Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates

Logic Function and Boolean Algebra

Logic Function
A digital circuit represents and manipulates information encoded as electric signals that can assume one
of two voltages: logic high (Vdd) or logic low (GND). A digital circuit requires a power supply that can
produce these two voltages, and these same supply voltages are also used to encode information in the
form of two-state, or binary signals. Thus, if a given circuit node is at V dd, then that signal is said to carry
a logic '1'; if the node is at GND (Ground or earthing), then the node carries a logic '0'. The components in
digital circuits are simple on/off switches that can pass logic '1' and logic '0' signals from one circuit node
to another. Most typically, these switches are arranged to combine input signals to produce an output
signal according to basic logic relationships.
The three primary or basic logic relationships, AND, OR, and NOT (or inversion) can be used to express
any logical relationship between any number of variables. These simple logic functions form the basis for
all digital electronic devices—from a simple microwave oven controller to a desktop PC. We can write a
collection of logic equations of the form F=A⋅B (F equals A and B) that use these three relationships to
specify the behaviour of any given digital system.
Logic equations provide an abstract model of actual logic circuits. They are used to show how an output
logic signal should be driven in response to changes on one or more input signals. The equal sign ('=') is
typically used as an assignment operator to indicate how information should flow through a logic circuit.
For example, the simple logic equation 'F = A' specifies that the output signal F should be assigned
whatever voltage is currently on signal A. Thus, the logic equation 'F = A' dictates that a change on the
signal A will result in a change on the signal F.
Most logic equations specify an output signal that is some function of input signals. For example, the
logic equation F=A⋅B specifies a logic circuit whose output will be driven to '1' only when both inputs are
driven to '1'.

Introduction to Boolean Algebra

In 1854, George Boole performed an investigation into the “laws of thought” which were
based around a simplified version of the “group” or “set” theory, and from this Boolean
Algebra was developed. Boolean algebra is algebra of logics. Boolean algebra is
fundamental to computer operations. It was developed by George Boole. Initially, Boolean
algebra was developed just to determine whether logical propositions are true or false. The
variables in Boolean algebra can have only one of two values true or false. Abbreviated by
T or F. We can also write 1 for T and 0 for F. No division, subtraction, exponent, coefficient, negative
numbers are allowed in Boolean algebra.

Introduction to Boolean values

The two values of Boolean Algebra could represented in different forms in digital logical as below:

True False
1 0
On Off
High Low
Yes No
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
Truth Table
A truth table is a table that shows the relationship between the Boolean values when used
together with the Boolean operator and gives a particular output. A truth table is widely used for proving
Boolean expression and show the relationship between the Boolean values. A truth table with N inputs
requires 2N rows to list all possible input combinations.
Boolean expression and Boolean function
A Boolean function is a Boolean expression that is a combination of Boolean variables and operators
combined together to perform a particular task. The variables in a Boolean function as expression could
be single variables or a complement of a variable. The output achieved from one function could be used
as an input for another and so on to achieve any particular output.
F= (a + b).(b + c) ___________ (i)
F= (a.b).(b.c) ___________ (ii)

Laws (Identities) of Boolean algebra

If B is a non empty set then for a, b, c  B we have following laws which satisfies in Boolean Algebra.
1. Commutative Law
2. Associative law
3. Distributive law
4. Idempotence law
5. Involution law
6. Boundedness law
7. Absorption law
8. Identity law
9. Complement law
10. De Morgan's law
Each of these laws are discussed as follows

1. Commutative Laws
This law says the order in which Boolean variables are added is immaterial
i. A + B = B + A
ii. A. B = B. A
where a and b are the Boolean variables
Proof of (i)
A B A+B B+A
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
All the values of third column of above table is equal to values in fourth column. Hence (i) part of the law
is proved.
Proof of (ii)
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
A B A.B B.A
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
All the values of third column of the above table is equal to value in fourth column. Hence (ii) part of law
is proved.

2. Associative law
This law says that in the process of logically multiplying three variables, A, B, C it is immaterial whether
we do this by multiplying C to the product of A and B or by multiplying A to the product of B and C.
i.e. A.(A.C) = (A.B).C
A B C A.B B.C A.(B.C) (A.B)C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
The values of column A.(B. C) is equal to (A. B).C. Hence the first statement of associative law is proved.
Also this law has another statement which says in the process of logically adding two variables, it is
immaterial whether we do this by adding C to the sum of A and B or by adding A to sum of B and C i.e
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C

A B C A+B B+C A+(B+C) (A+B)+C

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The values of column A + (B + C) is equal to values in column (A + B) + C. Hence second statement of
associative law is proved.

3. Distributive law
Distributive law says that if Boolean expression is a sum of two or more than two terms having a common
variable then that common variable can be taken common like ordinary variable
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
i.e. A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
A B C A.B A.C B+C A.(B+C) A.B+A.C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The values of column A(B+C) is equal to values of column A. B + A. C. hence 1st statement of distributive
law is proved.
Similarly, this law also states that Boolean expression can be expanded term by term.
i.e. A +(B.C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
A B C A+B A+C B.C A+(B.C) (A+B).(A+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The value in column A+(B+C) are equal to values in column (A + B).(A + C). Hence statement is proved.

4. Idempotent law
This law says if a Boolean variables is multiplied with itself, we get that variable only.
i.e. A. A=A
A A. A
0 0
1 1
Here values of column A and A.A are equal. Hence statement proved.
similarly, this law also states that if we add a Boolean variables with itself we get that variable only.
i.e. A+A=A
A A+A
0 0
1 1

Here values of column A and A + A are equal. Hence statement proved.

5. Involution law
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
This law states that double complement of a Boolean variable is equal to the variable itself.

i.e. (A')' = A.

Proof

A A' (A')'
0 1 0
1 0 1

Values in column A and (A')' are equal. Hence equal.

6. Boundedness law
This law says if 1 is added to a Boolean variable we get output 1.

i.e. A + 1= 1

A A+1
0 1 1
1 1 1

All values of column A+1 are 1. Hence statement proved.

Also this law says that if 0 is multiplied to a Boolean variable we get output 0.

i.e. A.0 = 0

A A.0
0 0 0
1 0 0

All values of column A.0 are 0. Hence 2nd statement proved.

7. Absorption law
If two Boolean variables A and B are given then if we add A to the product of A and B we get Boolean
variable A as the result.
i.e. A+(A. B) =A
A B A. B A+(A .B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
All values of column A+(A. B) are equal to values in column A. Hence statement proved.
Similarly, the other statement of absorption law says if two Boolean variables, A and B are given, then if
we multiply A to the sum of A and B then we get A.
i.e. A.(A + B) = A
A B A+B A.(A + B)
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
In above table the values in column A.(A + B) are equal to column A. Hence statement proved.
8. Identity law
This law says of 0 is added to any Boolean variable 'a' then we obtain that variable only.
i.e. A+0=A
A A+0
0 0
1 1
Here values in column A+0 is equal to column A. Hence statement proved
Similarly, another statement of identify law says if 1 in multiplied to any Boolean variable 'A' then we get
that variable only.
i.e. A.1=A
A A.1
0 0
1 1
Here values in column A and A.1 are equal. Hence statement proved.

9.Complement law
This law says that if a Boolean variable is added with its complement we obtain 1.
i.e. A + A' = 1
A A' A + A'
0 1 1
1 0 1
In the table all the values of column A + A' are 1. Hence statement proved.
Similarly if a Boolean variable is multiplied with its complement we obtain 0
i.e. A. A'=0
A A' A. A'
0 1 0
1 0 0
Here, in the table all the values of column A. A' are 0. Hence statement proved.

10. De Morgan's law

De Morgan law is the most renowned logical theorem for digital electronics using Boolean algebra. It has
two following theorem.

a. Theorem 1
This theorem states that "The complement of a sum of Boolean variable equal to the product of
complement of those variables. If a and b are two Boolean variables then (a + b)' = a'. b' .
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
truth table proof:

A B A' B' A+B (A + B)' A'. B'

0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

The values in column (A + B)' are equal to values in column A'. B'. Hence proved.

b. Theorem 2
This theorem states that complement of product of Boolean variables equals to sum of the complement of
those variables. If A, B and C are the Boolean variables then

(A.B)' = A' + B'

truth table proof:

A B A' B' A. B (A. B)' A' + B'
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
The values in column (A.B)' are equal to the values in column A'+B'. Hence Theorem 2 is proved.
Principles of Duality
Principles of Duality states that a duality of a Booleans expression can be formed by:
i. Replacing OR (+) with AND (–)
ii. Replacing AND (–) with OR (+)
iii. Replacing 0 with 1 and 1 with 0.
But in the process, variables and the complements needs to remain same.
Examples of duals formed from Boolean expression:
Boolean expression Duals
I) (A + B).C (A. B) + C
II) A. B + C (A + B). C
III) (X+0) + (1+A') (X. 1). (1. A')

Logical Gates
Logical gates are the electronic circuit which operates on one or more input signal to produce single
output . AND, OR, NOT are basic gates.

a) AND gates:
It is a digital circuit whose output is a value of 1 only when all input are
1. On all other cases of input output 0 is returned. If we consider 3
inputs a, b and c with s being the output then the resulting AND gate is
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
shown below:
The resulting truth table is shown below:
Inputs Outputs
A B C F = A.B.C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
The resulting Boolean expression is F = A.B.C
b) OR gate:
It is a digital circuit whose output is a value of 1; if any one of the input is 1. The output in OR gate is
0 only when all inputs are 0. If we consider 3 inputs a, b, c and if d is the output then the resulting or
gate is shown below.

The resulting truth table is shown below:

Inputs Outputs
a b c d=a+b+c
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The resulting Boolean expression is

d= a + b + c
c. NOT gate:
It is a digital circuit whose output is a value of 1; if input is 0 and output is 0 if input is 1. If we
consider 'a' as input and 'b' as output the resulting NOT gate is shown below:
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
The resulting truth table is shown below:
Input Output
A B=A'
0 1
1 0
The resulting Boolean expression is:
b = a'
In addition to the above basic logical gates; we can have some more logic gates by combining basic gates.
These gates are NOR, NAND, XOR, XNOR which are described as followed:
i. NOR gate(logical complement of OR)
It is a digital circuit whose output is 1 only if all inputs are 0. On all other cases output is 0. A NOR
gate is basically an OR circuit followed by a NOT circuit. If we consider x and y as input and F as
the output then the resulting NOR gate is shown below:

Figure: of NOR gate

The resulting truth table is shown below:
Inputs Outputs
X Y F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
The resulting Boolean expression is:
F= (X + Y)'
ii. NAND gate(Logical complement of AND)
It is a digital circuit whose output is 0 when all input signal are 1 and on all other cases output is 1. A
NAND gate is basically AND circuit followed by a NOT circuit. If we consider A, B, C as input and s
as output then the resulting NAND gate is shown below:

The resulting truth table is shown below:

Inputs Outputs
A B C F
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
The resulting Boolean expression is
F = (A.B.C)'
iii. XOR gate: (Exclusive OR gate)
It is a digital circuit which yields true (1) if and only if the number of 1’s on input is in odd.
Otherwise output 0 is yielded.

The above figure shows the symbol of XOR gate and its truth table
Resulting Boolean expression is
F= A.'B +A.B'
Where F is assumed to be output
iv. XNOR gate (Exclusive NOR gate) or Equivalence gate:
It is the digital circuit which yields output 1 if all the inputs are 1 or all the inputs are 0.And on all
other cases output 0 is obtained.

Figure XNOR gate

The resulting truth table is
Inputs Output
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Resulting Boolean expression is
F=A.B + A'B' where F is assumed as output.
BUFFER GATE
 Unit 2: Boolean algebra and Logic Gates
Sometimes in digital electronic circuits we need to isolate logic gates from each other or have them drive
or switch higher than normal loads, such as relays, solenoids and lamps without the need for inversion. A
weak signal source (one that is not capable of sourcing or sinking very much current to a load) may be
boosted by means of two inverters like the pair shown in the following illustration. One type of single
input logic gate that allows us to do just that is called the Digital Buffer.
The “Buffer” performs no inversion or decision making capabilities (like logic gates with two or more
inputs) but instead produces an output which exactly matches that of its input. In other words, a digital
buffer does nothing as its output state equals its input state.

A'
A F= A A F= A

Figure a. Double inversion NOT gate

Figure b. Buffer gate

Input Output
0 0
1 1

Figure c. Truth Table of Buffer

Integrated Circuit (ICs)

Texas Instruments is celebrating the North Texas man who made the integrated circuit – the microchip —
possible. On Sept. 12, 1958, Jack Kilby, a IT engineer, invented the integrated circuit. It would
revolutionize the electronics industry, helping make cell phones and computers widespread today.
An integrated circuit (ICs) is an electronic device comprising numerous functional elements such
as transistors, resistors, condensers, etc. on a piece of silicon semiconductor substrate, and is sealed inside
a package with multiple terminals. At present, IC critical dimensions (or smallest dimensions of IC
elements) are in the order of 10 nanometers (nm: 10-9m), which is extremely small.
Transistor radios that fascinated boys in the old days consisted of a piece of printed board with
discrete transistors, resistors, condensers and diodes inserted, which were wired to each other. The
current IC is highly integrated and miniaturized, about 1/55000 of the size and 3 billionths of the area of
the transistor radio. Owing to their high integration, ICs with various functions embedded have
dramatically enhanced the performance of electronics.
In the manufacturing of ICs, many ICs are made on a silicon wafer and then cut (diced) into
numerous IC chips (dies). The IC chips are sealed inside packages because they are too small to be
electrically bonded to a printed circuit board, and also because IC chips would get broken if left
unprotected. If you open the cover of a personal computer, you will see objects with multiple legs
sticking out. These are the ICs hidden inside the packages. Depending on the number of
components, ICs are classified as LSI (large-scale integration), VLSI（very large scale integration), and
ULSI（ultra large scale integration）. Normally the “VLSI” term covers "ULSI".