INDUSTRIAL PLANT DESIGN

Edsel G. Anyayahan, PME

VISION

1
 Laguna University shall be a socially responsive
educational institution of choice providing holistically
developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce academically
prepared and technically skilled individuals who are
socially and morally upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is committed to produce academically prepared
and technically skilled mechanical engineers who are
socially and morally upright citizens.

VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is envisioned to be the provincial college of
choice producing well-equipped mechanical engineers who
specializes on energy management.

2
 Table of Contents

Module 1:Fuels and Combustion

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. Classification of Fuels 1
Lesson 2. Hydrocarbons 4
Lesson 3. Properties of Diesel Engine 6
Lesson 4. Solid fuels 10
Lesson 5. Coal Analysis 15
Lesson 6. Combustion Chemistry 22
Lesson 7. Air-fuel Ratio in terms of the products of Combustion
(Volumetric Analysis) 27
Assignment 1 31
Summary 32
Reference 32

Module 2: Steam Generating Unit

Introduction 33
Learning Objectives 33
Lesson 1. Types of Boiler 34
Lesson 2. Boiler Ratings and Performance 35
Lesson 3. Steam Generator Heat Balance 37
Assignment 2 41
Summary 42
Reference 42

Module 3: Mechanical Dryers

Introduction 43
Learning Objectives 43
Lesson 1. Mechanical Dryer 44
Assignment 3 54
Summary 55
Reference 55

3
Course Code: ME 204

Course Description: This course is a study of mechanical engineering

theories, equipment and systems that are needed in the operation of an
industrial/manufacturing plant.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Practice leadership skills in decision-making during group discussion
and group activity
2. Modify and apply basic design concepts of industrial plants systems and
equipment
3. Differentiate and design the basic components of industrial equipment
in accordance with Codes and Standards
4. Build skills in selecting system components and equipment in industrial
plant design

Course Requirements:

Class Standing - 60%

Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Computation of Grades:

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Class Standing) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30%(Prelim Grade) + 70 %[60% Class Standing) + 40% (Midterm exam)] =
30%(Midterm Grade) + 70 %[60% (Class Standing) + 40% (Final exam)]
FINAL GRADE

4
 MODULE 1
FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Introduction

Fuel is any substance or combustible material that by rapid oxidation or burning produces

heat and light. An example of a fuel is coal or gasoline. A fuel is composed of chemical elements
which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion. Fossil fuels are fuels that originate

from the earth as a result of the slow decomposition and chemical conversion of organic material.

The basic forms of fossils are solid (coal), liquid (oil), and natural gas. Synthetic fuels or synfuels, the
new combustible-fuel-options, are liquid or gaseous fuels derived largely from coal, oil shale, and tar
sands (Francisco, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define what fuels is, and determine the different classification of Fuels;

2. Solve problems involving properties of Diesel Engine;

3. Review and learn the different Coal Analysis; and

4. Learn the Combustion Chemistry.

1
Lesson 1. Classification of Fuels

According to Francisco (2014) the different types of fuels are:

1. Solid Fuels
a. Natural solid fuels. Ex. Coal, wood, bagasse
b. Prepared or manmade. Ex. Charcoal, coke, briquette fuels

2. Liquid Fuels
a. Hydrocarbon (Cn Hm )
i. Gasoline – Octane, C8 H18
ii. Diesel – Hexadecadene, C16 H32
iii. Fuel oil – Dodecane, C12 H26
b. Alcohol (Cx Hy Oz )
i. Ethyl alcohol
ii. Methyl alcohol
c. Alcogas (70% alcohol and 30% ethanol)
d. Methanol (Liquid Coal)

3. Gaseous Fuels
a. Natural Gas Derivatives
i. Methane, CH4
ii. Propane, C3 H8
iii. Ethane, C2 H6
iv. Acetylene, C2 H2
b. Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)
c. Biogas (Animal waste gas)

Crude Oil

 Crude oil is the term used from the raw petroleum as it comes from the oil wells (Francisco,
2014).

Classification of Crude oil from Francisco (2014)

1. Paraffin Base
2. Napthenic Base

2
 3. Mixed Base

Products Resulting from the Refinement of Petroleum (Francisco, 2014):

1. Natural gas
 The gaseous hydrocarbons are usually associated with liquid petroleum, either
standing above the liquid in the earth or dissolved in it.

2. Gasoline
 Liquid petroleum fuel intended for use in spar-ignition engines. Specific gravity is 0.70
to 0.78
3. Kerosene
 The next fraction heavier than gasoline
 Intended for use in lamps, heaters, stoves, and similar appliances
 Excellent fuel for compression-ignition engines and for aircraft gas turbines
 Specific gravity is 0.78 to 0.85
4. Distillate
 Slightly heavier than kerosene
 Obtained from some Western United States crude by distillation at atmospheric
pressure
 Substantially the same uses as a kerosene

5. Diesel Fuel
 Petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene and lubricating oils
 It covers a wide range of specific gravity
 Composition is controlled to make them suitable for use in various types of CI engines.
6. Fuel oils
 Covers a wide range of specific gravity
 Distillation is similar to that of Diesel oils
 Its compositions do not require such accurate control as in Diesel oils for it is used in
continuous burners.
7. Lubricating oils
 Made up in part from heavy distillates of petroleum and in part from residual oil, that is,
oils remaining after distillation. Tar and asphalt are solid or semi-solid products that
remain undistilled.

3
Compositions of Petroleum Products from Francisco (2014)

 The common or main compositions of petroleum products are carbon and hydrogen
 Hydrocarbon is the combination of carbon and hydrogen
 The general formula is Cn Hm , where n = 1 to 26 and m = 2 to 54

Lesson 2. Hydrocarbons

According to Francisco (2014) hydrocarbons are:

 Hydrocarbons are further categorized into sub-families such as:

 Alkynes (Cn H2n−2 ) → Ex. Acetylene, C2 H2
 Alkenes (Cn H2n ) → Ex. Ethylene, C2 H4
 Alkanes (Cn H2n+2 ) → Ex. Octane, C8 H8
 Alkynes and alkenes are referred to as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
 Alkanes are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are also known as the paraffin
series and methane series.
 Alkenes are subdivided into the chain-structures olefin series and the ring-structured
naphthalene series.
 Aromatic hydrocarbons (𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛−6 ) constitute another subfamily. Ex. Benzene, 𝐶6 𝐻6 .

Types of Hydrocarbons from Francisco (2014)

1. Paraffin (Cn H2n+2 ) Ex. Heptane, C7 H16

2. Olefins (Cn H2n ) Ex. Octane, C8 H16

Cracking of Hydrocarbons from Francisco (2014)

 Cracking is the process of splitting hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules. It is used
to obtain lighter hydrocarbons (such as used in gasoline) from heavy hydrocarbons (say,
Crude oil)
o Ex. Alkane molecules crack into a smaller member of the alkane subfamily and a
member of the alkene subfamily.
 Cracking can proceed under the influence of high temperatures (thermal cracking) or
catalysts (catalytic cracking or “cat cracking”).
 Catalytic Cracking also produces gasoline with better antiknock properties than does
thermal cracking.

4
Gaseous Fuels

According to Francisco 2014 the different types of Gaseous Fuels are:

1. Natural Gas
 Obtained from oil wells
 It is called a casing-head gas
 Usually treated for gasoline recovery
 It is delivered into the pipeline system to be used as fuel
2. Coke-oven Gas
 Obtained as a by-product when making coke
 Its analysis depends into the pipeline system to be used as fuel
 Coke; typically used in blast furnaces, is produced by heating coal in the
absence of oxygen. The heavy hydrocarbons crack, leaving only a
carbonaceous residue containing ash and sulfur. Coke burns smokelessly.
Breeze is coke smaller than 5/8 inch (16 mm). it is not suitable for use in blast
furnaces, but steam boilers can be adapted to use it. Char is produced from coal
in 900 °F (500°C) carbonization process.

3. Blast-Furnace Gas
 A by-product of melting iron ore
4. Produces Gas
5. Sewage-Sludge Gas
 Obtained from sewage disposal plants

Four Main Methods in Making Gasoline from Francisco (2014)

1. Distillation or refining from crude oil

2. Cracking residue oil
3. Polymerization of gases produced by the cracking process, which produce a high-octane
gasoline that can be used either directly or blended with gasoline produced by other methods.
4. Extraction from natural gas by absorption and distillation and blending with some heavier
hydrocarbons.

5
Lesson 3. Properties of Diesel Engine

The Different Properties of Diesel Engine from Francisco (2014):

 Density – the mass per unit volume of the fuel, in kg/li, kg/m3 , or lb/Ft 3

𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽

The density of fuel is measure at 60 °F (15.6 °C)

Density at 15.6 °C = SG at 15.6 °C / 15.6 °C, kg/li

 Hydrometer- an instrument used for determination of SG (15.6 °C / 15.6 °C) in °API

(American Petroleum Institute) and °Baume.

𝟏𝟒𝟎
°𝐁𝐚𝐮𝐦𝐞 = 𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂
− 𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝐒𝐆 𝐚𝐭 ( )
𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂

𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟓
°𝐀𝐏𝐈 = 𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂
− 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟓
𝐒𝐆 𝐚𝐭 (𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂)
 Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion – a coefficient used in oil purchasing and storage, since
oil is bought by volume usually expressed in terms of 42-gallons barrels.

𝐕𝐭 = 𝐕𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒(𝐭 − 𝐭 𝐨 )] → 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭

Where, Vt = volume at a temperature t, Ft 3

t = temperature, °F
Vo = volume at a temperature t o , (usually 60 °F), Ft 3
Coefficient = 0.0004/°F

𝐕𝐭 = 𝐕𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕(𝐭 − 𝐭 𝐨 )] → 𝐒𝐈 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭

Where, Vt = volume at a temperature t, m3 , li

6
 t = temperature, °F
Vo = volume at a temperature t o , (usually 15.6 °F), m3 , li
Coefficient = 0.0007/°C

SAMPLE PROBLEMS from Francisco (2014)

1. A 28 °API oil has a temperature 40 °F. what is its density?

Solution:

Considering the English System

𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟓
For SG at 60°F, °API = 𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂 − 131.5
𝐒𝐆 𝐚𝐭 ( )
𝟏𝟓.𝟔 °𝐂
60 °F 141.5 141.5
SG at ( )= = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟕
60 °F °API + 131.5 28 + 131.5

For the density at 60 °F,

60 °F
ρ60°F = ρwater@60°F (Sg @ 60 °F) = 62.4(0.887) = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟓 𝐥𝐛/ f𝐭 𝟑

For the given volume at a given temperature, t = 40 °F

Vt = Vo [1 + 0.0004(t − t o )] = 1 ft 3 [1 + 0.0004(40 − 60)] = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝐟𝐭 𝟑

For the density at 40 °F

55.35
ρ40°F = 0.992 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟖 𝐥𝐛/f𝐭 𝟑

Considering the SI units

t = 40 °F = 4.44°C

15.6 °C 141.5 141.5

SG ( )= = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟕
15.6 °C °API + 131.5 28 + 131.5

ρ15.6°C = SG(at 15.6℃) (1.0) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟕 𝐤𝐠/li

15.6℃

m m
Vt = Vo [1 + 0.0007(t − t o )] → = [1 + 0.0007(t − t o )]
ρt ρo

ρo 0.887 𝐤𝐠
ρt = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒
[1 + 0.0007(t − t o )] [1 + 0.0007(4.44 − 15.6)] 𝐥𝐢

7
 Viscosity – property of Diesel fuel used to measure its resistance to flow. It is a fair indication
of how the oil will atomize and how it will affect the injection pump.
o Absolute viscosity, µ

SI units → 1 poise − 1 Dyne-sec/cm2

English Units → 1 lbf -sec/ft 2 = 1 slug/ft-sec

µ
o Kinematic Viscosity – the ratio of absolute viscosity to that of the density, v =
ρ

SI units → 1 stoke = 1 cm2 /sec

English Units → Ft 2/sec

 Saybolt Viscosimeter – an instrument used to measure viscosity of oil in Saybolt Universal

(SSU) or Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF).

Centistoke = 0.308(SSU − 26)

62 SSF = 600 SSU 1 SSF = 9.68 SSU

 Heating Value – refers to the heat content of the fuel in a unit mass. The heating value of a
liquid fuel is ranging from 18 000 to 19 500 Btu/lb. An instrument or apparatus used to
determine the heating value of a fuel is known as Bomb or Sergent Calorimeter. Heating
value is also called as Calorific Value.

 Higher Heating Value (HHV) is the heating value obtained when the moisture or water

in the product of combustion is in the liquid condition.

 Lower Heating Value (LHV) is the heating value obtained when the moisture or water

in the product of combustion is in the vapor condition.

ASME formula:

HHV = 41130 + 139.6(°API) → kJ/kg

HHV = 17680 + 60(°API) → Btu/lb

8
 Sherman and Knoff Formula:

HHV = 18 250 + 40(°Baume −10) → Btu/lb

HHV = 42 450 + 93(°Baume −10) → kJ/kg

Bureau of Standard Formula:

HHV = 51 716 − 8 793.8(SG)2 → kJ/kg

Lower Heating Value, LHV = HHV −9H2 (2442) → kJ/kg

Where, H = 26 -15(SG), in decimal

 Flash Point and Fire Point – the temperature at which oil vapor flashes or burns steadily;
used in relation to ignition and storage hazards of oil.

 Pour point – the lowest temperature at which oil flows; used in pumping and flow of oils. It is

more important to the fuel for mobile engines whose fuel tanks are generally exposed and
unheated that for stationary units.

 Color is sometime specified on the basis that good color indicates clean fresh stock of
satisfactory volatility.
 Purity. Although oils is a relatively pure fuel it may contain some sediment and water, ash, or
sulfur, all of which are undesirable impurities and are limited to low permissible amounts in
specifications. Sediment and water are determined by eluting the fuel with benzol and

centrifuging. They are reported together, sometimes by the number B.S. and W., meaning
bottom sediment and water.
 Sulfur Content – in weight percentage; useful with reference to corrosion of plant equipment.

 Moisture and Sediment – in weight or volume percentage; useful in firing of oil.

 Specific Heat – varies with temperature but for usual values is about 0.4 to 0.5 Btu/lb-F; used
in heating problems.

 Carbon Residue – test indicating carbon forming characteristics of oil; used in oil burning.

Lesson 4.Solid Fuels

9
Coal from Francisco (2014)

 Coal – is a solid fuel which is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash,
and moisture. It is believed that the coal once existed primarily as vegetable matter.
 Coal is a general term that encompasses a large number of solid organic minerals with widely

differing compositions of properties, although all are essentially rich in amorphous (without

regular structure) elemental carbon.

Coal Compositions from Francisco (2014)

 Coal has these components distributed throughout its mass: a) coal substance, b) mineral

matter, and c) moisture.

 Coal substance consists of many organic compounds by carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from
original vegetable matter. The exact composition varies but does not affect practical coal
burning.

 The mineral matter to some extent was in the original vegetable fibers. Water, which

percolated through the peat, bogs and coal seams, contained dissolved salts and deposited
most of the mineral content of the coal.
 The moisture content of coals, of ten called “mechanical moisture”, means water retained by

coal.

Classification of Coals from Francisco (2014)

 There are many ways of classifying coal according to its chemical and physical properties.
The most accepted system is that one used by the American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM), which classifies coals by grade or rank according to the degree of

metamorphism (change in form and structure under the influences of heat, pressure, and
water), ranging from the lowest state (lignite) to the highest (anthracite)
 These classifications are briefly described below in descending order:

1. Anthracite coal

 The highest grade of coal

10
  Contains a high content, 86% to 98% by mass, of fixed carbon on a dry, mineral-

matter-free basis and a low content of volatile matter less than 2% to 14 % by

mass (chiefly methane, CH4 )

 Very hard coal having a shiny black luster

 A brittle coal that borders on graphite at upper end of fixed carbon.

 Non-coking

 With high percentage fixed carbon

 Less than 8% volatile matter

 Requires strong draft

 Burns without flame or very short bluish flame
 Desirable when smokeless combustion is essential.

Note:

o Graphite is a moderately soft allotropic form of carbon. Carbon crystallizes perfectly

into diamond, imperfectly into graphite and is amorphous (having no regular structure,
non-crystalline) in anthracite and charcoal.
o The anthracite rank of coal is subdivided into three groupings, in descending of fixed-
carbon percent, as follows:
 Metha-anthracite, greater than 90%
 Anthracite, 92 % to 98%
 Semi-anthracite, 86% to 92%

2. Semi-anthracite coal

 Not used commercially as steam coal

 With less fixed carbon
 With 8 to 14 % volatile matter

 Less luster

 Burns with larger and more luminous flames

11
3. Semi-bituminous coal

 Highest grade of bituminous coal

 Burns with very small amount of smoke

 Softer than anthracites coals

 Contains 14 to 22 % volatile matter

 Has a tendency to break into small sizes during storage or transportation.

4. Bituminous coal

 Soft and with high percentage of volatile matter

 Burns with long yellow and Smokey flames

 Cary greatly in percentage of volatile matter, moisture, ash and sulfur.
 Classified as free-burning and caking or coking.
5. Sub-bituminous coal
 Sometimes known as black lignites

 Low grade bituminous coal which has lost the woody, structural appearance of
lignites
 Disintegrates when exposed to the air and requires careful attention during

storage

 Contains 36 to 45 % volatile matter

 Contains 17 to 20 % moisture

6. Lignites coal
 The transition state between peat and the sub-bituminous grade
 Have a woody or offer a claylike appearance
 With low heating value

 Contains 30 to 45 % moisture

 High ash content

 Unless carefully stored, lignites are subject to spontaneous combustion

PEAT
o It is not an ASTM rank of coal

o It is the first geological step in coal’s formation

12
 o It is a heterogeneous material consisting of decomposed plant matter

and in organic minerals

o It contains up to 90% moisture.

Components of Coals from Francisco (2014)

1. Coal substance – part of coal consisting of organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen that are derived from the original vegetable.

2. Mineral Matter- composed of inorganic compounds which to some extent with in the original

wood.

3. Moisture Content – referred to as mechanical moisture and means water as such retained by

the coal.

Properties of Solid Fuels (Coal) from Francisco (2014)

1. Heating Value or Calorific Value – the equivalent heat content in a unit mass fuel; determined

either by calorimetric measurement or by Dulong’s formula.

o Dulong’s Formula (Solid Fuels) for higher heating value

O2
HHV = 33 820C + 144212 (H2 − ) + 9304S → kJ/kg
8

O2
HHV = 14544C + 62028 (H2 − 8
) + 4050S → Btu/lb

Where C, H, O, & S are element in percentage by weight

o Lower Heating Value

LHV = HHV – QL

where: QL = latent heat of water content,

QL = mw hfg = 9mH2 hfg

mw = mass of water vapor in products of combustion per unit mass of fuel

(due to the combustion of H2 In the fuel, but not including initial H2 O in fuel.

13
 mH2 = mass of original hydrogen per unit mass of fuel, known from ultimate

analysis.

hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water vapor at its partial pressure in the
combustion products, Btu/lbm H2 O or kJ/kg H2 O

QL = (W + 9H)(2493 + 1.926t g − 4.187t a ) → for t g ≤ 302 °C

QL = (W + 9H)(2442 + 2.0935t g − 4.187t a ) → for t g > 302°𝐶

W = free moisture in fuel, kg/kg fuel

t g = flue gas temperature, °C

t a = combustible air temperature, °C

2. Ash-fusion temperature – refers to fluid temperature

3. Grindability – indicates the case with which a coal maybe pulverized.

4. Coking – refers to the ability of the coal, when heated, to evolve volatile matter
5. Caking

6. Free-burning
7. Friability

8. Clinkering

Note:

o Coke is the solid substance remaining after the partial burning of coal in an even or

after distillation properties.

14
Lesson 5. Coal Analysis

According to Francisco (2014) there are two types of coal analysis: proximate and ultimate, both

done on a mass-percent basis.

 Both methods may be used on:

o “As- received Basis”, useful for combustion calculations

o “Moisture-Free-Basis”, avoids variation of the moisture content even in the same

shipment and certainly in the different stages of pulverization.

o “Dry Mineral-Matter-Free Basis”, circumvents the problem of the ash contents not
being the same as the mineral matter in coal.

Proximate Analysis from Francisco (2014)

 This is the easier of the two types of coal analysis and the one which, supplied readily

meaningful information for coal’s use in the steam generators.

 It is an analysis that gives the gravimetric fraction of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon,
and ash.

 It determines the mass percentages of fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture, and ash.

 Sulfur maybe combined with ash or may be specified separately.

Fixed Carbon from Francisco (2014)

o It is the elemental carbon that exists in coal.

o Its determination is approximated by assuming it to be the difference between the

original sample and the sum of volatile matter, moisture, and ash.

Volatile Matter from Francisco (2014)

o It is that portion of coal, other than water vapor, which is driven off when the sample is

heated in the pre absence of oxygen in a standard test (up to 1750 °F for 7 minutes)

15
 o It consists of hydrocarbon and other gases that result from distillation and

decomposition.

Moisture from Francisco (2014)

o it is determined by a standard procedure of drying in an oven

o this does not account for all the water present, which includes combined water and

water of hydration

o there are several other terms for moisture in coal. One, inherent moisture, is that,

existing in the natural state of coal and considered to be part of the deposit, excluding
surface water.

Ash from Francisco (2014)

o it is the inorganic salts contained in coal.

o It is determined in practice as the non-combustible residue after the combustion of
dried coal in a standard test (at 1380 °F).

Sulfur from Francisco (2014)

o It is determined separately in a standard test

o Being combustible, it contributes to the heating value of the coal.

o It forms oxides which combine with water to form acids. These cause corrosion
problem in the back end of steam generators if the gases are cooled below the dew
point, as well as environmental problems.

Ultimate Analysis from Francisco (2014)

 It is a special type of gravimetric analysis in which the constituents are reported by atomic

species rather than by compound.

 In this analysis, combined hydrogen from moisture in the fuel is added to hydrogen from

the combustive compounds.

16
  It is an analysis showing the chemical elements of coals such as carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture. Elements are presented in percentage by

weight.

C – Carbon
H – Hydrogen
O – Oxygen

N – Nitrogen

S - Sulfur
A – Ash

W – Moisture

According to Francisco (2014) bases of Reporting the Ultimate Analysis are:

a. “As-received” or “As Fired” basis

C + H + O + N + S + A + W = 100%

b. Dry or moisture-free basis

C+ H + O + N + S + A = 100 %

c. Moisture and Ash Free or Combustible Basis

C+ H + O + N + S = 100 %
d. Moisture, Ash, and Sulfur-free basis

C+ H + O + N = 100 %

Note:
o The first basis, as fired, is of most use to the power-plant operator because it shows

the constituents of the fuel in the same condition as it was weighed and supplied to the

furnace.
o The remaining methods are used primarily for comparing coals from various sources.

o To transfer an analysis from as received to dry, it is only necessary to deduct the

weight of hydrogen and oxygen in the water from these terms and to divide each of the

17
 remaining constituents by one minus the decimal equivalent of the moisture. A similar

procedure may be used for converting to any the methods.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS from Francisco (2014)

1. A certain type of coal has the following “as-received” analysis:

C = 80.50 % S = 1.20 %

H = 4.10 % A = 5.30 %

O = 3.00 % W = 4.40 %

N = 1.50 %

Calculate the analysis on the dry basis and combustible basis.

Solution:

 Consider the “Dry-Basis" Analysis

Solving for the Factor for the dry-basis analysis,
𝑊 4.40
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1 − 100 = 1 − = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟔
100

Dry-basis Analysis:
80.50 4.10
C = 0.956 = 84.20 % H = 0.956 = 4.30 %
3.00 1.50
O= = 3.10 % N= = 1.60 %
0.956 0.956
1.20 5.30
S = 0.956 = 1.30 % A = 0.956 = 5.50 %
Then the sum of the components:
C+ H + O + N + S + A = 100 %

 Consider the Combustible Basis

Solving for the Factor for the Combustible Basis
(𝑊 + 𝐴) (5.30 + 4.40)
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = [1 − ] = [1 − ] = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟑
100 100

Solving for the Combustible Basis

18
 80.50 4.10
𝐶 = 0.903 = 89.20 % 𝐻 = 0.903 = 4.50 %
3.00 1.50
𝑂 = 0.903 = 3.30 % 𝑁= 0.903
= 1.70 %
1.20
𝑆= = 1.30 %
0.903

Then the sum of the components:

C+ H + O + N + S = 100%

2. Convert the ultimate analysis of coal shown in the table below to a) an ultimate analysis showing

the amount of moisture (“as-received”), b) moisture-free basis, c) moisture and ash-basis, and d)

moisture, ash, and sulfur-free basis. Determine the heating value in each case.

a. Consider the “As-received” analysis

 Deduct 1/9 of W from H2 to obtain the ‘’as-received’’ percent H2 , and deduct 8/9 of W from O2

to obtain the ‘’as-received’’ percent of O2 .

Total = 100 %

Solving for the heating value of the “as-received” fuel

𝑂2
HHV = 14600C + 62000(𝐻2 − ) + 4050𝑆
8

0.0886
HHV = 14600(0.6623)+6200(0.0425 − ) + 4050(0.0075)
8

19
 HHV = 11648.305 Btu/lb

b. Consider the Dry-Basis or Moisture-free basis of the analysis

 To obtain the moisture-free analysis, divide each component of the as received analysis,
except W, by the following factor:
9.77
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1 − ( ) = 0.9023
100
66.23 73.40 %
C=
0.9023
4.25 4.71 %
H2 =
0.9023
8.86 9.82 %
O2 =
0.9023
1.51 1.67 %
N2 =
0.9023
0.75 0.83 %
S=
0.9023
8.63 9.57 %
A=
0.9023
TOTAL 100.00 %
 Solving for the Heating value
𝑂2
HV = 14600𝐶 + 62000 (𝐻2 − 8
) + 4050𝑆
0.0982
HV = 14600(0.7340) + 62000 (0.0471 − ) + 4050(0.0083)
8

HV = 12 909.165 Btu/lb

c. Consider the Ash and Moisture-free (combustible) Analysis

 To obtain the combustible analysis, divide each component, except Ash and Moisture, of the

as received analysis by the following factor:

0.0863 + 0.977
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1 − ( ) = 0.8160
100

66.23 81.16 %
C=
0.816
4.25 5.21 %
H2 =
0.816
8.86 10.86 %
O2 =
0.816
1.51 1.85 %
N2 =
0.816

20
 0.75 0.92 %
S=
0.816
TOTAL 100.00 %

 Solving for the Heating Value

O2
HV = 14600C + 62000 (H2 − 8
) + 4050S

0.1086
HV = 14600(0.8116) + 62000 (0.0521 − 8
) + 4050(0.0092)

HV = 14 275.17 Btu/lb

d. Consider the moisture, ash, and sulfur-free basis of analysis

 To obtain this analysis, divide each component except moisture, ash and sulfur of as-

received analysis by the following factor:

0.75 + 0.0863 + 0.977
Factor = 1 − ( ) = 0.8085
100

66.23 81.92 %
C=
0.8085
4.25 5.26 %
H2 =
0.8085
8.86 10.96 %
O2 =
0.8085
1.51 1.87 %
N2 =
0.8085
TOTAL 100.00 %

 Solving for the heating value

O2
HV = 14600C + 62000 (H2 − 8
) + 4050S
0.1096
HV = 14600 (0.8192) + 62000 (0.0526 − 8
) + 4050 (0)

HV = 14 372.12 Btu/lb

21
Lesson6.Combustion

According to Francisco (2014) Combustion is:

 Combustion is the rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element in which the exothermic

heat of reaction is sufficiently great and the rate of reaction is sufficiently fast that useful
quantities of heat are liberated at elevated temperature.

 Combustion is synonymous with oxidation and is the union of oxygen with a combustible

material.

Standard Air Composition and Standard from Francisco (2014)

1. Components By Weight
𝐍𝟐 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟗 % 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 %
2. Components By Volume
𝐍𝟐 = 𝟕𝟗 % 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏 %
3. Air Gas Constant
R = 0.28708 kJ/kg-°K
4. Molecular Weight or Mass
MW = 28.95 kg/kgmol = 28.95 lb/pmol

5. At p = 14.7 psi pr 101.325 kPa and t = 32 °F or 0 °C

Volume of a mole of any gas, 𝐕𝐨 = 𝟑𝟓𝟗 𝐅𝐭 𝟑 /𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥 = 22.43 𝐦𝟑/kgmol

Combustion Chemistry from Francisco (2014)

 The following equations are the combustion chemistry of combustible components of the fuel.

1. Combustion of Carbon, C + O2 = CO2

 Analysis by weight
12 kg C + 32 kg O2 = 44 kg CO2
8 11
1 kg C + ( ) kg O2 = ( ) kg CO2
3 3
 Oxygen required for 1 kg C
8
Woc = 3 kg C/ kgO2

 Molal Analysis
1 mole C + 1 mole O2 = 1 mole CO2

22
 2. Combustion of Hydrogen, 2H2 + O2 = 2H2 O

 Analysis by weight

4 kg H2 + 32 kg O2 = 36 kg H2 O
1 kg H2 + 8 kg O2 = 9 kg H2 O
 Oxygen required for 1 kg H2
WOH2 = 8 kg H2 /kg O2

 Molal Analysis
2 moles H2 + 1 mole O2 = 2 moles H2 O
1
1 mole H2 + mole O2 = 1 mole H2 O
2
3. Combustion of Sulfur, S + O2 = SO2
 Analysis by Weight
32 kg S + 32 kg O2 = 64 kg SO2
1 kg S + 1 kg O2 = 2 kg SO2
 Oxygen required for 1kg sulfur

WOS =1 kg S/ kg O2
 Molal Analysis
1 mole S + 1 mole O2 = 1 mole SO2
4. Incomplete Combustion of Carbon, 2 C + O2 = 2 CO

 Analysis by Weight
24 kg C + 32 kg O2 = 56 kg CO
4 7
1 kg C + ( ) kg O2 = ( ) kg CO
3 4
4
WOC = kg C/kg O2
3

 Molal Analysis
2 moles C + 1 mole O2 = 2 moles CO
1 mole C + ½ mole O2 = 1 mole CO

Theoretical Oxygen Required to Combust Fuel from Francisco (2014)

8 O2
Wo = 3 C + 8 (H2 − 8
)+S → kg O2 / kg fuel

Where,

Wo = theoretical oxygen required, kg/kg fuel

23
 C = fuel carbon content, kg/kg fuel

O2 = oxygen content, kg/kg fuel

S = sulfur content of the fuel, kg/kg fuel

Theoretical Air Required from Francisco (2014)

𝟖 𝐎
𝐖𝐨
𝐂+𝟖(𝐇𝟐 − 𝟐 )+𝐒
𝐖𝐚 = 𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟏 =𝟑 𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟏
𝟖

 Equation by Vopat
O2
Wa = 11.5 C + 34.5 (H2 − ) + 4.32S
8
 Equation by Potter
O2
Wa = 11.53 C + 34.36 (H2 − ) + 4.32S
8
 Equation Used by Subaran
O2
Wa = 11.44 C + 34.32 (H2 − ) + 4.29S
8

Where, Wa = theoretical air required, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel

Complete Combustion of Carbon with Air from Francisco (2014)

C + Air = CO2 + Nitrogen

C + O2 + 3.76N2 = CO2 + 3.76N2

By Weight: 12 kg C + 32 kg O2 + 3.76(28) kg N2 = 44 kg CO2 + 3.76(28) N2

8 11
Relative Weight: 1 kg + 3 kg O2 + 8.77 kg N2 = 3
kg CO2 + 8.77 kg N2

8
Theoretical Air/ Fuel Ratio: A : F = + 8.77 = 11.45 kg air/ kg fuel
3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS from Francisco (2014)

24
1 Deduce the combustion equations for a) complete combustion of 1 kg and 1 m3 ethylene, C2 H4 , in

air, and b) combustion with 25 % excess air.

Solution:

a) Consider the complete combustion

C2 H4 + Air = CO2 + H2 O + N2
C2 H4 + aO2 + 3.76aN2 = bCO2 + 3.76aN2 + cH2 O

For the coefficients (atom balance):

Carbon, 2 = b

Oxygen, 2a = 2b + c; a = b + c/2 = 2 + 1 = 3

Hydrogen, 4 = 2c; c = 2

For the combustion equation,

By Volume,

1 m3 C2 H4 + 3 m3 O2 + 11.28m3 N2 = 2 m3 CO2 + 2m3 H2 O + 11.28m3 N2

Analysis by Weight,

[12(2) + 4(1)] + 3(32) + 11.28(28) = 2(44) + 2(18) + 11.28(28)]

28 kg C2 H4 + 96 kgO2 + 315.84 kgN2 = 88kg CO2 + 36 kgH2 O + 315.84 kg N2

Relative Weight,

1 kgC2 H4 + 3.43 kgO2 + 111.28kgN2 = 3.14kgCO2 + 1.285kgH2 O + 11.28kgN2

Theoretical Air/Fuel Ratio,

A : F = 3.43 + 11.28 = 14.71 kg air per kg fuel (ans.)

25
 b. Consider the Actual Combustion with e = 25 %

Weight Analysis,

28 kg Fuel + 120 kg O2 + 394.8 kg = 88 kg CO2 + 36 kg H2 O + 24 kg O2 + 394.8 kg N2

1 kgC2 H4 + 4.286 kgO2 + 14.1kgN2 = 3.14CO2 + 1.285kgH2 O + 0.857 kgO2 + 14.1kgN2

Therefore, the air : Fuel Ratio,

𝑊𝑎𝑎 = 4.286 + 14.1 = 18.386 kg/kg fuel (ans.)

Combustion Products from Francisco (2014)

 The composition of the products depends on the kind of fuel used, the A/F ratio, and the
conditions of combustion. The products usually contain carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbon
monoxide (CO), oxygen, nitrogen, free carbon, fly ash, steam, sulfur dioxide, and unburned
carbons.

Considering the Cn Hm

Cn Hm + aO2 + 3.76aN2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + 3.76aN2

Atom balance,

Carbon: n = b; b = n

Hydrogen: m = 2c; c = 0.5m

Oxygen: 2a = 2b + c; a = n + 0.25m

26
Substituting the coefficients,

Cn Hm + (n + 0.25m)O2 + 3.76(1 + e)(n + 0.25m)N2 = nCO2 + 0.5mH2 O + e(n + 0.25m) +

3.76(1 + e)(n + 0.25m)N2

For the Air-Fuel Ratio with e,

32(1+e)(n+0.25m)+(1+e)(3.76)(n+0.25m)(28)
Waa = 12n+m

[32+3.76(28)](1+e)(n+0.25m)
Waa = 12n+m

𝐀 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟔(𝐧 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝐦)(𝟏 + 𝐞)

= 𝐖𝐚𝐚 =
𝐅 𝟏𝟐𝐧 + 𝐦

Lesson 7.Air-Fuel Ratio In Terms of The Products Of Combustion (Volumetric

Analysis)

According to Francisco (2014) air-fuel ration of the product of combustion are:

Considering the Dry Gas:

100n
CO2 =
n + e(n + 0.25m) + 3.76(1 + e)(n + 0.25m)

Dividing both the denominator and numerator by n,

100
𝐶𝑂2 = 𝑚 𝑚
1 + 𝑒 (1 + 0.25 𝑛 ) + 3.76(1 + 𝑒) (1 + 0.25 𝑛 )

From the stoichiometric (gravimetric) analysis of fuel,

H2 m m 12H2
= ; =
C 12n n C

Where, H2 = percent hydrogen by weight

C = percent carbon by weight

Substituting the value of m/n,

27
 100
CO2 = 12H2 12H2
1 + [1 + 0.25 ( C
)] + 3.76(1 + e) [1 + 0.25 (
C
)]

100 100
CO2 = 12H2
= 3H2
1 + [e + 3.76(1 + e)] [1 + 0.25 ( C
)] 1 + (3.76 + 4.76e) (1 + C
)

100 100
CO2 = 3H2 3H2
= H2 3H2
1 + 3.76 (1 + C
) + 4.76e (1 +
C
) 1 + (3.76 + 11.28 C
) + 4.76e (1 +
C
)

Solving for the value of e,

H2 3H2 100
1 + [3.76 + 11.28 ( )] + 4.76e (1 + )=
C C CO2
3H2 100 H2
4.76e (1 + )= − [3.76 + 11.28 ( )] − 1
C CO2 C

H2 H2
100 − CO2 − (3.76 + 11.28 ) CO2 100 − [1 + [3.76 + 11.28 C
]] CO2
C
e= 3H2
= H2
4.76e (1 + C
) CO2 (4.76 + 14.28
C
) CO2

H2
100 − (4.76 + 11.28 C
) CO2
e= H2
(4.76 + 14.28 ) CO2
C

H2
100 − (4.76 + 11.28 C
) CO2
e= H2
→ By Maleev
(4.76 + 14.28 ) CO2
C

A : F Ratio in Terms of H2 and C,

H2
137.6(n + 0.25m)(1 + e) 137.6 (1 + 0.25 C ) (1 + e)
Waa = = H
12n + m 12 + 2
C

m 12H2
But, =
n C
12H2 3H2
137.6 [1 + 0.25 ( C
)] (1 + e) 137.6 (1 + C
) (1 + e)
Waa = 12H2 = H2
12 + C
12 (1 + )
C

28
 𝟑𝐇𝟐
𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟑 (𝟏 + 𝐂
) (𝟏 + 𝐞)
𝐖𝐚𝐚 = 𝐇𝟐
(𝟏 + )
𝐂

Determination of The Values Of N And M In 𝐂𝐧 𝐇𝐦 (Sample Problems) from Francisco (2014)

1. An analysis of exhaust gases shows the products to consist of the following percentages vy
volume: 𝐶𝑂2 = 12.1, 𝑂2 = 0.30, CO = 3.3, 𝐻2 = 1.3, 𝐶𝐻4 = 0.30, 𝑁2 = 82.7. Assuming the fuel to be a
pure hydrocarbon of the form Cn Hm , a) find the values of n and m; b) Balance the combustion
equation; and c) Determine the air-fuel ratio.

Solution:

a) Consider 100 moles of the products

Cn Hm + aO2 + 82.7N2 = 12.1CO2 + 0.3 O2 + 3.3 CO + 1.3 H2 + 0.3 CH4 + 82.7 N2 + bH2 O

Where, a = moles of oxygen in air supplied; b = moles of water vapor in the products

#2. A natural gas has the following percentage volumetric compositions:

CH4 = 59.8 % C2 H 6 = 37.6 %

N2 = 2.2 % CO2 = 0.4 %

Calculate:

a. The molecular mass of weight of the natural gas

b. The gravimetric analysis of the natural gas
c. The gravimetric analysis per element
d. The amount of air required per kg fuel for complete combustion and an excess air 50 %
e. The volumetric rate of air required at a pressure of 101.325 kPaa and temperature of 15.56 °
C for a fuel mass flow rate of 50 kg/min.
f. The amount of air required per 𝑚 3of fuel at 116 kPaa and 27 °C

Solution:

a) Solving for the molecular mass or weight

29
 MW = 16CH4 + 30C2 H6 + 28N2 + 44CO2
MW = 16(0.598) + 30(0.376) + 28(0.022) + 44(0.004) = 21.64 kg/kgmol fuel
b) Gravimetric analysis by component

CH4 16(CH4 ) 16(0.598) 44.21 %

[ ] (100%)
MW 21.64
C2 H 6 30(C2 H6 ) 30(0.376) 52.13 %
[ ] (100%)
MW 21.64
N2 28(N2 ) 28(0.022) 2.85 %
[ ] (100%)
MW 21.64
CO2 44(CO2 ) 44(0.004) 0.81 %
[ ] (100%)
MW 21.64
TOTAL 100 %

c) Computation of the gravimetric analysis by weight

C 12CH4 + 24C2 H6 + 12CO2 12(0.598) + 24(0.376) + 12(0.004) 75.083 %

(100%) (100%)
MW 21.64

H2 4CH4 + 6C2 H6 4(0.598) + 6(0.376) 21.479 %

(100%) (100%)
MW 21.64
N2 28N2 28(0.022) 2.847 %
(100%) (100%)
MW 21.64
O2 32CO2 31(0.004) 0.591 %
(100%) (100%)
MW 21.64

TOTAL 100
d) Solving for the actual air required per kg fuel
(1 + e)Wa (1 + e) 8 O2
Waa = = [ C + 8 (H2 − ) + S]
0.231 0.231 3 8

(1.50)Wa (1.50) 8 0.0059

Waa = = [ (0.7508) + 8 (0.2148 − ) + 0]
0.231 0.231 3 8

𝐖𝐚𝐚 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 kg air per kg fuel

e) Determination of the volumetric rate of air required
Solving for the mass flow rate of air required,

kg
ma = (Waa )mF = (24.12)(50) = 1206
min

30
 Solving for the volumetric rate of air required

ma R a Ta 1206(0.28708)(15.56 + 273)
Va = = = 985.71 m3 /min
Pa 101.325

For the given Flue Gas Analysis (Orsat Analysis)

O2 − 0.5CO
Excess Air, e = (100%)
0.26N2 − (O2 − 0.5CO)

Mass of Flue Gas

4CO2 + O2 + 700 3 5
Wdg = (Cab + S) + S
3(CO2 + CO) 8 8

where, Cab = actually burned carbon, kg/kgfuel

Cab = C − Cub ; Cub = unburned carbon

Assignment1

Answer the following; write your solution in engineering lettering.

1. A diesel power plant uses fuel with a heating value of 43,000 kJ/kg. What is the density of
the fuel at 25 °C?
2. A typical industrial fuel oil, C16 H32 , has 20 % excess air by weight. Assuming complete
oxidation of the fuel, calculate the actual air-fuel ratio by weight.
3. A gaseous fuel mixture has a molal analysis: H2 = 14 % ; CH4 = 3 % ; CO = 27 % ; O2 =
0.6 % ; CO2 = 4.5 % ; N2 = 50.9%. Determine the air-fuel ratio for complete combustion on molal
basis.
4. There are 20 kg of flue gas formed per kg of fuel oil burned in the combustion of fuel 𝐶12 𝐻32 .
What is the excess air percent?
5. A certain coal has the following ultimate analysis by weight : C =67 %, A = 5 %, M = 8%, S =
7 %, 𝑁2 = 6 %, 𝑂2 = 4 %, 𝐻2 = 3 %. a) Calculate the heating value of the fuel, kJ/kg, b) What is
the lower heating value, kJ/kg, c) Determine the air-fuel ratio of this coal is burned with 50 %
excess air.
6. At a certain temperature of 25 °C, what is the specific gravity of a fuel at 20 °API?

31
 Summary
 Combustion is the rapidchemical union with oxygen of an element whose heat of reaction is
sufficiently great and rate of reaction is fast enough that quantities of heat are liberated at
elevated temperature.
 Straight oils are oils produced entirely from the crude chosen entirely through elimination of
undesired constituents by refining process.
 Additive oils are oils produced by adding to straight mineral oils; certain oil are soluble
compounds that enhance the lubricating oil properties for use in Diesel engines.
 Proximate analysis – composition of fuel that gives on mass basis the relative amount of
volatile matter, fixed carbon, moisture and ash.
 Fuel is any substance or combustible material that by rapid oxidation or burning produces
heat and light. An example of a fuel is coal or gasoline. A fuel is composed of chemical

elements which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion. Fossil fuels are
fuels that originate from the earth as a result of the slow decomposition and chemical
conversion of organic material. The basic forms of fossils are solid (coal), liquid (oil), and
natural gas. Synthetic fuels or synfuels, the new combustible-fuel-options, are liquid or

gaseous fuels derived largely from coal, oil shale, and tar sands (Fossil Fuel, n.d).

Reference

Francisco, Jose R. (2014). Lecture Notes in Industrial Plant Design, Lesson 8: Fuels and
Combustion, p.g 125 to p.g 151.

32
 MODULE 2
STEAM GENERATING UNIT

Introduction

Steam Generator is a combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing, or recovering heat,

together with apparatus for transforming to a working fluid the heat thus available (Francisco,
2014).

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Learn the different Types of Boiler;

2. Solve problems involving Boiler ratings and performance; and
3. Know and solve Steam Generator Heat Balance problems.

33
Lesson 1.Types of Boiler

According to Francisco (2014) the different types of boiler are:

1. Fire-tube boilers – are those having the heat gases of combustion inside the tubes. Limited
only to a working pressure of 1.7 Mpag.
a. Horizontal-Return-Tubular (HRT) Boiler
b. Packaged Fire-Tube Boiler
c. Vertical Tubular Boiler

2. Water-Tube-Boilers – are those having the hot gases of combustion outside the tubes.
a. Horizontal Straight-Tube Boiler
b. Central Station Steam Generators
c. Marine Steam Generators
d. Forced-circulation Steam Boilers

Water-Tube Boiler Circulation Principle from Francisco (2014)

Figure 2.1. Water-Tube Boiler Circulation Principle from Francisco (2014)

o Dryness Factor (or fraction) or Quality of steam – refers to the amount of steam in the
mixture of water and steam at the riser.
o Top Dryness Factor – applies to the mixture leaving the tubes.

34
Lesson 2. Boiler Ratings and Performance

According to Francisco (2014) Boiler rating and performance can be evaluated by:

 Boiler Hp = equivalent to the generation of 34.5 lb/hr (15.44 kg/hr) from water at 212 °F (100 °C)
to saturated steam also at 212 °F (100 °C).
 Energy of Evaporation
lb Btu
Energy of Evaporation = (34.5)(hfg @ 212 °F) = (34.5 hr) (970.3 lb
) ≈ 33 500 Btu/hr
kg kJ
Energy of Evaporation = (15.46)(hfg @ 100 °C) = (15.646 hr ) (2257 kg ) ≈ 35 314 kJ/hr

Btu
Where, hfg = enthalpy of evaportion at 212 °F (100 °C) = 970.3 lb
= 2257 kJ/kg

Therefore, 1 Bo Hp = 33 500 Btu/hr = 35 314 kJ/hr

 Boiler Horsepower, Bo Hp
ms (h2 − h1 ) ms (h2 − h1 )
Bo. Hp = =
35 314 33 500

Where, ms = mass flow rate of steam, kg/hr, lb/hr

h1 = enthalpy of feed water, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
h2 = enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
 Factor of Evaporation, FE
kJ Btu
Boiler Ouput, , h2 − h1 h2 − h1
kg lb
FE = = =
2257 or 970.3 2257 970.3

 Equivalent Evaporation, Eq. Evap.

Boiler Output, kJ/hr Boiler Output, Btu/ Hr
Eq. Evap. = (F. E. )ms = =
2257 970.3

 Rated Boiler Horsepower

Heat Transfer Area or Surface, m2 , or ft 2
Rated Bo. Hp =
k

Where, k = 0.91 m2 /Bo. Hp = 10ft 2 /Bo. Hp → For water-tube boiler

m2
K = 1.10 . Hp = 12ft 2 /Bo. Hp → For fire-tube boiler
Bo

 Developed Boiler Horsepower

∑ ms (∆h) Boiler Output, kJ/hr Boiler Output, Btu/hr
Dev. Bo. Hp = = =
35 314 or 33 500 35 314 33 500

35
 (F. E. )(ms ) Eq. Evap. (F. E. )(ms ) Eq. Evap.
Dev. Bo. Hp = = = =
15.646 15.646 34.5 34.5

Where, ∑ ms (∆h) = total heat transfer to cycle fluid in steam generator (boiler, superheater,
heater, Economizer, reheater), kJ/hr, Btu/hr.
 Percent Rating
Dev. Bo. Hp
Percent Rating =
Rated Bo. Hp

 Rating for Modern Steam Generators

Steam Generated at Rated Capacity, kg/hr

kW Rating =
Over − all Station Steam Rate, kg/kw ∙ hr

where, Steam Generated = kg/hr of steam at a given pressure and temperature and feed water
temperature.
 Boiler Performance – the measure of boiler heat output, QB , in kJ/hr or Btu/hr
a) QB = Based on the flow diagram
b) QB = mF (HHV)EB
c) QB = (Dev. Bo. Hp)( 35 314) or QB = (Dev. Bo. Hp)(33 500)
d) QB = (Eq. Evap.)(2257) or QB = (Eq. Evap.)(970.3)
% Rating % Rating
e) QB = (Rated Bo. Hp. ) ( 100 %
) (35 314) or QB = (Rating Bo. HP) (
100%
) (33 500)

Where, QB = Boiler Output, kJ/hr, Btu/hr

HHV =higher heating value of the fuel, kJ/kg, Btu/lb

EB = boiler efficiency

mF = mass flow rate of fuel, kg/hr, lb/hr

 Boiler Over-all Efficiency

QB
EB = ( ) (100 %)
QA
Where, QB = Boiler output, kJ/hr, kJ/kg, Btu/hr, Btu/lb
QA = heat added or heat from the fuel, kJ/hr, Btu/hr = mF (HHV)

 New Over-all Boiler Efficiency

36
 QB ′ ∑ ms (∆h)
ƞB = (100%) = (100%)
mF (HHV) mF (HHV)

Where, QB ′ = heat absorbed by the boiler fluid less the amount of heat used for the boiler
auxiliaries.

 Boiler and Furnace Efficiency

QB
⁄(1 − M − A − C )
ub
EBF =[ ] (100 %)
HHV⁄
(1 − M − A)

Where, M = moisture content of the fuel

A = ash content of the fuel
Cub = unburned carbon

 Grate Efficiency

kg combustible burned / kg fuel fired 1 − M − A − Cub

EG = (100 %) = [ ] (100 %)
kg combustible / kg fuel fired 1−M−A

Lesson 3.Steam Generator Heat Balance

The fuel supplied to a furnace when completely burned releases its heating value. The
energy primarily changes the feedwater pumped to the boiler into steam. All the heating value does
not go to this useful purpose. These are some losses in the form of incomplete combustion, of flue
gases leaving at high temperature, and of radiated and convected heat from the outside of the steam
generator. An energy balance shows the distribution of the heating value of the fuel to the formation
of steam and to the various losses (Francisco, 2014).

Figure 2.2 Boiler Heat Balance

37
Useful Energy from Francisco (2014)

Energy Absorbed by the steam generator fluid (or Useful Energy)

Q1 = Ws (hg2 − hf1 ) + Wr (hg4 − hg3 ) + WB (hf2 − hf1 )

Where, Q1 = energy absorbed by the boiler fluid or the useful energy, kJ/kg fuel, Btu/lb fuel
hg2 = enthalpy of steam leaving the boiler, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
hf1 = enthalpy of feed water, kJ,kg, Btu/lb
hf2 = enthalpy of water at boiler pressure, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
hg4 = enthalpy of reheat steam leaving the steam generator, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
hg3 = enthalpy of reheat steam entering the steam generator, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
Ws = mass of steam from feedwater per unit mass fuel, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel
Wr = mass of reheated steam per unit mass fuel, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel
WB = mass of blowdown per unit mass fuel (often negligible), kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel

Energy Losses from Francisco (2014)

1. Energy Loss due to mechanical moisture in fuel (or energy loss due to evaporating and
superheating moisture in fuel)

English Units:
Q2 = W(1066 + 0.5t g − t a ) when t g > 575 °𝐹
Q2 = W(1089 + 0.46t g − t a ) when t g < 575 °𝐹
SI Units:
Q2 = W(2479.81 + 20.935t g − 4.187t a ) when t g > 302 °𝐶
Q2 = W(2533.31 + 1.92602t g − 4.187t a ) when t g < 302 °𝐶
Where, Q2 = energy loss due to moisture content of the fuel as fired, kJ/kg fuel, Btu/lb fuel
W = moisture content of the fuel, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel
t g = temperature of flue gas after passing all heat-transfer surfaces, °C, °F
t a = temperature of air entering for combustion to the furnace or air heater, if the latter
is used, °C, °F

2. Energy loss due to moisture from hydrogen in the fuel (or energy loss due to evaporating and
superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen)

38
 English Units:
Q3 = 9H2 (1066 + 0.5t g − t a ) when t g > 575 °𝐹
Q3 = 9H2 (1089 + 0.46t g − t a ) when t g < 575 °𝐹

SI Units:
Q3 = 9H2 (2479.81 + 20.935t g − 4.187t a ) when t g > 302 °𝐶
Q3 = 9H2 (2533.31 + 1.92602t g − 4.187t a ) when t g < 302 °𝐶

3. Energy Loss due to moisture from air

English Units:
Q4 = 0.47 WAV (t g − t a )

SI Units:
Q4 = 1.96789WAV (t g − t a )

Where, WAV = mass of moisture content n supp air per unit mass fuel, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel
WAV = (1 + e)Wa (g)
Wa = theoretical air-fuel ratio, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel
g = humidity ratio of supply air, kg/kg d.a. ,lb/lbd.a.
3. Energy Loss due to dry flue-gas sensible heat

English Units:
Q5 = WDG cp (t g − t a ) = 0.24WDG (t g − t a )

SI Units:
Q5 = WDG cp (t g − t a ) = 1.005WDG (t g − t a )

Where, WDG = mass of dry flue gas per unit mass fuel, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel

4. Energy Loss due to incomplete combustion

English Units:

39
 28 CO
Q6 = ( ) (10187)
44CO2 + 28CO + 28N2 + 32O2

CO
Q6 = 10160Ci = 10160Cab ( )
CO2 + CO

SI Units:
28 CO
Q6 = ( ) (4380)
44CO2 + 28CO + 28N2 + 32O2

CO
Q6 = 23 631Ci = 23 631Cab ( )
CO2 + CO

Note: CO and CO2 in the second equation must be an Orsat analysis (% by Volume)

5. Heat Loss due to Unburned Carbon

English Units:

Q7 = 14 600 (C − Cab )

Q7 = Wr (HHV)r

SI Units:

Q7 = 33 964 (C − Cab )

Q7 = Wr (HHV)r

Where, Wr = mass of refuse, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel

(HHV)r= heating value of refuse

6. Heat Loss Due to radiation and Unaccounted-for

Q8 = HHV − ∑ Q1−7 = HHV(Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5 + Q6 + Q7 )

40
 Assignment 2

Answer the following problems write your solution in engineering lettering.

1. In a water-tube boiler with 186 m2 of boiler heating surface and operating at 1.75
MPaa, water is fed at the rate of 2 268 kg/hr. Water enters the economizer at 56 °C
and leave therefrom at 112 °C, while steam with 5 % moisture enters the superheater
and leaves therefrom as superheated at the same pressure. Coal with a heating value
of 28 000 kJ/kg is burned at a rate of 250 kg/hr. The gross over-all boiler efficiency is
80 %. The generated steam flows to a steam turbine through a well-insulated pipe
along which the pressure drop is 0.10 Mpa and the steam temperature becomes 250 °
C. in the turbine, steam expands to a dry and saturated at 0.065 MPaa.
Determine:
a) The temperature of steam leaving the superheater
b) The boiler heat losses per hour
c) The equivalent evaporation
d) The percent rating
e) The weight of fuel saved in using the economizer per hour
f) The weight of additional fuel used per hour in the superheater
g) The energy loss per hour in the piping line
h) The power plant generator output if the turbine generator combined efficiency is 88 %
i) The power plant gross thermal efficiency.

2. A steam boiler has an actual evaporation rate of 8.23 kg/kg coal fired. Coal as fired
contains 2 % moisture. Dry coal contains 5 % ash and has a heating value of 29 776 kJ/kg.
During the test 12 % of coal fired is delivered from the ashpit as refuse. The steam leaving the
boiler is saturated at a pressure of 0.70 MPaa and the temperature of feed water is 49 °C.
Determine a) the boiler efficiency; b) the boiler-furnace efficiency; c) the grate efficiency.

3. A water-tube boiler having a heating surface of 325.23 m2 evaporates 6349.21 kg of water

in an hour from a feed temperature of 66 °C. Boiler pressure is at 1.04 MPaa and the steam
quality at the boiler outlet is 99 %. What percent of its rated Bo. Hp was the boiler developing?

41
 4. A condenser receives 11 338 kg of steam per hour at 89 % dryness factor. Steam
temperature in the condenser is 33 °C and free air at 101.325 kPaa and 15.56 °C leaks into
the condenser at the rate of 0.51 𝑚 3/min. Determine the pressure in the condenser.

Summary

 Steam Generator is a combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing, or recovering heat,

together with apparatus for transforming to a working fluid the heat thus available (Francisco,
2014).
 The two types of boilers are fire tube boiler and water-tube boiler
 The fuel supplied to a furnace when completely burned releases its heating value. The energy
primarily changes the feedwater pumped to the boiler into steam. All the heating value does not
go to this useful purpose. These are some losses in the form of incomplete combustion, of flue
gases leaving at high temperature, and of radiated and convected heat from the outside of the
steam generator. An energy balance shows the distribution of the heating value of the fuel to the
formation of steam and to the various losses (Francisco, 2014).

Reference

Francisco, Jose R. (2014). Lecture Notes in Industrial Plant Design, Lesson 9: Steam Generators
p.g 152 to p.g 161.

42
 MODULE 3
MECHANICAL DRYERS

Introduction

Drying is the process of removing moisture in varying amounts from solid or semi-fluid materials.
This process may be accomplished by pressure, suction, decantation, or evaporation (Francisco,
2014).

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Learn the different processes of drying;

2. Determine the different types of Dryer; and
3. Solve problems involving Mechanical Dryers.

43
Lesson 1. Mechanical Dryer

Important Information for Mechanical Dryer from Francisco (2014):

 Dryer is machine or equipment used for drying process.

 Dewaterer is a machine or equipment used for dewatering process.
 Dewatering – is the common term for processes using only pressure, suction, or decantation.
This process used to remove or reduce only a portion of the surface moisture of the materials.
 Evaporation is the main principle of the term drying process. In drying process, not only the
surface liquid is removed or reduced but also removes internal moisture and in many cases
water in chemical combination.
 Inherent moisture and bed moisture are the terms used for describing the moisture in the mass
that is not on the surface of the material.
 Chemically combined water is that water occurring when a chemical component of the material
changes its chemical composition by heat or other means.

Parts of Continuous Drying Process from Francisco (2014)

1. Application of heat to the material and/or to the air mixture which carries away the moisture.
2. Means for removing the water vapor, steam, or mixture
3. Conveying the material in its wet, semi-dried, dried condition into, through, and out of the
apparatus, allowing the material the proper time for contact with the heating and moisture-
removing elements.

Types of Dryer from Francisco (2014)

1. Direct-heat type dryer

o This may have the flame from combustion impinging on the material being dried, or the
gases of combustion may be mixed with additional air so that mixture in contact with
the material is reduced in temperature.
2. Indirect-heat type dryer.
o In this type, the gases of combustion pass through the spaces surrounding, or in other
ways heating, the drying chamber, but the gases are not allowed in contact with the
material being dried.
3. Steam-heated typed dryer
o In this type, material is in contact with steam piped or the air is passed over steam
heaters and then over or through the material being dried.

44
Six Commercial Types of Dryers and Three Materials Suitable for Each Dryers from Francisco (2014):

1. Rotary Dryer
 Materials: copra, sand, wood chips
2. Compartment Batch Dryer
 Materials: wood, enamel wares, foodstuffs
3. Centrifugal Dryer
 Materials: sugar, fertilizer, salt
4. Hearth Dryer
 Materials: copra, enamel wares, chalk
5. Tower Dryer
 Materials: palay, wheat, grains
6. Infrared Ray Dryer
 Materials: air conditioners, cars, refrigerators

Hygroscopic Materials are those substances which are particularly variable in the moisture content
that they can possess at different times (Francisco, 2014).

o Example: wood, leather, foodstuff, paper, tobacco, cloth, hair

Bone-Dry Weight (BDW) or Dry Bone Weight is the final constant weight reached by a hygroscopic
substance after being dried out (Francisco, 2014).

Regain is the hygroscopic moisture content of a substance expressed as a percentage of the dry-bone
-weight of the material (Francisco, 2014).

𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝐑𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝐁𝐨𝐧𝐞 − 𝐝𝐫𝐲 − 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

Moisture Content is usually expressed as a percentage of the gross weight of the body, and may refer
to both hygroscopic and purely substance moisture (Francisco, 2014).

45
 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝐌𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭 =
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

Gross Weight:

According to Francisco (2014):

Gross Weight = Bone-Dry-Weight + Weight of Moisture

𝐦𝐆 = 𝐦𝐁𝐃𝐖 + 𝐦𝐌

Dryer Schematic Diagram

Figure 3.1 below illustrates the schematic diagram of a dryer with conditioned air that passed through
a CDA and re-heater (Francisco, 2014).

Figure3.1 Dryer Schematic Diagram from Francisco (2014)

Psychrometric Chart Of Drying Process

Figure 3.2 below illustrates the different drying processes in the psychrometric chart (Francisco, 2014).

46
 Figure 3.2. Psychrometric Chart of Drying Processes from Francisco (2014)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS from Francisco (2014)

1. Copra enters a dryer, containing 60 % water and 40 % solids, and leaves with 5 % water and 95 %
solids. Find the mass of water removed on each: a) kilogram of original product; b) kilogram of final
product; and c) kilogram of Bone-dry material.

Given: Copra Dryer

Figure 3.3 Copra Dryer from Francisco (2014)

Required:

The weight of water removed based on each

a) Kilogram of original product

b) Kilogram of final product
c) Kilogram of bone-dry material

Solution:

Consider the following notations

MBD1 = mass of bone-dry material of the original or wet product (copra)

MBD2 = mass of bone-dry material of the final or dried product (copra)

47
 MC1 = moisture content of the original or wet product

MC2 = moisture content of the final or dried product

MG1 = gross mass of the original or wet product

MG2 = gross mass of the final or dried product

a. Consider 1 kg of original product or wet feed

Solving for the gross weight of the final product,

MBD = MG (1 − MC) = MG (Solid Part)MBD1 = MBD2

MG1 (1−MC1 ) 1.0(0.40)

MG1 (1 − MC1 ) = MG2 (1 − MC2 )MG2 = (1−MC2 )
= = 0.421 kg
0.95

For the mass of water removed, ∆GW,

MV = MG1 − MG2 = 1.0 − 0.421 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟗 𝐤𝐠

b. Consider 1 kg of final or dried product

MBD1 = MBD2 MG1 (1 − MC1 ) = MG2 (1 − MC2 )

MG2 (1 − MC2 ) 1.0(0.95)

MG1 = = = 2.375 kg
(1 − MC1 ) 0.40

For the mass of water removed, MV = MG2 − MG1 = 2.375 − 1.00 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐠

c. Consider 1.0 kg of the bone-dry material, MBD1 = MBD2 = 1.0

1.0 1.0
MG1 = = = 2.5 kg
1 − MC1 0.40

1.0 1.0
MG2 = = = 1.053 kg
1 − MC2 0.95
For the weight of water removed, MV = MG2 − MG1 = 2.5 − 1.053 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝐤𝐠

2. A tower-type moisture dryer is to deliver 1000 kg/hr of cassava flour with 2 % residual moisture of
20 % in the feed. The air to be heated in the heating chamber is a mixture of fresh air at 33 °C DB and
60 % RH, and hot humid air from dryer at 49 °C DB and 60 % RH. The mixture at 38 °C and 65 % RH
is heated by a steam coil to 93 °C. The dryer is properly insulated so that moisture absorption can be
considered adiabatic. Compute:

48
 a. Required flow of heated air mixture to dryer;
b. Capacity of forced draft fan on dryer
c. Heat in kcal/hr for heating the air mixture in the heating chamber
d. Percentage by weight of fresh air in the mixture.

Given: Drying System Shown

Figure 3.4 Drying System from Francisco (2014)

Required:

a. The 𝑚𝑎3 = 𝑚𝑎4

b. The fan capacity, 𝑚 3 /𝑠
c. The heat capacity of the heating chamber, kcal/hr
d. The % outdoor air required

49
 Figure 3.5 Temperature from Francisco (2014)

Solution:

a. Determination of the mass flow rate of the heated air

Figure 3.6 Drying System mass flow rate from Francisco (2014)

Consider the dryer and using mass balance,

ma + ma (W3 ) + m5 = ma + ma (W4 ) + m6
m2 − m6
ma (W3 ) + m5 = ma (W4 ) + m6 → ma (W4 − W3 ) = m5 − m6 ma =
W4 − W3

Where, m5 = gross mass of material entering the dryer

m6 = gross mass of material leaving the dryer

Solving for the bone-dry-mass of the material,

Gross mass = bone-dry-mass + mass of moisture m6 = BDM + 0.02m6

50
Then, BDM = m6 − 0.02 m6 = m6 (1 − 0.02) = 0.98 m6 = 0.98 (1000)

BDM = 980 kg/hr

Solving for the gross mass of material entering.

m5 = BDM + 0.20 m5 BDM = m5 − 0.20 m5 = m5 (1 − 0.20) = 0.80 m5

BDM 980
ma = = = 1225 kg/hr
0.80 0.80

From the Psychrometric Chart (Carrier),

At point 1: 33 °C DB and 60 % RH,

h1 = 82.3 − 0.32 = 81.98 kJ/kg da; &W1 = 0.0192 kg/kg da

At point 2: 38 °C DB and 65 % RH,

h2 = 109 − 0.36 = 108.64 kJ/kg da; &W2 = 0.0275 kg/kg da

At point 3: 93 °C DB and W3 = W2 = 0.0275 kg/kg da

h3 = 1.007(93) − 0.026 + 0.0275[2501 + 1.84(93)] = 167.01 kJ/kg da

At point 4: 49 °C DB and 60 % RH, pv4 = RH(pd )

Where, pd = 11.749 kPaa (from Steam Tables by Keenan at 49 °C)

pv4 = 0.60 (11.749) = 7.0494 kPaa

pv4 7.0494
Then, W4 = ( ) = (0.622) ( )
pt − pv4 101.325 − 7.0494

= 0.0465 kg/kg da

h4 = 1.007 t 4 − 0.026 + W4 (2501 + 1.84 t 4 )

h4 = 1.007 (49) – 0.026 + 0.0465 [2501 + 1.84 (49)] = 169.715 kJ/kg da

m5 − m6 1225 − 1000
therefore, ma = = = 11842.11 kg/hr ma = 3.29 kg/s
W4 − W3 0.0465 − 0.0275

51
b. For the capacity of the forced-draft fan, Q3 = ma (v3 )
W3 (pt ) 0.0275 (101.325)
where, pv3 = = = 4.2901 kPaa
W3 + 0.622 0.0275 + 0.622

RT6 (0.28708)(93 + 273)

v3 = = = 1.0828 m3 / kg da
pt − pv3 101.325 − 4.3901

c. For the heat added to the heating chamber, consider the heating chamber

Figure 3.7 Drying System heating chamber from Francisco (2014)

qh = ma (h3 − h2 ) − (3.29)(167.01 − 101.64) = 192.04 kW

But, 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ
1 kcal
qh = 192.04 kW ( ) (3 600 sec/ hr) = 165 116.79 kCal/hr
4.187 kJ

d. For the % by weight of fresh air in the mixture, consider junction 1-4-2

Figure 3.8 Drying System from Francisco (2014)

By energy balance, m1 h1 + m4 h4 = m2 h2

52
 Where, m4 = m2 − m1
m1 h1 + (m2 − m1 )h4 = m2 h2 → m1 h1 + m2 h4 − m1 h4 = m2 h2

m1 (h1 − h4 ) = m2 (h2 − h4 )

m h2−h4
Then, % by weight of m1 = m1 (100 %) = h1−h4
(100 %)
2

108.64 − 169.715
% by weight of m1 = (100 %) = 69.61 %
81.98 − 169715

#3. Wet material containing 215 % moisture (dry basis) is to be dried at the rate of 1.5 kg/s in a
continuous dryer to give a product containing 5 % moisture (wet basis). The drying medium consist
of air heated to 373 K and containing water vapor equivalent to a partial pressure of 1.40 kPaa. The
air leaves the dryer at 310 K and 70 % RH. Calculate how much air will be required to remove the
moisture.

Given: Dryer shown

Figure 3.8 Dryer from Francisco (2014)

Required:

Find the required air to remove the moisture.

Solution:

Consider the dryer and solving for the bone-dry-mass

m3 = BDM + 2.15 BDM = 3.15 BDM

m3 1.5
BDM = = = 0.476 kg/s
3.15 3.15

Solving for the mass of the material leaving the dryer, m4 = BDM + 0.05 m3

BDM = (1 − 0.05) m4 = 0.95 m4

53
 BDM 0.476
m4 = = = kg/s
0.95 0.95

Solving for the mass of air required, using mass balance

ma + ma (W1 ) + m3 = ma + ma (W3 ) + m4
m3 − m4
ma (W2 − W1 ) = m3 − m4 ; → ma =
W2 − W1

NOTE: Student is advised to complete the solution

Assignment 3

1. A dryer is to deliver 0.30 kg/s of cassava with 2 % moisture and 20 % moisture in the feed.
Determine the mass of air required if the change in humidity ratio is 0.0165 kg/kg da.
2. A certain material enters dryer containing 60 % water and leaves with 5 % water. Find the
mass of the final product if the original product is 1 kg/s.
3. Copra enters a dryer containing 60 % water and 40 % solids and leaves with 5 % water and
95 % solids. Find the weight of water removed based on a kg of original product.
4. A rotary dryer fired with bunker oil of 10 000 kcal/kg higher heating value is to produce 20
metric tons/hr of dried sand with 0.5 % moisture from a wet feed containing 7 % moisture,
specific heat of sand is 0.21 Btu/lb-°F. Temperature of wet sand is 30 °C and temperature of
dried product is 115 °C.
a. Calculate the weight of the wet feed
b. Calculate the weight of water to be removed in kg/hr
c. Calculate the heat required
d. Calculate the liters of bunker oil per hour if specific gravity of bunker oils is 0.90 and
dryer efficiency is 60 %.

Summary

54
  Drying is the process of removing moisture in varying amounts from solid or semi-fluid
materials. This process may be accomplished by pressure, suction, decantation, or
evaporation (Francisco, 2014).
 Dryer is machine or equipment used for drying process.
 Evaporation is the main principle of the term drying process. In drying process, not only
the surface liquid is removed or reduced but also removes internal moisture and in many
cases water in chemical combination.
 Inherent moisture and bed moisture are the terms used for describing the moisture in the
mass that is not on the surface of the material.
 Chemically combined water is that water occurring when a chemical component of the
material changes its chemical composition by heat or other means.

Reference

Francisco, Jose R. (2014). Lecture Notes in Industrial Plant Design, Lesson 6: Mechanical
Dryers, p.g 90 to p.g 100.

55