of millions of citizens. Given all that, this Rather, it seeks to identify where we can use our GISS
edition attempts to identify, explain, and evaluate the understanding, knowledge, skills, and tools to tackle
key changes and portray a snapshot of the contempo- major problems.
rary world of geographic information, GI science, and Throughout the book we emphasize the com-
GI systems. monalities and the differences between groups of
In times past we wrote about geographic infor- GI system users. Thus those in business, in govern-
mation systems, or GIS. The world has moved on. ments at a variety of levels, in academia, and in not-
Except where we are quoting from others, we no for-profit organizations have overlapping concerns
longer use the abbreviation GIS. GI systems continue but some different drivers. This extends to differences
to evolve rapidly in their functions, ease of use, and between national and subnational cultures (and even
number and spread of their users. They continue to between individuals), where our value systems and
provide the tools to describe and analyze the physical preferred modes of operating vary greatly. We have
or human environments, bringing together data and tried to give due credence to these similarities and
converting them into information and even evidence differences.
(see Section 1.2). But underpinning that use of daz- Throughout the book we use examples and
zling new technologies is a rapidly developing GI descriptions of luminaries whom we judge to have

xii Preface
made a substantial contribution. We have tried for the future. This book seeks to tell you why and
throughout the text to provide detail because “the convince you to join us.
devil is in the detail” while also trying to highlight
key points (such as through use of short tweet-like
“factoids” that appear in bold), further reading, and
Acknowledgments
a set of questions at the end of each chapter to test We take complete responsibility for all the material
how much the student has gained from it and whether contained herein. But we have drawn on contributions
the student can develop new ideas or practice. made by many others from across the world, which
have helped us create this edition. We especially thank
Online Supplementary Materials Muhammad Adnan, Stuart Ashfield, Brian Baker,
Lawrence Ball, Sir John Beddington, Ann Blake,
This fourth edition is available both in print and James Borrell, Peter Benton, Budhu Bhaduri, Paul
online. In addition to the full content of the print edi- Boyle, Alisdair Calder, Folke Carlsson, Tao Cheng,
tion, the online Web site includes significant supple- James Cheshire, Keith Clarke, Steve Coast, David
mentary material: Cowen, Max Craglia, Jack Dangermond, Keith
● A detailed discussion of four examples of GI Dugmore, Sarah Elwood, Ryan Flahive, Chris Gale,
system application, chosen to illustrate both the Vishal Gaudhar, Paul Hancock, David Hand, Stuart
breadth of applications of GI technology, and the Houghton, Liz Hughes, Indy Hurt, Pete Jones, Jens
importance of the scientific principles elaborated Kandt, Milan Konecny, Kira Kowalska, Guy Lansley,
throughout the book. Vanessa Lawrence, Alistair Leak, Dan Lewis, Antonio
● Powerpoint slides for each of the chapters of Lima, Yu Liu, Ross Maciejewski, Sara McLafferty, Mirco
the book, designed to be used as the basis for a Musolesi, Tomoki Nakaya, Ollie O’Brien, Giles Pavey,
course of lectures on the book’s contents. Joyce Poh, Marian Provenzano, Denise Pumain,
● An Instructor’s Manual, giving pointers to the most Muttukrishnan “Raj” Rajarajan, Jonathan Rhind,
effective ways to use the book in courses. Doug Richardson, James Russiello, Matt Sims, Alex
Singleton, Karen Slaght, Carl Steinitz, Lynn Usery,
Ruth Wembridge, Roy Wood, Michael Worboys,
The Best of Times Bradley Williams, Qingling Wu, and Keiji Yano. We
In short, we are in the most exciting of times. Human sincerely apologize to anyone else whose contribution
ingenuity is transforming the way we can describe, we may have overlooked.
analyze, and communicate what is occurring on Many others have contributed to the content of
the face of the Earth (and beyond). We have good previous editions; we reiterate our thanks to them.
enough science, information, and tools to make a real
impact in improving societies, business performance, Paul Longley, University College London
and much else—at all levels from the very local to the Michael Goodchild, Emeritus Professor, University of
global. Central to all this is geographic variation and California, Santa Barbara
the awareness and skills to cope with it or even to David Maguire, University of Greenwich
reshape it. We authors are excited by what GISS prac- David Rhind, Emeritus Professor, City University
titioners have already achieved and by the prospects London

Preface xiii
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
AAG Association of American Geographers DDL Data Definition Language (SQL)
ABM agent-based model DEM digital elevation model
AEGIS Advanced Emergency Geographic DGPS Differential GPS
Information System DIG Decentralized Information Group (MIT)
AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process DIME dual independent map encoding
AJAX Asynchronous Javascript and XML DLG digital line graph
ALSM airborne laser swath mapping DLM digital landscape model
AM/FM automated mapping/facilities management DMI distance measuring instrument
AOL America On-Line DML Data Manipulation Language (SQL)
API application programming interface DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
AR augmented reality DoD Department of Defense (US)
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency dpi dots per inch
Network DRASTIC model named for its inputs: depth,
ASCII American Standard Code for Information recharge, aquifer, soils, topography,
Interchange impact, conductivity
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer DRG digital raster graphic
AVIRIS Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging DVD digital video disk
Spectrometer DWD National Meteorological Service (Germany)
BLOB binary large object EC European Commission
BS Bachelor of Science ECU Experimental Cartography Unit
CA cellular automaton EDA exploratory data analysis
CAD computer-assisted design EL.STAT Hellenic Statistical Agency (Greece)
CAMS Capacity Area Management System (Sears) EOS Earth Observing System
CARS Computer-Aided Routing System (Sears) EOSDIS Earth Observing System Data and
CAS Chinese Academy of Sciences Information System
CASE computer-aided software engineering EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)
CCTV closed-circuit television EPSG European Petroleum Study Group
CD compact disk ERDAS Earth Resource Data Analysis System
CDR carbon dioxide removal ESDA exploratory spatial data analysis
CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation Esri Environmental Systems Research Institute
CERCO Comité Européen de Responsibles de la Esri BIS Esri Business Information Solutions
Cartographie Officielle EU European Union
CERN European Organization for Nuclear ExCiteS Extreme Citizen Science (University College
Research London)
CGIS Canada Geographic Information System FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency (US)
CGS Czech Geological Survey FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee (US)
CIA Central Intelligence Agency (US) FOIA freedom of information act
CODATA Committee on Data for Science and FOSS4G Free and Open-Source Software for
Technology (International Council for Geospatial
Science) FSA Forward Sortation Area
COGO coordinate geometry GA genetic algorithm
COM component object model GAO Government Accountability Office (US)
COTS commercial off-the-shelf GDP gross domestic product
CPI consumer price index GDT Geographic Data Technology Inc.
CPU central processing unit GEOINT geospatial intelligence
CSAIL Laboratory for Computer Science and Artificial GFIS Geographic Facilities Information System (IBM)
Intelligence (MIT) GGIM (Initiative on) Global Geospatial Information
CSDGM Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Management (UN)
Metadata GI geographic information
CSV comma-separated values GIF Graphics Interchange Format
DBA database administrator GIS geographic information system
DBMS database management system GISS geographic information science and systems
DCL Data Control Language (SQL) GIST Geographic Information Science and
DCM digital cartographic model Technology group (ORNL)

xiv Acronyms and Abbreviations

GIS-T geographic information systems for MBR minimum bounding rectangle
transportation MCDM multi-criteria decision making
GITA Geospatial Information and Technology MDGs Millennium Development Goals
Association MER minimum enclosing rectangle
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite MGCP Multinational Geospatial Co-Production
System Program
GML Geography Markup Language MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
GPS Global Positioning System MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
GRASS Geographic Resources Analysis Support MOCT Ministry of Construction and Transportation
System (South Korea)
GSDI global spatial data infrastructure MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging
GSN Global Spatial Network Spectroradiometer
GUI graphical user interface MOOC massive open online course
GWR geographically weighted regression MP3 MPEG Audio Layer III
HIV-AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus - Acquired MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
Immune Deficiency Syndrome MrSID Multiresolution Seamless Image Database
HLS hue, lightness, saturation MSC Mapping Science Committee (US National
HTML Hypertext Markup Language Research Council)
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol NAD27 North American Datum of 1927
HUMINT human intelligence NAD83 North American Datum of 1983
IARPA Intelligence Advanced Research Projects NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Activity NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
IBRU International Boundaries Research Unit NCGIA National Center for Geographic Information
ICSU International Council for Science and Analysis (US)
ICT information and communication technology NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (US)
ID identifier NGO non-governmental organization
IDE integrated developer environment NII national information infrastructure
IDW inverse-distance weighting NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency (US)
IGN Institut Géographique National NIMBY not in my backyard
IJDE International Journal of Digital Earth NLS National Land Survey
IM Instant Messenger NMCA national mapping and charting agency
INPE Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (Brazil) NMO national mapping organization
INSPIRE Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the NMP National Mapping Program
European Community (Europe) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric
IP Internet Protocol Administration (US)
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change NPWS National Parks and Wildlife Service (Australia)
IPR intellectual property rights NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure (US)
ISDE International Society for Digital Earth NSF National Science Foundation (US)
ISO International Organization for Standardization OAC Output Area Classification (UK Office of
IT information technology National Statistics)
ITS intelligent transportation systems OAS Organization of American States
ITT invitation to tender OCR optical character recognition
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group OD Open Data
JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory ODBMS object database management system
KML Keyhole Markup Language OGC Open Geospatial Consortium
LAN local-area network OGL Open Government License (UK)
LBS location-based service OGP Open Government Partnership
LDO Local Delivery Office OLM object-level metadata
LiDAR light detection and ranging OLS ordinary least-squares
LIESMARS State Key Laboratory for Information OMB Office of Management and Budget (US)
Engineering in Surveying, Mapping, and ORDBMS object-relational database management
Remote Sensing (China) system
LMIS Land Management Information System (South ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Korea) OS Ordnance Survey (Great Britain, or Northern
MAT (point of) minimum aggregate travel Ireland)
MAUP Modifiable Areal Unit Problem OSINT open-source intelligence

Acronyms and Abbreviations xv

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OSM Open Street Map SWMM Storm Water Management Model
PAIGH PanAmerican Institute of Geography and SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats
History TB terabyte
PAF Postal Address File TIFF Tagged Image File Format
PARC Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox) TIGER Topologically Integrated Geographic
PB petabyte Encoding and Referencing
PC personal computer TIN triangulated irregular network
PCC percent correctly classified TOID topographic identifier
PCRaster Personal Computer Raster (GIS) TSP traveling-salesperson problem
PDA personal digital assistant TV television
PDF Portable Document Format UAM Metropolitan Autonomous University (Mexico)
PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique UAV unmanned aerial vehicle
PGIS participatory geographic information systems UCAS University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
PLSS Public Land Survey System UCGIS University Consortium for Geographic
PPGIS public-participation geographic information Information Science (US)
systems UK United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern
PROTECT Port Resilience for Operational/Tactical Ireland)
Enforcement to Combat Terrorism (US UML Unified Modeling Language
Coast Guard) UN United Nations
PSI public-sector information UNAM National Autonomous University of Mexico
QA quality assurance UNIGIS University GIS Consortium
QR quick response (code) URI uniform resource identifier
RADI Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth URL uniform resource locator
(Chinese Academy of Sciences) US United States (of America)
R&D research and development USA United States of America
RDBMS relational database management system USGS United States Geological Survey
RDFa Resource Description Framework in Attributes USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation
REST Representation State Transfer Protocol UTM Universal Transverse Mercator projection
RFI request for information VACCINE Visual Analytics for Command, Control,
RFID radio frequency identification and Interoperability Environments (Purdue
RFP request for proposals University)
RGB red, green, blue VBA Visual Basic for Applications
RGS Royal Geographical Society (UK) VfM value for money
RMSE root mean squared error VGA video graphics array
ROI return on investment VGI volunteered geographic information
RS remote sensing VR virtual reality
RSS Rich Site Summary or Really Simple Syndication W3C World Wide Web Consortium
SDE Spatial Database Engine WAN wide-area network
SDI spatial data infrastructure WCS Web Coverage Service
SDSS spatial decision support system WFS Web Feature Service
SDTS Spatial Data Transfer Standard WGS84 World Geodetic System of 1984
SETI search for extra-terrestrial intelligence WHO World Health Organization
SIGINT signals intelligence WIMP windows, icons, menus, pointers
SOA service-oriented architecture WMS Web Map Service
SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol WTO World Trade Organization
SOHO small office/home office WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
SPC State Plane Coordinates WWW World Wide Web
SPOT Système Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre WYSIWYG what you see is what you get
SQL Structured (or Standard) Query Language XML Extensible Markup Language
SQL/MM Structured (or Standard) Query Language/ XSEDE Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery
Multimedia Environment
SRM solar radiation management

xvi Acronyms and Abbreviations

 Geographic Information:
1 Science, Systems, and
Society
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

T his chapter sets the conceptual framework

for and summarizes the content of the
book by addressing several major questions:
After studying this chapter you will:
● Know definitions of many of the terms used
throughout the book.
● What exactly is geographic information ● Be familiar with a brief history of GI science and
(GI), and why is it important? What is GI systems.
special about it? ● Recognize the sometimes invisible roles of GI
● What new technological developments are systems in everyday life, business, and government.
changing the world of GI? ● Understand the significance of GI science and
● How do GI systems affect the lives of how it relates to GI systems.
average citizens? ● Understand the many impacts that GI systems and
● What kinds of decisions make use of its underpinning science are having on society and
geographic information? the need to study those impacts.
● What is a geographic information system (GI
system), and how would you recognize one?
● What is geographic information science
(GI science), and why is it important to
GI systems?
● How do scientists and governments use
GI systems, and why do they find them
helpful?
● How do companies make money from
GI systems?

1.1 Introduction: What Are GI pursuits. Keeping track of all this activity is important,
and knowing where it occurs can be the most conve-
Science and Systems, and nient basis for tracking. Knowing where something
happens is of critical importance if we want to go
Why Do They Matter? there ourselves or send someone there, to find more
information about the same place, or to inform peo-
Almost everything that happens, happens somewhere. ple who live nearby. In addition, geography shapes
We humans confine our activities largely to the the range of options that we have to address things
surface and near-surface of the Earth. We travel over that happen, and once they are made, decisions have
it and through the lower levels of its atmosphere, and geographic consequences. For example, deciding the
we go through tunnels dug just below the surface. We route of a new high-speed railroad may be shaped by
dig ditches and bury pipelines and cables, construct topographic and environmental considerations, and
mines to get at mineral deposits, and drill wells the chosen route will create geographic winners
to access oil and gas. We reside on the Earth and and losers in terms of access. Therefore geographic
interact with others through work, leisure, and family

Chapter 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 1

location is an important component of activities, 1.1.1 The Importance of Location
policies, strategies, and plans.
Because location is so important, it is an issue in many
Almost everything that happens, happens of the problems society must solve. Some of these
somewhere. Knowing where something problems are so routine that we almost fail to notice
happens can be critically important. them—the daily question of which route to take to
and from work, for example. Others are quite extraor-
The focus of this book is on geographic informa-
dinary and require rapid, concerted, and coordinated
tion, that is, information that records where as well
responses by a wide range of individuals and
as what and perhaps also when. We use the abbre-
organizations—such as responding to the major
viation GI throughout the book. GI systems were
emergencies created by hurricanes or earthquakes
originally conceived as something separate from the
(see Box 1.1). Virtually all aspects of human life
world they represent—a special kind of information
involve location. Environmental and social scientists
system, often located on a user’s desk, dedicated
recognize the importance of recording location when
to performing special kinds of operations related
collecting data; major information companies such
to location. But today such information pervades
as Google recognize the importance of provid-
the Internet, can be accessed by our smartphones
ing mapping and driving directions and prioritizing
and other personal devices, and is fundamental to
searches based on the user’s location; and citizens are
the services provided by governments, corpora-
increasingly familiar with services that map the current
tions, and even individuals. Locations are routinely
positions of their friends. Here are some examples
attached to health records, to Twitter feeds and
of major decisions that have a strong geographic
photographs uploaded to Flickr, and to the move-
element and require GI:
ments of mobile phone users and vehicles. In a
sense, then, the whole digital world has become one ● Health-care managers decide where to locate new
vast, interconnected GI system. This book builds on clinics and hospitals.
what users of this system already know—that use ● Online shopping companies decide the routes and
of GI services is integral to many of our interactions
schedules of their vehicles, often on a daily basis.
through the Internet. Later chapters will describe,
for example, how storage and management of more ● Transportation authorities select routes for new
and more data entail use of the Cloud, how Big Data highways and anticipate their impacts.
and Open Data have become ubiquitous (but not ● Retailers assess the performance of their outlets
necessarily useful), and how Web-based GI systems and recommend how to expand or rationalize
have become a fact of life. store networks.
Underlying these changes are certain fundamen- ● Forestry companies determine how best to man-
tals, however, and these have a way of persisting age forests, where to cut trees, where to locate
despite advances in technology. We describe them roads, and where to plant new trees.
with the term GI science, which we define as the ● National park authorities schedule recreational
general knowledge and important discoveries that
path creation, maintenance, and improvement
have made GI systems possible. GI science provides
(Figure 1.1).
the structure for this book because as educators
we believe that knowledge of principles and ● Governments decide how to allocate funds for
fundamentals—knowledge that will still be valid building sea defenses.
many years from now—is more important than knowl- ● Travelers and tourists give and receive driving
edge of the technical details of today’s versions of GI directions, select hotels in unfamiliar cities, and
technology. We use the acronym GISS—geographic find their way around theme parks (Figure 1.2).
information science and systems—at various points ● Farmers employ new GI technology to make better
in this book to acknowledge the interdependence decisions about the amounts of fertilizer and pesti-
between the underpinning science and the technology cides to apply to different parts of their fields.
of problem solving.
At the outset, we also observe that GI science is If location and GI are important to the solution of so
also fundamentally concerned with solving applied many problems, what distinguishes those problems
problems in a world where business practices, or the from each other? Here are three bases for classify-
realpolitik of government decision making, are impor- ing problems. First, there is the question of scale, or
tant considerations. We also discuss the practices of level of geographic detail. The architectural design
science and social science that, although governed by of a building involves GI, but only at a very detailed
clearly defined scientific principles, are imperfectly cou- or local scale. The information needed to service
pled in some fast-developing areas of citizen science. the building is also local—the size and shape of the

2 Introduction
 Figure 1.2 Navigating tourist destinations is a geographic problem.

often argued that there is no longer any effective

distinction between their methods. Many of the tools
and methods used by a retail analyst seeking a site for
a new store are essentially the same as those used by
a scientist in a government agency to ensure the pro-
tection of an endangered species, or a transport plan-
ner trying to ameliorate peak-hour traffic congestion
Figure 1.1 Maintaining and improving footpaths in national parks is in a city. Each requires the most accurate measure-
a geographic problem. ment devices, employs terms whose meanings have
been widely shared and agreed on, produces results
that are replicable by others, and in general follows
parcel, the vertical and subterranean extent of the all the principles of science that have evolved over
building, the slope of the land, and its accessibility the past centuries. The knowledge-exchange activi-
using normal and emergency infrastructure. At the ties carried out between research organizations and
other end of the scale range, the global diffusion of the government and business sectors can be used to
epidemics and the propagation of tsunamis across apply many of the results of curiosity-driven science
the Pacific Ocean (Box 1.1) are phenomena at a much to the practical world of problem solving.
broader and coarser scale. The use of GI systems in support of science, rou-
tine application, and knowledge exchange reinforces
Scale or level of geographic detail is an
the idea that science and practical problem solving
essential property of any project.
are no longer distinct in their methods, as we will
Second, problems can be distinguished on the basis of discuss later. As a consequence, GI systems are used
intent, or purpose. Some problems are strictly practi- widely in all kinds of organizations, from academic
cal in nature—they must often be solved as quickly as institutions to government agencies, not-for-profit
possible and at minimum cost to achieve such practical organizations, and corporations. The use of similar
objectives as saving lives in an emergency, tools and methods across so much of science and
avoiding fines by regulators, or responding to civil problem solving is part of a shift from the pursuit of
disorder. Others are better characterized as driven by curiosity within traditional academic disciplines to
human curiosity. When GI is used to verify the theory solution-centered, interdisciplinary teamwork.
of continental drift, to map distributions of glacial Nevertheless, in this book we distinguish between
deposits, or to analyze the historic movements of uses of GI systems that focus on applications such
people in anthropological or biosocial research (see as inventory or resource management, or so-called
Box 1.2 and Figure 1.5), there is no sense of an normative uses, and uses that advance science, or
immediate problem that needs to be solved. Rather, the so-called positive uses (a rather confusing meaning
intent is to advance human understanding of the world, of that term, unfortunately, but the one commonly
which we often recognize as the intent of science. used by philosophers of science—its use implies that
Although science and practical problem solving science confirms theories by finding positive evidence
can be thought of as distinct human activities, it is in support of them and rejects theories when negative

Chapter 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 3

 Applications Box 1.1

The 2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunami

At 14.46 local time (05.56 GMT) on March 11, 2011, 380,000 buildings. It also caused extensive and severe
an undersea earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter structural damage in northeastern Japan (Figure 1.3B),
scale occurred approximately 43 miles (70 kilometers) including heavy damage to roads and railways, as well as
east of the Japanese coast of Tōhoku. This was the most fires in many areas and a dam collapse. In its immediate
powerful earthquake ever to have been scientifically aftermath, 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan
documented in Japan, and the fifth most powerful were left without electricity and 1.5 million without
earthquake in the world since modern record-keeping water. In the following days, the tsunami set in action
began in c. 1900. The earthquake moved Honshu (the events that led to cooling system failures, explosions,
main island of Japan) 2.4 m (8 ft) east and shifted the and major meltdowns at three reactors of the Fukushima
Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and the associated evacua-
and 25 cm (10 in). Of more immediate significance, the tion of hundreds of thousands of residents. The World
earthquake caused severe earth tremors on the main Bank estimated the economic cost at US$235 billion,
islands of Japan and triggered powerful tsunami waves making it the costliest natural disaster in world history.
that reached heights of up to 40.5 meters (133 ft) in
All of this happened to a very advanced economy in
Tōhoku Prefecture and traveled up to 10 km (6 mi)
an earthquake-prone region, which was almost certainly
inland in Sendai.
the best prepared in the world for a natural disaster
Directly or indirectly, the earthquake led to at least of this kind. GI systems had been used to assemble
15,883 deaths and the partial or total collapse of over information on a full range of spatially distributed
(A)
Source: NOAA

(B)
(C)
Radiation (μ Sv/h)
Source: PASCO Corporation and courtesy of Keiji
Source: Soma City and courtesy of Keiji Yano

Yano

Figure 1.3 (A) The passage of the tsunami arising out of the Great East Japan (Tōhoku) earthquake of March 11, 2011. It had subsequent
effects on Soma City in terms of (B) radiation (measured in mSv/h (micro Sievert per hour) and (C) tsunami inundation.
▲

4 Introduction
 ▲

phenomena—including the human population, the built reports of how localities have been affected, and orga-
environment, and transportation infrastructure—in nizing evacuation), the medium term (e.g., managing
preparation for a major earthquake disaster and protec- the disruption to industrial supply chains), and the
tion against many of its foreseeable consequences. long term (e.g., prioritizing repair and replacement of
damaged transport infrastructure). All these actions
Yet the science of predicting the location, timing,
take place in an organizational context. Early warn-
and intensity of earthquakes has made little progress
ing systems are very much an international effort. In
over the past century. A magnitude-9.0 earthquake is a
terms of addressing effects after the event, the Tōhoku
very rare event and so did not fall within any disaster-
earthquake raised issues that were best addressed at
management scenario prior to the event. For example,
the national level, whereas much of the implementation
the Fukushima reactors had been built to withstand a
was best effected at local levels.
magnitude-8.6 earthquake on the basis of historic occur-
rences plus a safety margin: but not an event of magni-
The three Ps of disaster management are
tude 9.0. However, even when major events are unfore-
prevention, preparedness, and protection.
seen, GI science and systems are integral to response and
GI science and systems are integral to each
recovery in the short term (e.g., alerting populations to
of them.
the imminent arrival of a tsunami, coordinating citizen

evidence is found). Finding new locations for retailers, terms from the dynastic (perhaps thousands of years;
with its focus on design, is an example of a normative see Box 1.2) to the diurnal, but very much longer
application of GI systems. But to predict how consum- with respect to understanding geological or geomor-
ers will respond to new locations, it is necessary for phological change. At one end of the human time
retailers to analyze and model the actual patterns of spectrum, some decisions are operational and are
behavior they exhibit. Therefore, the models they use required for the smooth day-to-day functioning of an
will be grounded in observations of messy reality that organization, such as how to control electricity inputs
have been tested in a positive manner. into grids that experience daily surges and troughs in
Design is concerned with improving the world— usage. At slightly longer timescales, tactical decisions
with decisions that when implemented achieve certain might include where to cut trees in next year’s forest
desired objectives, such as constructing new housing harvesting plan. Still other decisions are more infre-
subdivisions, developing conservation plans, or defin- quent and strategic in nature, such as those required
ing sales territories. In recent years the term geodesign to give an organization long-term direction, as when
has become a popular way of referring to design deci- a retailer decides to expand or rationalize its store
sions at geographic scales, supported by GI systems. network (Figure 1.4). At the far end of the human time
All of us would like to design improvements to the spectrum, Box 1.2 describes how the geographic
world, and GI systems are valuable tools for doing so.
Although most work with GI systems is considerably
Figure 1.4 Many store location principles are generic across different
more mundane, it is always good to bear its grander
retail markets, as with Tesco’s investment in Ostrava, Czech Republic.
potential in mind. As we show in Section 14.4,
geodesign combines two important functions of GI
systems—the ability to capture new ideas through
sketching (creating/editing new features) and the
ability to evaluate them and assess their impacts. A
user might sketch a design for a new development,
for example, and ask the GI system to predict its
impacts on transportation, groundwater, and air
pollution.
With a single collection of tools, GI systems
are able to bridge the gap between curiosity-
driven science and practical problem solving
The third way in which problems can be distinguished
is on the basis of their time scale, ranging in human

Chapter 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 5

distributions of family names, past and present, can Applications are discussed to illustrate particular
be used to indicate how settled (or otherwise) is the principles, techniques, analytic methods, and man-
population of different places, and even the geogra- agement practices (such as risk minimization) as these
phy of the DNA of long-settled residents consequent arise throughout the book.
on population movements in early human history
(see Box 1.4).
Although humans like to classify time frames 1.1.2 Spatial Is Special
into hours, days, years, centuries, and epochs, the The adjective geographic refers to the Earth’s
real world is somewhat more complex than this, and surface and near surface, at scales from the
these distinctions may blur—what is theoretically and architectural to the global. This defines the subject
statistically a 1000-year flood in a river system influ- matter of this book, but other terms have simi-
ences strategic and tactical considerations, but may lar meaning. Spatial refers to any space, not only
arrive a year after the previous one! Other problems the space of the Earth’s surface; this term is used
that interest geophysicists, geologists, or evolution- frequently in the book, almost always with the same
ary biologists may occur on timescales that are much meaning as geographic. But many of the methods
longer than a human lifetime, but are still geographic used in GI systems are also applicable to other non-
in nature, such as predictions about the future physi- geographic spaces, including the surfaces of other
cal environment of Japan or about the animal popula- planets, the space of the cosmos, and the space
tions of Africa. GI databases are often transactional of the human body that is captured by medical
(see Section 9.9.1), meaning that they are constantly images. Techniques that are integral to GI systems
being updated as new information arrives, unlike have even been applied to the analysis of genome
paper maps, which stay the same once printed. sequences on DNA. So the discussion of analysis

Applications Box 1.2

Researching Family Histories and Geo-Genealogy

As individuals, many of us are interested in where, in residences of bearers of different surnames. (This is
general terms, we came from at different points in essentially a geography of rural Britain. Note that the
recorded human history—for example, whether we major urban areas have been excluded because they are
are of Irish, Spanish, or Italian descent. More specific characterized by mixes of names arising from urban–
locational information can provide clues about the work rural, interregional, and international migration over
and other lifestyle characteristics of our ancestors. Some the last 200 or so years).
of the best clues to our ancestry may come from our
All of this is most obviously evident for Great
surnames (family names) because many surnames
Britain and many of the countries of Europe, where
indicate geographic origins to greater or lesser degrees
populations have remained settled close to the loca-
of precision (such clues are less important in some
tions at which their names were first coined. But there
Eastern societies, where family histories are gener-
is also evidence to suggest that the spatial patterning
ally much better documented). Research at University
of names in former colonies, such as North America,
College London uses GI systems to analyze historic and
Australia, and New Zealand, is far from random.
present-day lists of names to investigate the changing
Figure 1.7 illustrates this for the surname Singleton,
local and regional geographies of surnames across the
which can be used to build evidence about the migra-
world. Figure 1.5 illustrates how the bearers of four
tion patterns of bearers of this name from their docu-
selected Anglo-Saxon names in Great Britain (the ances-
mented origins in northwest England.
tors of the authors of this book) have mostly stayed
put in those parts of the island where the names first Fundamentally, this is curiosity-driven research, driven
came into common parlance at some point between the by the desire among amateur genealogists to discover
12th and 14th centuries—although some have evidently their roots. But the same techniques can be used to repre-
migrated to urban centers. sent the nature and depth of affiliation that people feel
toward the places in which they live. Moreover, the work
It also turns out that the mix of names with similar
of Sir Walter Bodmer and colleagues (Box 1.4) is high-
geographic origins in any given area can provide a good
lighting probable links between surnames and genetics,
indication of regional identity. Figure 1.6, derived from
rendering this curiosity-driven research relevant to the
the PhD thesis of Jens Kandt, presents a regionaliza-
development of drug and lifestyle interventions.
tion of Great Britain on the basis of the present-day
▲

6 Introduction
▲

Courtesy: James Cheshire

Figure 1.5 The Great Britain Geography of the Longleys, Goodchilds, Maguires, and Rhinds. In each case the shorter (blue) line delineates the
smallest possible area within which 95% of name bearers reside, based on 1881 Census of Population figures, and the outer (red) line encloses
the smallest area that accommodates the same proportion of adult name bearers according to a recent address register.
▲

Chapter 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 7

▲

Figure 1.6 A regionalization based on the coinci-

dence of distinctive patterns of surnames, showing
the southern part of Great Britain. Major urban
areas do not fit into this regional pattern because
their residents are drawn from a wide range of
national and international origins.
Courtesy: Jens Kandt

Figure 1.7 The Singleton family

name derives from a place in north-
west England, and understandably
the greatest concentration of this
name today still occurs in this region.
But why should the name be dis-
proportionately concentrated in the
Courtesy: Alex Singleton

south and west of the United States?

Geographical analysis of the global
pattern of family names can help
us to hypothesize about the historic
migrations of families, communities,
and cultural groups.

8 Introduction
 Technical Box 1.3

Some Technical Reasons Why Geographic Information Is Special and Why GI Science
and Systems Have Developed
● It is multidimensional, because two coordinates must equivalent to a 1:1 million-scale map or a
be specified to define a location, whether they be x 1:24,000-scale one (see Section 3.7).
and y or latitude and longitude; and a third coordi-
● It may be represented in different ways inside a com-
nate is needed when elevation is important.
puter (see Chapter 3), and how this is done can strongly
● It is voluminous because a geographic database can influence the ease of analysis and the end results.
easily reach a terabyte in size (see Table 1.2).
● It must often be projected onto a flat surface, for
● It may be collected by citizens, governments, or other reasons identified in Section 4.8.
organizations, and it may prove useful to pool infor-
● It requires many special methods for its analysis (see
mation from these diverse sources.
Chapters 13 and 14).
● It may be represented at different levels of spatial
● It may be transformed to present different views of
resolution, for example, by using a representation
the world, for example, to aid interpretation.

in this book is of spatial analysis (see Chapters 13 become clear in later chapters and are briefly
and 14), not geographic analysis, to emphasize this summarized in Box 1.3.
versatility.
Another term that has been growing in usage
in recent years is geospatial—implying a subset
of spatial applied specifically to the Earth’s surface 1.2 Data, Information, Evidence,
and near surface. In this book we have tended Knowledge, and Wisdom
to avoid geospatial, preferring geographic, and
we use spatial where we need to emphasize Information systems help us to manage what we
generality. know, by making it easy to organize and store,
Although there are subtle distinctions access and retrieve, manipulate and synthesize, and
between the terms geographic(al), spatial, apply to the solution of problems. We use a vari-
and geospatial, for many practical purposes ety of terms to describe what we know, including
they can be used interchangeably. the five that head this section and that are shown
in Table 1.1. There are no universally agreed-on
People who encounter GI for the first time definitions of these terms. Nevertheless it is worth
are sometimes driven to ask why geography is so trying to come to grips with their various meanings
important; why, they ask, is spatial special? After because the differences between them can often be
all, there is plenty of information around about significant, and what follows draws on many sources
geriatrics, for example, and in principle one could and thus provides the basis for the use of these
create a geriatric information system. So why has GI terms throughout the book. Data clearly refers to
spawned an entire industry, if geriatric information the most mundane kind of information and wisdom
has not done so to anything like the same extent? to the most substantive. Data consist of numbers,
Why are there unlikely to be courses in universi- text, or symbols, which are in some sense neutral
ties specifically in geriatric information science and and almost context-free. Raw geographic facts, such
systems? Part of the answer should be clear already: as sensor measurements of temperature at a specific
almost all human activities and decisions involve a time and location, are examples of data. When data
location component, and the location component is are transmitted, they are treated as a stream of bits;
important. Another reason will become apparent in a crucial requirement is to preserve the integrity of
Chapter 2, where we will see that working with GI the data set. The internal meaning of the data is
involves complex and difficult choices that are also irrelevant in such considerations. Data (the noun is
largely unique. Other, more technical reasons will the plural of datum) are assembled together in a

Chapter 1 Geographic Information: Science, Systems, and Society 9

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 [27] Klytaimnestra oli kutsunut vanhukset kokoon, ilmoittaakseen
heille hauskan tiedon.

[28] joka siivetönnäkin lentää nopeasti. Ivalla sanottu

[29] Hefaistos: tulen jumala, Panu. Agamemnon oli luvannut

tulimerkeillä ilmoittaa Troian valloituksen kotia (kts. v. 8). Tuliviestin
lentoa vuorenhuipulta huipulle kerrotaan tässä nyt. Ida: vuori Troian
likellä.

[30] Athos vuori Chalkidiken niemellä.

[31] Makistos: pohjois-Euboiassa.

[32] Messapion: itäisessä Boiotiassa.

[33] Kithairon: etelä-Boiotiassa.

[34] Gorgopis: Megariin kaakkoisosassa.

[35] Aigiplankton: liki Isthmoa.

[36] Asiaa verrataan jumalain juhlissa tapahtuvaan

soihtujuoksuun, jolloin juostiin kilpaa palavat soihdut kilvissään ja se
voitti, ken ensin pääsi perille, soihtunsa sammumatta.

[37] Kirpelähkö vastaus kysymykseen edellä säkeessä "Mut onko

tuosta todistus sull' erheetön?"

[38] Kilparata eli "diaulos", kaksoisrata: oli juostava rata

edestakasin. Retki Troiaan oli radan ensi puoli, paluu sieltä sen
jälkipuoli.
 [39] Klytaimnestra erottaa keskenään vainajain kostohenkien
tuottamat rankaisut ja "muun turmion", s.o. merimyrskyt ja muut
vastukset paluuretkellä.

[40] Kuoro luulee tässä toivotettavan sotajoukolle onnellista

kotiintuloa, vaan Klytaimnestra ajattelee aivan toista. Salajuonen
onnistuminen olisi hänen "nautintonsa."

[41] Hän: Paris.

[42] Kuoro uskoo, Solonin mukaan, että rikkaudesta syntyy

kyllästys, ylpeys ja röyhkeys, joka loukkaa jumalia ja vie väkivallan
tekoihin, mistä koituu kosto ja kurjuus vielä röyhkeilijän
jälkeläisillekin.

[43] Tää: Helena. — Tietäjät: Helenos ja Kasandra.

[44] ruhtinas: Menelaos kaiketi. (Kohta näyttää olevan

lukuparsiltaan pilalla).

[45] Hellaan hätä ja sen ruhtinaita uhkaava turmio.

[46] Ares, sodanjumala, harjoittaa ruumiskauppaa, saaden eläviä

ruumiita ja antaen ne tuhkana takasin uurnoissa, joita hänellä on
lajiteltu varasto. Niissä ei ole kultahiekkaa. Vaakamaljoissaan
punnitsee hän elämää ja kuolemaa.

[47] ruhtinaan; vrt. [44].

[48] Viittaus Klytaimnestraan. —

[49] Python valtias: Apollon, joka suojeli troialaisia ja ampui

Achillevsinkin. Ruton nuolilla hän myös kaasi kreikkalaisia Troian
luona.

[50]. Hermes on jumalien airut.

[51] Vanhat sukusankarit, heerokset (Danaos, Pelops, Persevs,

Adrastos y.m.) seurasivat vielä vainajinakin — niin uskottiin —
hartaalla myötätunnolla ja avulla jälkeläistensä toimia.

[52] pyhät istuimet: kuningasten kunniasijat kansankeräjissä. =

Aamuaurinko heijasti juuri jumalankuvain (Apollon Agyievs'in y.m.)
kasvoilta.

[53] "Maksakaa valosta valoa!" — Isännän, valtiaan poissa ollessa

on ikäänkuin yö pimentäisi kotoa ja kansaa.

[54] s.o. Zevn salamalla.

[55] Metafora: tulomme voittaa menot; murhe ei vastaa puntarilla

ilon painoa.

[56] Airut mainitessaan templeihin annettavia lahjoja

("anathemata") ajattelee niille sopivaa omituskirjoitusta.

[57] Katselija saattoi tässä ajatella Manalan porttia.

[58] Pian hän oli näyttävä osaavansa tavallaan senkin keinon —

verellä värjätä vaskikalpaa!

[59] Kuoro ivailee, tajuten miten paljo tosiperää tuossa puheessa

on.

[60] Sodan kaksoisvitsaus (sota ja rutto?) lyö valtiota ja yksityistä.

[61] Nim. ukonsalama ja merenmyrsky — s.o. pohjoistuuli.

 [62] Laivat ovat sarvikarja, jota paha paimen, rajutuuli kaitsee.

[63] varasti: veden ja valkean vallasta.

[64] Onni: onnen hengetär.

[65] Ahdin: oikeastaan Meri-Hadeksen.

[66] Airut vääntelee ja kääntelee sanojansa, uskotellakseen

toivovansa että Menelaos vielä palajaa ja peitelläkseen pelkoansa.

[67] Näillä sanoilla on koetettu sepittää jotakin vastaavaa

alkuteoksen, suomentajalle miltei mahdottomalle sanapilalle Helenan
nimellä: Helenaus, Helandros, Helepiolis = "laivain-, miesten
kaupungin hävittäjä." Suomentaja ei uskaltanut sanoa: "heimonsa
helvetti." Nomen est omen.

[68] Kedos = huoli; häät. Sanapila.

[69] Paris ja Helena vastaanotettiin Troiassa ilolaululla, joka sitten

muuttui suruvirreksi.

[70] Vanhan on vaikea oppia!

[71] Priamoa ja Hekabea miellytti kaunis miniänsä.

[72] turmion: oik. "Aten". Hirviön tappamat ovat uhria Atelle.

[73] s.o. Helena.

[74] Silmien lempinuolet sattuivat miesten sydämmiin.

[75] Ken mielisi kuolla lapsetonna? Rikkauden lapsi on hekuma,

ylpeys, lankeemus.
 [76] Kuoro (= runoilija) ei hyväksy vanhaa luuloa, että jumalat
ovat katehet lahjoistaan. Pahuus vaan siittää turmion, hurskaus
onnen — ajattelee hän.

[77] ilkityö: "hybris", röyhkeyden rikos.

[78] vainotar: "Ate", hybriin sikiö. Sen kokivat trojalaiset, eivät

voineet välttää koston tuhoa.

[79] Dike: hybriin vastakohta.

[80] Helenan vuoksi: niin huonosta syystä.

[81] Ilion kohtalo ratkaistiin muka jumalien käräjissä.

[82] hiisi, vainovarsa: vihjaus kuuluisaan puuhevoseen.

[83] urhojoukko, leijona: originaalissa sanapila: kansa (leos)

muuttui äkkiä jalopeuraksi (leon). — Seulaistähden lasku = yöllä.

[84] Vastaus säkeesen edellä "kuka tointaan tarkoin täyttänyt on."

[85] = tyhjä peilikuva. Arvaamattansa Ag. kuvaa oman puolisonsa

luonnetta.

[86] Tekijä ilmaisee Athenan kansalaisen tasavaltaisia mielipiteitä.

[87] Klytaimnestran puhetta voi tässäkin ymmärtää kahtalaisesti:

voi ajatella hänen tarkoittavan joko Aigisthoa (kuten kuoro sen
käsitti), tai Agamemnonia (kuten hän itse tahtoi ymmärrettävän).

[88] Eräs 3-ruumiinen satuhirviö. Agamemnon olisi tarvinnut

monta kertaa kolme ruumista, kun hoettiin niin usein kuolleeksi.
 [89] Infernum letum. Klytaimnestra ilmaisee salaisimmat
aatoksensa.

[90] Kansa ei siedä ylimysten valtaa. Aischylon demokratiaa.

[91] Silmät oli rietas elämä himmentänyt.

[92] Hän ajattelee sydämessään Manan toivotonta "linnaa".

Vänkelät ja haeksitut sanat, samoin kuin edelliset ylenmääräiset
ylistelyt aavistuttavat takatarkoitusta.

[93] Agamemnon kaipaa puolisonsa korupuheissa, joita hän

leikillisesti moittii, enemmän vilpitöntä tunnetta.

[94] "Jumalat ovat kateet!"

[95] Ei asetappelu eikä sanakiista.

[96] turmelemaan: ei mattojen takia, mutta herättämällä

kateellisten jumalain mielipahaa.

[97] Talo on tyhjenemättömän rikas kuin meri — kerskaa hän.

[98] tään: kahdamielisesti sanottuna voi myös merkitä häntä

itseään.

[99] Kuorolaulu muuttuu ihan kuin itsestään ennusvirreksi.

[100] Auliin rannasta lähdettäissä.

[101] Ettei heitä liika paljon eikä liian vähän.

[102] Huonetta kuvataan metaforisesti laivaksi.

 [103] Ifigeneian uhraus on kuoron pelon aiheena. Se on
parantumaton vamma, seurauksiltaan tuhokas.

[104] Asklepios herätti kuolleita, kunnes Zevs iski hänet

nuolellaan. Luonnon ikijärjestys pysyy.

[105] Kuoro ei rohkene lausua pahoja aavistuksiaan.

[106] juhlahan: oik. kätten pesijäisiin, joka kävi juhla-atrian edellä.

[107] saaliinsuojan: Zevsin. Neito oli itse uhriksi aiottu.

[108] = Herakles.

[109] arkhaióploutoi ja neóploutoi.

[110] "Minä tunnen emäntäsi: ei hän ole niin lempeä kuin miltä
näyttää."

[111] Helleenien korvissa muukalaiskielet kuuluivat pääskyn (tai

papukaijan) pakinalta.

[112] otus: siis huimapäinen, äksy.

[113] Apollon on valon ja ilon jumala.

[114] Sanapilaa katkerassa mielessä. Oikeastaan: "Apollon, joka

turmelit mun" (apollon hemos).

[115] Orestes.

[116] Tää: Agamemnonin murha; toiset: Thyesteen kamala atria.

 [117] Hän on näkevinään, kuinka Klytaimnestra hommaa miestään
kylvettäin.

[118] tuonelan verkko ss.: Klytaimnestran salajuonten kudos

miehensä turmioksi.

[119] parvi: Erinnyt, kostonhenget.

[120] = mies ja vaimo orakelin kielessä.

[121] Orakeleista mieli vaan hämmentyy; vasta asian oma päätös

antaa selvän tiedon.

[122] sinä: kuoro.

[123] tuo: Agamemnon.

[124] Satakieli oli tarun mukaan alkuaan nainen, Filomela, joka

muutettiin linnuksi, kun hänen poikansa, Itys, kuoli surullisen
kuoleman; vielä lintunakin hän valittelee poikaansa, huutaen "Itys,
Itys!"

[125] Er. virta Troian luona.

[126] silloin: ennen Pariin ilkityötä.

[127] Manalan virtoja.

[128] Sille ei kelpaa juhlajuomaksi rypäleen mehu.

[129] Atrevsin rikos.

[130] Thyesteen rikos (kts. johd.).

 [131] Attikan oikeustojen edessä vannoi todistaja, ollakseen
pätöinen, erään "ennakkovalan".

[132] Loksias = Apollon.

[133] Kasandra on nyt saanut tahtonsa: kuoro uskoo häntä.

[134] leijonan: Aigisthos.

[135] Uusi ennuspuuska kipuineen.

[136] Sudensurmaaja: Apollo "Lykaios"; Lykos, susi. Sanapilaan

kts. seur. susi: Aigisthos.

[137] ilkuksein: kun niistä ei ole minulle apua.

[138] Troialaisilta, jotka eivät uskoneet häntä, vaan pilkkasivat

hulluksi.

[139] eli: mun ilmeisesti syyttömänä kärsivän.

[140] Orestes.

[141] harjakiven: ikäänkuin rikosten rakennukseen.

[142] "niin minäkin sulkeudun samaan tuomioon".

[143] pensasta: siellä piilevää vihollista, tämä: että kuolin

pelkäämättä.

[144] komeain: "sormin osotettavien".

[145] hänen: kuninkaamme.

 [146] Kuoro arvaa Kasandran puheista, että se on Klytaimnestran
ja Aigisthon tointa yksissä juonin. Aischylon vapaavaltainen mieli
ilmenee tässäkin.

[147] Klytaimnestra puhuu aluksi jotenkin tyynesti, mutta yltyy

vähitellen hurjan intoisaksi.

[148] Agamemnon voi nyt enää odottaa armoa vaan manalaisilta!

Ivaa.

[149] Murhaaja sovittaa itseensä kauniin vertauksen pirullisen

kauheasti.

[150] syöksit: Oresteen, surmasit: Agamemnonin.

[151] Dike Oikeuden jumalatar; Erinnyt kostottaret.

[152] Katkeralla vihalla kasailee Klytaimnestra nimityksiä

Kasandralle ajatellen: virukoot vielä kuolemassakin vieretyksin!

[153] Alkuteoksessa aukko, jonka alkuperäistä sisältöä helpompi

arvata kuin varmaan tietää.

[154] silloin: jo Atridein luo tultuaan oli Helena salasyynä ja

aiheena Agamemnonin tulevaan perikatoon.

[155] kiistanhenki: "Eris".

[156] tätä: omaa tuhotyötänsä hän tarkoittaa.

[157] hänen henkensä mukaisen, s. o. katalan, kuten kaarneen on

voitto ja voittokulu.
 [158] Klytaimnestra kaunistellen tekoaan, lykkää sitä "deemonin"
syyksi, jonka käsitettä hän väärentelee toiseksi kuin mitä kuoro
tarkoitti, vrt. seur. 8. säkeistön "sano mua…"

[159] Kuoron korkeampi käsitys "deemonista"; sillä ei saa

puolustaa konnantöitä.

[160] Ares: sodanjumala.

[161] Klytaimnestran sofistiikka panee kuoron ymmälle:

Klytaimnestra on (näennäisesti) oikeassa, kun kosti pahan pahalla,
harjoitti selvää oikeutta. Se vain tuntui niin oudolta, että rankaisu tuli
sieltäpäin, oman vaimon kädestä.

[162] pisaroiminen ennustaa suurempaa sademyrskyä.

Myrskypilven takaa välkkyy jo Oresteen miekka.

[163] epitofios lógos oli runoilijan ajan tapaa.

[164] Heidän osaa ottamattakin. Ajatus lienee täydennettävä: Eikä

Argoon kansalaiset tule olemaan saapuvilla.

[165] s.o. Tuonelan virralla.

[166] Kuoro myöntää että "jalo sankari" on hänkin tehnyt

"solvaisun", moitittavan työn. —

[167] Rikoksen sikiö on kosto. Klytaimnestra ajattelee tuoksi

sikiöksi tytärtänsä; katselija saattaa luulla sillä tarkoitettavan
Oresteen tulevaa kostoa. Hämäryys on tahallinen.

[168] "tosi lauselman": oik. orakelilauseen. Aavistamattansa hän

sillä sanalla vahvisti todeksi, että Orestes oli tuleva.
 [169] Pleistheneen suku = Atreyn suku.

[170] Aigisthos jättää mainitsematta, ettei Thyesteskään ollut

suinkaan viaton, hän kun oli vietellyt veljensä vaimon.

[171] Näyttääkseen jälestäpäin vieraalleen, mitä tää oli syönyt.

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