Unit 3: Forces and Energy

Unit 3.1: Density

Mass:
 The amount of matter contained in or constituting a physical body.
Volume:
 Amount of space that a substance/object occupies or is enclosed in the
container
Measuring the Volume of an Object with a Regular Shape:
 Formula: volume of a regular object =length ×breadth × height
Measuring the Volume of an Object with an Irregular Shape:
 To measure the volume of an irregular object, we use the displacement
method.
 Add some water to a measuring cylinder and measure its volume.
 Add the irregular object (sides or angles of the object are not equal) to the
measuring cylinder and measure the volume again.
 The difference between the second and first measurement is the volume of
that irregular shape.
 Density:
 Mass per unit volume of a substance.
 The measurement of the compactness of a substance or an object.
Formula for Density:
mass
density =
volume

Formula Triangle:

Comparing Densities:
material helium air wood water concret aluminum osmium
e
density in gm/cm³ 0.000 18 0.0012 0.35-0.95 1.0 2.4 2.7 22

Density of Water Conversion:

1
Grams to Kilograms: 1 g=0.001 kg∨ kg
1000

Cubic Centimeter to Cubic Meter:

1 cm=0.01 m⇒ 1 cm3=0.01 m3⇒ 1 cm ×1 cm× 1cm=0.01 m× 0.01m ×0.01 m

3 3 1 3
⇒ 1 cm =0.000001 m = m
100000
0.001 3 3
Final Density: kg /m =1000 kg /m
0.000001
Sample Numerical:
Question) The mass of an iron cube is 8g, and its volume is 2cm3. Calculate the
density of this iron cube.
Solution)
mass
Given , mass=8 g ; volume=2 cm ¿ find , Density=? Formula , density=
3
volume
8 3
=4 g /cm
2

Unit 3.2: Heat and Temperature

Temperature:
 A measure of the AVERAGE kinetic energy (motion) of the particles in an
object.
Thermal Energy:
 A measure of the TOTAL kinetic energy (motion) of all particles in an object
Thermal Energy Depends on 2 Things:
(i) The temperature of the object/substance.
(ii) The number of particles the object is made from.
Note: Often objects with more particles (bigger objects) have more thermal energy.
Heat:
 The flow of thermal energy from a warmer area to a cooler one.
Absolute 0 Temperature:
 - 273° - Particles stop moving at this temperature.
Thermal Equilibrium:
 The state at which 2 different objects or substances come to the same level of
thermal energy.

Difference Between Heat and Temperature:

 Aspect Heat Temperature

The energy transferred between A measure of how hot or cold

Definition objects due to a difference in something is, based on the average
their temperature. kinetic energy of particles.
Celsius ( ° C ¿
Measured In Joules ( J ) Fahrenheit ( ° F ¿
Kelvin ( K )
Energy in transit. Indicator of the thermal state of an
Nature object.
Depends on the mass, specific Independent of mass; only depends
Dependence heat, and temperature change on the average kinetic energy of the
of the object. particles.
Moves from hotter objects to a Doesn’t transfer; it is a property of
Transfer colder one. an object.
Causes a change in temperature, Determines the direction of heat
Effect state, or both. flow.
Stove → Hand Temperature of boiling water is 100
Example °C

Unit 3.3: Conservation of Energy

Energy:
 The ability to work is refered to as energu.
6 Types of Energy:
(i) Kinetic Energy
(ii) Potential Energy
(iii) Sound Energy
(iv) Electric Energy
(v) Thermal Energy
(vi) Nuclear Energy
Law of Conservation of Energy:
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred from
one form to another.
Note: The total energy output can never be greater than total energy input in any
type of system.

Unit 3.4: Moving From Hot to Cold

Dissipation:
  When energy moves from a hotter object to a colder one, it is often said to
dissipate because it spreads out and becomes less concentrated.

Unit 3.5: Ways of Transferring Energy

Sample Question:
Question) At a common temperature, a block of wood and a block of metal feel
equally cool or hot. What would that temperature be?
Answer) That temperature is room temperature i.e., 25° C to 33° C. Under these
conditions energy transfer is minimal .
Good or Bad Conductor:
Good Conductor Bad Conductor
1. Metal Utensils 1. Wooden Spoons
2. Copper Wires 2. Plastic Containers
3. Aluminium Foil 3. Rubber Bands
4. Coins 4. Styrofoam Cups
5. Fabric

Three Ways of Energy Transfer:

1. Conduction:
o Direct heat transfer through a material.
2. Convection:
o Heat transfer by fluid movement (liquids and gases).
3. Radiation:
o Heat transfer through electromagnetic movement waves without a
medium.
Conduction:
 Direct Contact Transfer – Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct
contact between particles in a solid, liquid, or gas. Faster-moving (hotter)
molecules collide with slower-moving (cooler) ones, transferring energy.
 Best in Solids – Metals are excellent conductors because their free electrons
rapidly transfer heat. Non-metals and gases are poor conductors due to fewer
free-moving particles.
 Example: Heating a Metal Spoon – If one end of a metal spoon is placed in
hot soup, heat travels through the spoon to the cooler end, making it warm.
Convection:
  Heat Transfer Through Fluid Movement – Convection occurs in liquids and
gases when warmer, less dense regions rise and cooler, denser regions sink,
creating a circular flow of heat.
 Forms Convection Currents – This continuous movement of warm and cool
fluid creates convection currents, which help distribute heat evenly.
 Example: Boiling Water – When water is heated in a pot, the bottom layer
warms up, rises, and cooler water moves down to replace it, creating a
circulating motion.
Radiation:
 Heat Transfer Through Electromagnetic Waves – Radiation transfers heat in
the form of infrared waves, without requiring a medium (it can occur in a
vacuum).
 Does Not Require Direct Contact – Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation allows heat to travel across empty space, such as the Sun heating the
Earth.
 Example: Feeling Heat from a Bonfire – Even without touching the fire, you
feel warmth because infrared radiation travels through the air and reaches
your skin.
Question on Convection:
Question) Explain Land and Sea Breeze using Convection.
Answer) Land and sea breezes occur due to convection currents caused by
temperature differences between land and water. During the day, land heats up
faster, making air rise and drawing cooler sea air inland (sea breeze). At night, land
cools faster, reversing the flow (land breeze).
Important Note About Radiation:
 Radiation can pass through a vacuum because it does not need particles.
 Radiation can also pass through transparent solids, liquids, and gasses.
 The colour and texture of an object affect its ability to emit or absorb thermal
energy.

Emitters and Absorbers of Radiation:

 Best Emitters and Absorbers Worst Emitters and Absorbers
 are dull  are shiny
 are black  are white or silver
 have a large surface area  have a small surface area
Note: They reflect radiation.

Unit 3.6: Cooling by Evaporation

Evaporation:
 Evaporation can be defined as the change in state from liquid to gas.

Factors Affecting Evaporation:

1. Surface Area
2. Wind
3. Time
4. Temperature