Functions Modeling Change:

A Preparation for Calculus

Section 8.2
Sinusoidal Functions &
Their Graphs
Figure 8.12 gives the graphs of the sine and cosine functions and
the horizontal axis has been labeled in both degrees and radians.
The graph of the Ferris wheel function f(t) in Figure 7.7 on page
274 is a shifted and stretched version of the graph of the sine
function in Figure 8.12.We often model periodic phenomena
(such
as the height of a point on the Ferris wheel) using transformations
of the sine and cosine functions called sinusoidal functions. Their
graphs resemble the graphs of sine and cosine, but may have
different periods, amplitudes, midlines, and y-intercepts. They can
be expressed in the form

We identify the roles of the constants A, B, h, and k in turn.

 Amplitude and Midline
First we consider the effect of the constants A and k.

From Section 7.3, we know the following:

The functions y = A sin t + k and y = A cos t + k have

amplitude |A| and the midline is the horizontal line y = k.
Example 1
State the midline and amplitude of the following sinusoidal
functions:
(a) y = 3 sin t + 5 (b)
Example 1
State the midline and amplitude of the following sinusoidal
functions:
(a) y = 3 sin t + 5 (b)

(a) Here, A = 3 and k = 5, so the amplitude is 3 and the midline

is y = 5. See Figure 8.13.
 Example 1
State the midline and amplitude of the following sinusoidal
functions:
(a) y = 3 sin t + 5 (b)

(b) Writing this as

we have A = −0.15 and k = 0.2.

Thus, the amplitude is |−0.15| =
0.15 and the midline is y = 0.2.
See Figure 8.14.
 Period

Next, we consider the effect of the constant B in the formulas

We usually have B > 0.

Example 2
Graph y = sin t and y = sin 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Describe any similarities and differences. What are their periods?
Example 2
Graph y = sin t and y = sin 2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Describe any similarities and differences. What are their periods?
The graphs are in Figure 8.15. The two functions have the same
amplitude and midline, but their periods are different. The period
of y = sin t is 2π, but the period of y = sin 2t is π. This is because
the factor of 2 causes a horizontal compression, squeezing the
graph twice as close to the y-axis.
If B > 0 the function y = sin(Bt) resembles the function y = sin t
except that it is stretched or compressed horizontally. The constant
B determines how many cycles the function completes on an
interval of length 2π.

For example, we see from Figure 8.15 that the function y = sin 2t
completes two cycles on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

More generally, for B > 0, the graph of y = sin(Bt) completes B

cycles on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, so each cycle has length 2π/B. The
period is thus 2π/B.

In general, for B of any sign, we have:

The functions y = sin(Bt) and y = cos(Bt) have period P = 2π/|B|.
The number of cycles in one unit of time is called the
frequency, and it’s denoted by the B in the equation
y = sin(Bt) and y = cos(Bt).
Example 3
Find possible formulas for the functions f and g shown in Figures
8.16 and 8.17.
The graph of f resembles the graph of y = sin t except that its
period is P = 4π. Using P = 2π/B gives
The function g resembles the function y = cos t except that its
period is P = 20. This gives
Example 4
Household electrical power in the US is provided in the form of
alternating current. Typically the voltage cycles smoothly
between +155.6 volts and −155.6 volts 60 times per second. Use
a cosine function to model the alternating voltage.
Example 4
Household electrical power in the US is provided in the form of
alternating current. Typically the voltage cycles smoothly
between +155.6 volts and −155.6 volts 60 times per second. Use
a cosine function to model the alternating voltage.
If V is the voltage at time t in seconds, then V begins at +155.6
volts, drops to −155.6 volts, and then climbs back to +155.6
volts, repeating this process 60 times per second.

We use a cosine with amplitude A = 155.6. Since the function

alternates 60 times in one second, the period is 1/60 of a second.
We know that P = 2π/B = 1/60, so B = 120π.

We have V = 155.6 cos(120πt).

 Horizontal Shift
Figure 8.18 shows the graphs of two trigonometric functions, f
and g, with period P = 12. The graph of f resembles a sine
function, so a possible formula for f is f(t) = sin Bt.

Since the period of f is 12, we have 12 = 2π/B, so B = 2π/12, so

f(t) = sin(πt/6).
The graph of g looks like the graph of f shifted to the right by 2
units. Thus a possible formula for g is

Notice that we can also write the formula for g(t) as

but π/3 is not the horizontal shift in the graph! To pick out the
horizontal shift from the formula, we must write the formula in
factored form, that is, as sin(B(t − h)).
The graphs of y = sin(B(t − h)) and y = cos(B(t − h))
are the graphs of y = sin Bt and y = cos Bt shifted
horizontally by h units.
Example 5
Describe in words the graph of the function g(t) = cos(3t − π/4).
Example 5
Describe in words the graph of the function g(t) = cos(3t − π/4).

Write the formula for g in the form cos(B(t − h)) by factoring 3

out from the expression 3t − π/4 to get g(t) = cos(3(t − π/12)).
The period of g is 2π/3 and its graph is the graph of f = cos 3t
shifted π/12 units to the right, as shown in Figure 8.19.
 Summary of Transformations
The parameters A, B, h, and k determine the graph of a
transformed sine or cosine function.
For the sinusoidal functions
y = Asin(B(t − h)) + k and y = Acos(B(t − h)) + k,

• |A| is the amplitude • h is the horizontal shift

• 2π/|B| is the period • y = k is the midline

• |B| is the frequency; that is, the number of cycles completed in

an interval of 2π.
Using the Transformed Sine and Cosine Functions

Sinusoidal functions are used to model oscillating quantities.

Starting with y = Asin(B(t − h)) + k and y = Acos(B(t − h)) + k, we
calculate values of the parameters A, B, h, k.
Example 6
A rabbit population in a national park rises and falls each year. It
is at its minimum of 5000 rabbits in January. By July, as the
weather warms up and food grows more abundant, the population
triples in size. By the following January, the population again
falls to 5000 rabbits, completing the annual cycle. Use a
trigonometric function to find a possible formula for R = f(t),
where R is the size of the rabbit population as a function of t, the
number of months since January.
Notice that January is month 0, so July is month 6. The five points
in Table 8.1 have been plotted in Figure 8.20 and a curve drawn
in. This curve has midline k = 10,000, amplitude |A| = 5000, and
period = 12 so B = 2π/12 = π/6. It resembles a cosine function
reflected across its midline.

Thus, a possible formula for this curve is

There are other possible formulas. For example, we could use a
sine function and write
Example 7
Use the sinusoidal function f(t) = Asin(B(t − h)) + k to represent
your height above ground at time t while riding the Ferris wheel
from section 7.1.
Example 7
Use the sinusoidal function f(t) = Asin(B(t − h)) + k to represent
your height above ground at time t while riding the Ferris wheel
from section 7.1.

The diameter of the Ferris wheel is 450 feet, so the midline is

k = 225 and the amplitude, A, is also 225. The period of the
Ferris wheel is 30 minutes, so
Figure 8.21 shows a sine graph shifted 7.5 minutes to the right
because we reach y = 225 (the 3 o’clock position) when t = 7.5.
Thus, the horizontal shift is h = 7.5, so
 Relationships Involving the Tangent Function
As we saw in Chapter 7, if P = (x, y) is the point on the unit
circle corresponding to the angle θ, we define

Thus, for cos θ ≠ 0, we have

 Relationship Between the Graphs of the Sine, Cosine,
and Tangent Functions
Figure 8.29 shows a graph of tan t = sin t/cos t.

Since a fraction is undefined where

its denominator is zero, tan t is
undefined where cos t = 0, which
happens at t = −3π/2,−π/2, π/2,
3π/2, . . ., where the graph of y =
cos t crosses the t-axis. The graph
of y = tan t has vertical asymptotes
at these points.
Notice the differences between the tangent and sinusoidal functions:
•The tangent function has a period of π, whereas the sine and cosine
both have periods of 2π.
•The tangent function has vertical asymptotes at odd multiples of π/2;
the sine and cosine have no asymptotes.
•Even though the tangent function is periodic, it does not have an
amplitude or midline because it does not have a maximum or minimum
value.
 Relationships Involving Reciprocals of the
Trigonometric Functions

The reciprocals of the trigonometric functions are given special

names. Where the denominators are not equal to zero, we define
Example 3
Use a graph of g(θ) = cos θ to explain the shape of the graph of
f(θ) = sec θ.
Figure 8.30 shows the graphs of cos
θ and sec θ. In the first quadrant cos
θ decreases from 1 to 0, so sec θ
increases from 1 toward +∞. The
values of cos θ are negative in the
second quadrant and decrease from
0 to −1, so the values of sec θ
increase from −∞ to −1. The graph
of y = cos θ is symmetric about the
vertical line θ = π, so the graph of
f(θ) = sec θ is symmetric about the
same line. Since sec θ is undefined
wherever cos θ = 0, the graph of
f(θ) = sec θ has vertical asymptotes
at θ = π/2 and θ = 3π/2.
The graphs of y = csc θ and y = cot θ are obtained in a similar
fashion from the graphs of y = sin θ and y = tan θ, respectively.
See Figure 8.31 and 8.32.