UNIT No.

02

DC Machines

Brushed (Field Energized) Motors (Motors using wound rotors)

The traditional DC motor needs two current supplies, one through the
stator windings to provide the magnetic field and the other through the rotor
windings to interact with the magnetic field to generate the motive force. There
are three ways of accomplishing this, each one resulting in unique
characteristic motor performance. Because they all use wound rotors, they all
need a commutator to feed the current into the rotor windings.
Speed is controlled by varying the rotor voltage and hence the rotor
current, or by varying the magnetic flux in the air gap by changing the current
in the field windings.
With access to both the field and rotor windings, all DC motors offer the
facility of simple speed and torque control.

Introduction To different DC Motors-

1. Series Wound
The series-wound motor has only one voltage supply to the motor and
the field winding isconnected in series with the rotor winding.

Characteristics—

--The series motor has poor speed regulation. It delivers increasing torque with
increased motor current but this is at the expense of speed which falls with
increasing torque demands.
--This motor has a very high starting torque because there is zero back EMF at
zero speed however as the speed builds up so does the back EMF causing a
reduction in torque. Increasing the load on the motor tends to slow it down,
but this in turn lowers back EMF and increase the torque to accommodate the
load.
--Speed control is possible by varying the
supply voltage.
--Under no load conditions the speed will accelerate to dangerous levels
possibly causing destruction of the motor. The motor can be reversed by
reversing the connections on either the field or the rotor windings but not both.
--Regenerative braking is not possible since the field current needs to be
maintained but it collapses when the rotor current passes through zero and
reverses.

Applications
The series DC motor is an industry workhorse for both high and low
power, fixed and variablespeed electric drives.
Applications range from cheap toys to automotive applications.
 They are inexpensive to manufacture and are used in variable speed
household appliances such assewing machines and power tools.
Its high starting torque makes it particularly suitable for a wide range of
traction applications.

2. Shunt Wound
The shunt wound motor also has only one voltage supply to the motor
but in this case the field winding is connected in parallel with the rotor
winding.

Field Weakening
The speed of a shunt wound motor can be controlled to a limited extent without
affecting the supply voltage, by "field weakening". A rheostat in series with the
field winding can be used to reduce the field current. This in turn reduces
the flux in the air gap and since the speed is inversely proportional to the
flux, the motor will speed up. However, the torque is directly proportional to the
flux in the air gap so that the speed increase will be accompanied by a reduction
in torque.

Characteristics:-
--The shunt wound motor turns at almost constant speed if the voltage is fixed.
The motor can deliver increasing torque, without an appreciable reduction in
speed, by increasing the motor current.
--As with the series wound motor, the shunt wound motor can be reversed by
reversing the connections on either the field or the rotor windings.
--Regenerative braking is possible. Self excitation maintains the field when the
rotor current reverses.

Applications
Fixed speed applications such as automotive windscreen wipers and fans.

3. Separately Excited
The separately excited motor has independent voltage supplies to
the field and rotorwindings allowing more control over the motor
performance.

Characteristics:-
The voltage on either the field or the rotor windings can be used to control
the speed and torqueof a separately excited motor.

Applications
Train and automotive traction applications.

4. Permanent Magnet Motors

As the name implies, these motors use permanent magnets rather than
electromagnets to provide either the rotor or the stator field. They are used
extensively in small DC motors and to an increasing extent in traction
applications.
• Rotor Magnets
These are by far the most common types of permanent magnet motors.
They have no rotor windings but use permanent magnets to supply the rotor
field and they behave like shunt wound DC motors with a fixed shunt
current. Their major advantage is the elimination of the commutator.

• Field Magnets
These motors have no field winding but use permanent magnets to provide
the magnetic field. Current is still supplied to the rotor via a commutator
as in other brushed motors and the speed can be controlled by varying the
voltage on the rotor windings. In this way their behaviour is similar to a
series wound DC motor.

Difference Between AC Motors and DC Motors

AC Motors
AC motors are powered with alternating current and convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy. There are three types of alternating current
motors with three-phases. AC induction motors the most commonly used, for
AC voltage, the voltage on which they run, is readily available at any outlet.
All AC motors, no matter their type, are comprised of a stator, which produces
the magnetic field, and a rotor, which is made to rotate by the magnetic field
that is induced from the current generated by the stator.
When choosing the right AC motor for your application there are two key
components to keep in mind; the running speed, or how fast the motor will turn
as measured in RPMS, and the starting torque, or how much force is needed (if
any) to start the motor. By providing these specifications to an experienced
engineer, you can be sure you will receive the most effective and cost efficient
AC motor for your application.

AC vs. DC
The main difference between AC motors and DC motors can be found in
the name itself for, DC motors run on direct current as opposed to alternating
current on which AC motors run.
With direct current, energy is obtained from batteries or cells and generates
a constant voltage. This constant voltage then stimulates the steady flow of
electrons in one direction. It is this constant and precise flow of energy that
makes direct current most suitable for applications that require precise and
stable operation, such as speed and torque control applications.
With alternating current, energy is obtained through both AC generators
and mains to generate a varying voltage. It is because of this varying voltage
that the electrons of an alternating current, unlike those of a direct current,
continuously change direction, moving forward and backward. Also in
contrast to direct current, which is unable to produce voltage capable of
traveling over long distances, the voltage of alternating current is safe to
transfer over long distance and provide greater power, making alternating
current ideal for both home and industrialapplications.
 What is a Brushless DC Motor?
A Brushless DC (BLDC) motor can be a variety of
different electric motors typically used for
applications that necessitate high reliability,
efficiency, and power-to-volume ratio. Additionally, a
BLDC motor is considered to be a high performance
motor that is capable of providing large amounts of
torque over a vast speed range.

When are Brushless DC Motors Used?

The use of BLDC motors is continuously increasing. There are numerous reasons for this
trend, including: the weight/size to power ratio, excellent acceleration performance, little or no
maintenance required, and they generate less acoustic and electrical noise than universal or
brushed DC motors.

How Do Brushless DC Motors Commutate?

Commutation is the action of changing the motor phase currents at the appropriate times
in order to produce rotational torque. With a BLDC motor, electrical current flowing through
coils forms a field within the motor. This field attracts or repels a permanent magnet that causes
the motor to move, ensuring that no physical commutator is needed (as opposed to Universal DC
motors). There are multiple sets of coils that are activated in the correct sequence to make the
motor continuously rotate.

In a Universal DC motor, brushes control the commutation, by physically connecting the

coils at the correct moment. On the other hand, however, with BLDC motors, commutation is
controlled by electronics. The electronics can either have position sensor inputs which provide
information about when to commutate, or use the Back Electromotive Force generated in the
coils (the voltage generated by the spinning motor acting like a generator). In general, position
sensors are most often used in applications where the starting torque varies greatly or where a
high initial torque is necessary. This is in contrast to brushless controls without sensors, which
are used when the initial torque does not significantly vary and where position control is not in
focus.

Why choose a Brushless DC Motor?

BLDC motors are extremely reliable and have the added benefit, unlike Universal DC
motors, in that they do not have brushes. Brushes eventually wear out and need to be replaced,
making regular maintenance necessary for brushed motors. In addition, when operated in rated
conditions, the life expectancy is typically over 10,000 hours. With such a great life expectancy,
this can provide you with an incredible benefit when BLDC motors are used for long-term
applications. Finally, because these motors have such great reliability, they breakdown less often
and, as you know, whenever a motor breaks down or needs to be replaced, your project, or
portion of the project, must be delayed or shutdown. These delays and shutdowns cost time and
money. As such, although a BLDC motor may cost more than a brushed motor, it regularly pays
for itself in the amount of work time it saves.
DC vs AC Motors

DC or direct current motors work in particular situations whereby the speed of the motor needs to
be externally controlled. On the other hand AC or alternating current electric motors are used in a
completely different process drawing upon the kind of ac motor being used.
DC motors generally characterize a continual and standard current flow. These were infact the
first ever kind of motors to be used, the earliest form, whereas, the single phase AC motors are
precisely termed as the general purpose motors which can be used in variant situations
irrespective of the quality of the current flow.

AC motors work exceedingly well for hard systems as these need a lot of upfront power. On the
other hand, DC motors do not perform that well at producing power over extended periods of
time.
The two main kinds of DC motors are,

DC motors with brushes: This particular motor is capable of generating a swinging current in
the armature or the wound rotor using a split ring commutator or a magnet stator.

DC motors without brushes: In this motor there is a mechanical rotating switch or external
electronic switch placed just in the motor’s place.

AC motors also have two basic types namely,

• The synchronous AC motors: It starts rotating just when a sub-multiple of the supply
frequency or the supply frequency hits. The rotor magnetic field is the result of slip ring current
or some permanent magnet.

• The induction AC motors: This one turns a little slower than the standard supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor in this case works with the help of induced current.
Thereon DC motors are self starting and require no external help whereas AC motors require
effective starting equipment to start operation. Moreover, DC motors are single phase motors
whereas AC motors are both 1 and 3 phase. Though both DC and AC motors work on the same
principle of armature winding and magnetic field yet in the former the armature rotates while the
magnetic field remains stationary, whereas in AC motors the armature remains stationary and the
magnetic field keeps rotating.

Summary:
1. DC motors are direct current motors while ac motors are alternating current motors.
2. DC motors generally characterize a continual and standard current flow while AC motors are
used in variant situations irrespective of the quality of the current flow.
3. DC motors are self starting whereas AC motors require effective starting equipment.
 Stepper Motors
1. General

Stepper motors are electromagnetic incremental devices that convert electric pulses to shaft
motion (rotation). These motors rotate a specific number of degrees as a respond to each input
electric pulse. Typical types of stepper motors can rotate 2°, 2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, and 15° per input
electrical pulse. Rotor position sensors or sensorless feedback based techniques can be used to
regulate the output response according to the input reference command. Stepper motors offers
many attractive features such as:

• Available resolutions ranging from several steps up to 400 steps (or higher) per revolution.

• Several horsepower ratings.

• Ability to track signals as fast as 1200 pulses per second.

Stepper motors have many industrial applications such as:

• Printers.

• Disk Drives.

• Machine Tools.

• Robotics.

• Tape Drives.

2. Types of Stepper Motors

Stepper motors are usually classified into three main categories, namely, Variable reluctance
(single stack and multi stack), Permanent Magnet, and Hybrid motors.

2.1 Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors

Fig. 1 presents the basic circuit configuration of a typical 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack, variable
reluctance stepper motor. The stator is made of a single stack of steel laminations with the phase
windings wound around the stator poles. The rotor is made of stack of steel laminations without
any windings. The main principle of operation depends on aliging one set only of stator and rotor
poles by energizing the stator windings. Therefore, the number of poles in the stator and rotor
windings has to be different. The stator windings are energized by a DC source in such a
sequence to generate a resultant rotating air-gap field around the rotor in steps. The rotor is made
of ferromagnetic material that provides a tendency to align the rotor axis along the direction of
the resultant air-gap field. Therefore, the rotor tracks the motion of this stepped field.
Fig. 1 Basic circuit configuration of a typical 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack, variable
reluctance stepper motor

Fig. 2 illustrates the different modes of operation of the 4-phase, 2-pole, single-stack, variable
reluctance stepper motor for 45° step in the following energizing sequence A, A+B, B, B+C, C,
C+D, D, and then D+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

• Energizing winding A: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole A
windings. Consequently, the rotor aligns itself along the phase A axis as shown in the upper part
of Fig. 2.

• Energizing windings A and B: The resultant air-gap flux will be oriented in the midway
between pole A and pole B i.e., the resultant mmf rotated 45° in the clockwise direction.
Consequently, the rotor aligns itself with the resultant mmf (45°) as shown in the middle part of
Fig. 2.

• Energizing winding B: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole B
windings. Consequently, the rotor aligns itself along the phase B axis as shown in the lower part
of Fig. 2.

• and so on.

The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence to be A, A+D, D,
D+C, C, C+B, B, and then B+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.
Fig. 2 Operation modes of single-stack, 2-poles, variable reluctance stepper motor with 45°
step

Smaller steps can be obtained by using multi-pole rotor configuration such as the one shown in
Fig. 3 that rotate in an anticlockwise direction with a 15° step in the following energizing
sequence A, A+B, B, B+C, C, C+D, D, and then D+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

• Energizing winding A: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole A
windings. Consequently, the rotor pole P1 aligns itself along the phase A axis as shown in the
upper part of Fig. 3.

• Energizing windings A and B: The resultant air-gap flux will be oriented in the midway
between pole A and pole B i.e., the resultant mmf rotated 45° in the clockwise direction. In this
case, the nearest rotor pole to this direction is pole P2. Consequently, the rotor rotates in an
anticlockwise direction to align pole P2 with the resultant mmf (45). Therefore, the net rotational
step is 15° in an anticlockwise direction.
• Energizing winding B: The resultant air-gap flux will be aligned along the axis of pole B
windings. In this case, the nearest rotor pole to this direction is pole P3. Consequently, the rotor
rotates in an anticlockwise direction to align pole P3 with the resultant mmf (90). Therefore, the
net rotational step in this stage is also 15° in an anticlockwise direction.
• and so on.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence to be A, A+D, D,
D+C, C, C+B, B, and then B+A. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

Fig. 3 Construction and operation of 4-phase, 6-pole, single-stack, variable reluctance

stepper motor

Fig. 4 Construction and operation of 3-phase, 4-pole, single-stack, variable reluctance

 stepper motor

This presents the circuit configuration and different operation modes for a 3-phase, 4-pole, single
stack, variable reluctance stepper motor that rotate in a clockwise direction with a 30° step.

Fig. 5 presents each phase switching sequence for one revolution of the rotor.
Table 1 Phase switching sequence: “1” and “0” corresponds to positive and zero phase voltage
(Currents), respectively
 2.2 Multi-Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors

In this type, the motor is divided along its axis into a number of stacks. Each stack is
energized by a separate winding (phase) as shown in Fig. 6. These stacks are magnetically
isolated from each other. The most common type is the three-stack, three-phase motors; however,
number of stacks and phases up to seven are also available.

Fig. 6 Cross section view of a typical three-stack variable reluctance stepper motor

These motors are characterized by have the same number of teeth in each of the stator
stacks as those in each of the rotor stacks. However, the rotors teeth in the different stacks are
aligned while those in the stator stacks are not as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Teeth position for a 3-phase, 4-pole, 12-teeth, three-stack, variable reluctance stepper
motor when phase a is energized

This also illustrates the rotational sequence of a 3-phase, 4-pole, 12-teeth, three-stack,
variable reluctance stepper motor for 10° step in a clockwise direction according to the following
energizing sequence A, B, and C. Then this switching sequence is repeated.

• Energizing phase (stack) A: when stack A winding is energized, the rotor teeth will move to
align themselves with the stator teeth is stack A as shown in Fig. 7.

• Energizing phase (stack) B: when stack B winding is then energized while stack A winding is
de-energized, the rotor teeth will move to align themselves with the stator teeth is stack B. This
will result in a clockwise rotation of the rotor by 10° as shown in Fig. 7.
• Energizing phase (stack) C: when stack C winding is then energized while stack B winding is
de-energized, the rotor teeth will move to align themselves with the stator teeth is stack C. This
will result in another clockwise rotation of the rotor by 10°. After this stage the rotor has moved
one rotor tooth pitch as illustrated by Fig. 7.
• and so on.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence. Assume that the
total number of stacks (phases) is N while the total number of teeth in each stack is x. The tooth

pitch can be expressed by,

Moreover, the step size can be expressed by,

Consequently, the number of steps per revolution (n) is given by

As an example, for the motor in Fig. 7, x = 12 and N = 3. Therefore,

2.3 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors

Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motors are similar in construction

to that of single-stack, variable reluctance stepper motors except that
the rotor is made of permanent magnet. Fig. 8 presents the circuit
configuration and different operation modes for a 2-phase, permanent
magnet stepper motor that rotate in an anticlockwise direction with a
90° step. Table 2 and Fig. 9 present each phase switching sequence
for one revolution of the rotor. Reversing the switching sequence will
result in reversing the direction of rotation.PM stepper motors offer
many features compared to variable reluctance type such as :
• Higher inertia and consequently lower acceleration (deceleration) rates.
• Maximum step pulse rate is 300 pulses per second compared to 1200 pulses per
second for variable reluctance stepper motors.
• Larger step sizes, ranging from 30° to 90° compared to step sizes as low as 1.8°
for variable reluctance stepper motors.
• Generate higher torque per ampere of stator currents than variable reluctance stepper
motors.

Fig. 8 Construction and operation of 2-phase, permanent magnet stepper motor

 Fig. 9 Phase switching
sequence
Table 2 Phase switching sequence: “1”, “-1” and “0” corresponds to
positive, negative, and zero phase voltage (currents), respectively
Explain 3 Point Starter with diagram--

Figure:- Three Point Starter

The figure above shows that typical representation diagram of a 3

point starter for DC shunt motors with its protective devices. It contains
3 terminals namely L, Z, & A; hence named 3 point starter. The starter
is made up of of starting resistances divided into many section and
which are connected in series within the armature. The each tapping
point on the starting resistances is carried out to a no. of studs. The
starter 3 terminals L,Z & A are connected to the positive terminal of
line, shunt field and armature terminal of motor respectively. The
remaining
terminal of the shunt and armature are connected to the
negative line terminal. The No volt coil release is
connected in series with field winding. The handle one end
is connected to the L terminal by means of over load
release coil. Then another end of handle travels against
the twisting spring & make touching base with every single
stud in the course of starting operation, tripping out the
starting resistance as it moves above every stud in
clockwise.
Armature

Reaction in DC

Motor

Working:
Initially the DC supply is turned on with the handle is in
OFF position.

Now the handle is moved towards clockwise direction to

the 1st stud. Once it contacts with the 1st stud, immediately
the shunt field coil is connected to the supply, however the
entire starting resistances is injected with armature circuit
in series.

As the handle moved gradually towards the final stud, so

that the starting resistance is cut out step by step in
armature circuit. And finally the handle is detained
magnetically by the No volt coil release since it is
energized by the filed winding.

In case if the shunt field winding excitation is cut out by

accident or else the supply is interrupted then the no volt
coil release gets demagnetized and handle returned back
to the original position under the influence of spring.

Note: If we were not used No volt coil release; then if

the supply is cut off the handle would remain in the
same position, causing an extreme current in
armature.
 If any fault occurs on motor or overload, it will draw
extreme current from the source. This current raise the
ampere turns of OLR coil (over load relay) and pull the
armature Coil, in consequence short circuiting the NVR
coil (No volt relay coil). The NVR coil gets demagnetized
and handle comes to the rest position under the influence
of spring. Therefore the motor disconnected from the
supply automatically.

Characteristic of

DC Shunt Motor

Disadvantage:
In point starter, no volt relay coil is connected in
series with field circuit; hence it carries shunt current in the
field. When the speed control of DC motor through field
regulator, it may be weakened the shunt field current to
such extent the no volt coil release might not in a position
to hold the starter handle in ON position. This might the
motor disconnected from the source when it is not
anticipated. This can be overcome by using the point
starter.