8.

5mm

INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY:

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES
B.A. (HONS.) POLITICAL SCIENCE
SEMESTER-VI
DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC CORE COURSE (DSC-18)

INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY: CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES

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DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING
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India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

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Editors
Shaitan Singh, Devendra Dilip Pai
Dr Sukanshika Vatsa, Dr Saripalli V. Ravikiran

Content Writer
Shaitan Singh

Academic Coordinator
Deekshant Awasthi

Department of Distance and Continuing Education

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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

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India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

SYLLABUS
India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

Syllabus Mapping

Unit-I: India’s Foreign Policy: As a Postcolonial State Lesson-1: A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy
a. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy
b. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy Lesson-2: Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy:
c. Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy: Domestic Domestic and International and
and International from Non-alignment to Strategic Engagements in
d. From Non-Alignment to Strategic Engagements a Multipolar World
in a Multipolar World (Pages 3–48)

Unit-II: India and the Changing Global Power Equations Lesson-3: India and the USA, India and Russia
a. India and the USA and India and China
b. India and Russia (Pages 51–78)
c. India and China

Unit-III: India in South Asia: Issues and Challenges Lesson-4:A. Issues: Land and Boundary,
a. Issues: Land and boundary, Migration, and Migration, and Refugee Crisis
Refugee crisis B. Debating Regional Strategies: SAARC and
b. Debating Regional Strategies: SAARC and BIMSTEC
BIMSTEC (Pages 81–118)

Unit-IV: C
 hallenges of India’s Foreign Policy in the Global Lesson-5: Negotiating Styles and Strategies:
Domain Trade, Security and Climate Change and India’s
a. Negotiating Styles and Strategies: Trade, Security Engagements in Multilateral Forums: BRICS
and Climate Change (Pages 121–152)
b. India’s Engagements in Multilateral Forums:
BRICS

Unit-V: India as an Emerging Power Lesson-6: A. India in the Changing

a. India in the Changing International Order International Order
b. Soft power diplomacy B. Soft Power Diplomacy
(Pages 155–188)

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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

CONTENTS
UNIT I: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY: AS A POSTCOLONIAL STATE

Lesson-1 A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy

B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy 3–27

Lesson-2 Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy: Domestic and International and

from Non-alignment to Strategic Engagements in a Multipolar World 29–48

UNIT II: INDIA AND THE CHANGING GLOBAL POWER EQUATIONS

Lesson-3 India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China 51–78

UNIT III: INDIA IN SOUTH ASIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Lesson-4 A. Issues: Land and Boundary, Migration, and Refugee Crisis 81–118
B. Debating Regional Strategies: SAARC and BIMSTEC

UNIT IV: CHALLENGES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE GLOBAL

DOMAIN

Lesson-5 Negotiating Styles and Strategies: Trade, Security and Climate 121–152
Change and India’s Engagements in Multilateral Forums: BRICS

UNIT V: INDIA AS AN EMERGING POWER

Lesson-6 A. India in the Changing International Order

B. Soft Power Diplomacy 155–188

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Unit-I : India’s Foreign Policy: As a Postcolonial State

Lesson-1 A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy

B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy
Lesson-2 Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy: Domestic and International
and from Non-alignment to Strategic Engagements in a Multipolar
World
A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

LESSON-1 NOTES

A. SOURCES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

B. THEORISING INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Objectives
1.3 Understanding Postcolonial Context
1.4 Sources of India’s Foreign Policy
1.4.1 Historical Civilisational Legacy and Ideological Foundations
1.4.2 Geopolitical Realities
1.4.3 Economic and Developmental Imperatives
1.4.4 International Institutions and Multilateralism
1.5 Theorising India’s Foreign Policy
1.5.1 Realism in India’s Foreign Policy
1.5.2 Liberalism and India
1.5.3 Constructivism and Indian Identity
1.5.4 Alternative Perspectives
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References/Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION

India’s postcolonial experience as a state navigating through a determined set

of aspirations and challenges has shaped its foreign policy by drawing on its
historical, ideological and geopolitical realities. This lesson attempts to explain Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES the sources and theoretical perspectives which have shaped India’s approach
to international relations. India's foreign policy has a unique trajectory, and
its civilisational legacy, ideological foundations, geographical imperatives,
economic priorities and interaction with global institutions explain this trajectory,
together defining India's strategic behaviour in the global arena. A legacy of
colonial exploitation and civilisational richness of India marked foreign policy
during postcolonial India. The three thrusts of an independent foreign policy
in the interregnum of 1947-60 were framed by the historical and ideological
underpinnings, notably the teachings of the ancient texts and cultural ideals. It
also underwent influences of geopolitical realities of India’s location, bordering
powerful neighbours and a strategic location in South Asia. Further, economic and
developmental imperatives inflicted on India from poverty alleviation to industrial
growth to self-reliance forced India to look for international partnerships and
cooperation to bring about sustainable development. Furthermore, India pursued
its interest in international institutions such as the Non-Aligned Movement, and
the United Nations, as evidence of the country’s interest in multilateralism and
following the rule of a global order.
A holistic understanding of India’s foreign policy calls for an understanding
of its theoretical underpinnings. In this regard, realism with its emphasis on
power and security provides clues to the forces underlying Indian strategic
autonomy and military modernisation. India’s commitment to democratic
values, economic interdependence and institutional cooperation is emphasised
by liberalism. Constructivism gives an insight into how Indian identity, culture
and values affect the course of the foreign policy in India. The dominant theories
of India’s international engagements have been explained beyond these theories,
yet various alternative theoretical perspectives (postcolonial and critical theories)
underline the historical oppression, global inequalities, and quest for justice in
India’s international engagements. Through their combination, these sources and
theories create an in-depth framework for analysing India’s foreign policy in a
dynamic interconnected global context. This lesson will systematically explore
these dimensions so that students will be adequately informed about the nature
of the challenges and India’s foreign policy as a postcolonial state.

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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

NOTES
1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

• Analyse the historical and ideological foundations that have shaped India’s
foreign policy in the postcolonial era
• Evaluate the impact of geopolitical realities and economic imperatives on
India’s strategic decision-making
• Examine India’s engagement with international institutions and its approach
to multilateralism
• Discuss theoretical frameworks such as realism, liberalism, and
constructivism to understand India’s foreign policy behaviour
• Assess alternative perspectives and postcolonial theories in the context of
India’s global interactions and challenges

1.3 UNDERSTANDING POSTCOLONIAL CONTEXT

India’s foreign policy needs to be understood in the context of the postcolonial

period because it offers the historical and socio-political background for the
country to negotiate its early years of independence. Postcolonialism means
the period and condition of the societies we are coming from, coming out of
under the umbrella of colonisation to governing themselves, during which those
dealing with legacies of colonial exploitation in all spheres of socio–economic
development and cultural suppression. This context defined India’s national
identity, political priorities, and foreign policy outlook, and the interrelationship
between India’s search for sovereignty, self-reliance, and respect in the world.
The dual challenge India confronted in coming to terms with its postcolonial
condition was the challenge of the duality of both decolonisation and nation-
building. The effect of the colonial rule was to leave deeply scarred Indian
polity and economy, such as broken society, economic dependency and high
geopolitical vulnerabilities. India, at the time of independence in 1947, had
a deeply impoverished population, low industrialisation and partition which Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES caused large human and material losses. These factors directly determined the
objectives of India’s foreign policy: to secure territorial integrity; to hasten
economic development; and to enhance the autonomy of India in world affairs.
In the post-colonial era, India’s foreign policy was determined culturally
and ideologically by its civilisational ethos and philosophical traditions which
are rooted in the principles of ‘Vasudhāiva Kutumbakam’. From its rich heritage,
several leaders envisioned a policy of peace, nonviolence and cooperation. This
vision produced the principles of ‘Panchsheel’ such as the Five Principles of
Peaceful Coexistence as well as non-alignment with the principles of sovereignty
and peace. India's non-aligned stance enabled it to stay out of the ideological
fray of the Cold War while pushing a newly independent Asia, Africa and
Latin America to the front of world negotiations. The role of the economic
dimension of the postcolonial context was also essential. As a new country,
i.e., newly independent, it prioritised development and self-reliance to develop
out of the underdevelopment which it had inherited from the very structure of
colonial exploitation. India’s foreign policy attempted to forge alliances with
the outside world that would assist in its industrialisation, technology transfer
and infrastructure building while minimising dependence on any single entity.
The imperatives of its developmental process influenced India’s own diplomatic
engagements, both with the developed and developing nations. India located as
a South Asian power with vast frontiers and multiethnic neighbourhood posed
unique challenges in a geopolitical sense. After 1947 India-Pakistan partition,
Pakistan as a new state created new tensions, especially over Kashmir, and
the emergence of China as a regional power raised strategic concerns. This
highlighted the need to keep strategic autonomy and to move forward with
balanced politics at regional and international levels. In addition, India was a
leader in the Non-Aligned Movement representing its desire to carve out for
itself an independent space of decision-making without the influence of other
powers and their alliances. India’s experience as a postcolonial state could also
be seen in its manner with global institutions. India's founding membership of the
United Nations and its participation in several other international organisations
were aimed at influencing the international order along the lines of the interests
of developing nations. As an advocate of disarmament, anti-colonialism, and
Self-Instructional economic equity, its postcolonial identity and hope for a just and universal
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international system were all intrigued.

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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

India’s foreign policy was based on the postcolonial context. It signalled NOTES
the need to begin to address the legacies of colonialism, development and self-
reliance and an independent and principled approach to international affairs.
This lesson enables the students to feel the complexities and nuances of India's
foreign policy in the making, which was brought about by the challenges and
opportunities of the post-colonial era.

1.4 SOURCES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

India’s foreign policy is derived from various sources to develop its strategic
outlook and foreign engagements. These sources include its historical and
civilisational legacy and thus a source of ideological bases, from ancient times and
a legacy of a philosophical system. It defines its priorities based on geopolitical
realities, including location, regional challenges as well as security concerns.
India deploys global partnerships for growth and modernisation based on the
imperative of economic and developmental needs. India is finally demonstrating
its engagement with international institutions to signal its willingness not only to
participate in but also to guide the direction of international action in forums, with
a clear emphasis on multilateralism and various aspects of global governance.

1.4.1 Historical Civilisational Legacy and Ideological Foundations

There is much in India’s foreign policy which is deeply informed by its historical
and civilisational legacy, stretching back thousands of years, that marks it as a
civilisational state and not just as a 1947 creation nation-state. India draws its
roots as one of the world’s oldest civilisations with considerable contributions
to the fields of philosophy, science, mathematics, governance, etc., which
are still the intellectual foundations of its dealing with contemporary affairs.
The Indian knowledge system dates backwards to its ancient past, as seen
in texts such as Vedas, Upanishads, Arthashastra and the epics Mahabharata
and Ramayana, which have valuable knowledge on statecraft, diplomacy and
ethics. For example, Kautilya (Chanakya) has written an ancient treatise on
governing power and foreign policy based on realpolitik, strategic planning and
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES balance of power in the book named Arthashastra. India’s historical tradition
of understanding international relations and diplomacy is evident, rather than
being a modern concept. India has a civilisational ethos that has set its values on
peace, coexistence, and universalism, as reflected in the ancient Sanskrit phrase,
‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (the world is one family). India’s foreign policy stance
continues to be guided by this worldview to favour a dialogue and mutual respect
and eschew use of force and aggression. The teachings of Buddhism and Jainism
insist on non-violence and compassion and contribute to India’s image as a land
which takes to peaceful co-existence in international relations.
The independence movement had ideological underpinnings which
subsequently shaped the contours of modern India’s foreign policy with reference
to self-determination, justice and anti-colonialism. In a civilisational nation such
as India, its leaders and noble persons such as Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma
Gandhi, Aurobindo, and Rabindranath Tagore took inspiration from its glories
of the past while drawing out a vision for the future. For Gandhi, the philosophy
of nonviolence (ahimsa) and truth (satyagraha) became the basis of India's moral
position in international diplomacy, advocating peaceful solutions to conflicts
and opposition to imperialism. Nehru, who envisioned and led India along the
path of nonalignment, and stressed Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence) and the principle of sovereignty, rejecting the constraints of Cold
War bloc politics and the idea of limiting friendships to any particular side. India’s
historical heritage also comprised its function as a trade and cultural trade centre.
It was the long-standing tradition of India, famously known as the land of roads,
to cultivate connectivity and foster mutual prosperity, engaging with regions such
as Southeast Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East through the Silk Road and
maritime trade routes. This legacy propels contemporary India’s efforts to build
on the same roots for the International Solar Alliance and Act East Policy to build
on these roots in building regional and global partnerships. Finally, the historical
and civilisational legacy of India constitutes the fundamental point of departure
for its foreign policy, both as ancient wisdom and modern prudence. India puts
itself on the map as a responsible and ethical player in global politics, being a
contributor to peace, stability and development in an interconnected world, by
understanding and drawing on its rich heritage.
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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

1.4.2 Geopolitical Realities NOTES

India’s foreign policy is heavily tilted because of the geopolitics percolating

through its strategic priorities and international engagement. India is in South
Asia and has massive land and maritime borders to its extended geography. Its
neighbourhood consists of China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar
and Sri Lanka, all of which offer different challenges and opportunities. The
complex relations between India, China and Pakistan have a huge bearing on
India’s strategic concerns. The border disputes with China like Aksai Chin and
Arunachal Pradesh and more recently the Doklam standoff underline the need
to pay attention and develop strategic preparedness. Similarly, the long-standing
issue of Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan along with cross-border terrorism has
made security the focus of India’s foreign policy. This imposes strong defence
strategy demands and requires active diplomatic engagement to protect national
sovereignty. Further, India’s maritime geography gives it political importance.
Being a land of about 7,500 km of coastline and a direct neighbour to some of the
vital sea lanes of the Indian Ocean, India has a major role to play in regional and
global trade. Strategic priority is the Indian Ocean region, where it is an energy
supply and global commerce conduit. SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in
the Region) reflects India’s efforts to increase maritime security and encourage
regional cooperation.
Among India’s efforts to promote regional integration and development
is the emphasis on fostering collaboration within the region. The South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal Initiative
for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) are
two examples of this approach. However, India’s regional diplomacy is more
complicated as regional instability, political transitions, and competing influences
from external powers such as China’s Belt and Road Initiative combine. India’s
geopolitical realities are a function of how it aspires to play a larger role in
global governance. As a rising power, India aims to cash in on its strategic
location and economic potential, to imprint itself on multilateral platforms
such as the United Nations, G20 and the BRICS. It wants a permanent seat on
the UN Security Council and supports reforming global institutions to suit the
present day. Therefore, the conclusion is that India’s foreign policy needs to Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES be multifaceted to manage both security needs which require pragmatism, and
regional cooperation which requires pragmatism as well as development and
world views which necessitate flexibility. India’s intention to capture its position
as a regional leader and a responsible global power is achieved by addressing
these challenges strategically.

1.4.3 Economic and Developmental Imperatives

Since independence, economic and developmental imperatives have been the

guiding force of India’s foreign policy. As a postcolonial state with daunting
economic problems, India made growth and development its priority in order to
reduce poverty, industrialise and raise the living standards of its citizens. India
has pursued strategic engagement influenced by these imperatives and formed
a partnership to generate trade, investment, and technology transfer. During the
early years of independence, India decided to keep a mixed economy model
consisting of socialism and capitalism. India sought foreign assistance and
technology at a time when it needed industrialisation and self-reliance but without
dependence on any single bloc. The food security challenges were addressed
through internationally supported initiatives such as the Green Revolution which
slugged the way for agricultural self-sufficiency. Post- liberalisation, after 1991,
India’s economic diplomacy expanded. The country reiterated economic reforms,
which ensured foreign trade, foreign investment and integration into the world
economy. India assessed the importance of being part of the economic integration
with Southeast Asia, which is crucial for trade and economic cooperation in the
region, and changed the focus of its foreign policy to economic cooperation.
India’s ‘Look East’ policy (now ‘Act East’) is forward-looking. If Thailand
were to follow these strong lines of thinking proposed by India, it would also
encourage people in the region to study the issue of regional institutions. India’s
foreign relations centre on trade agreements and economic partnerships. India
focuses on economic growth as highlighted by bilateral agreements with the U.S.,
Japan and the European Union and the regional partnership to be recognised as
the Comprehensive Economic Partnership (CEPA) with ASEAN. In addition,
India seeks to participate in organisations such as BRICS, G20 and the World
Trade Organisation (WTO) to influence the configuration of global economic
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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

Energy security, however, is yet another critical economic imperative. NOTES

India’s engagement with resource-rich countries in the Middle East, Central Asia
and Africa is driven by its growing need for energy. The International North-
South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and projects in collaboration with countries
on renewable energy development operate in parallel with the Indian objective
of diversification of energy sources while sustaining the environment.
Also, India’s foreign aid and assistance programs are touched by
developmental concerns. India extends technical assistance, capacity building
and development aid to countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America through
initiatives such as the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC)
program. These efforts give a big help for India to be known to other countries in
a good way, both in terms of strategy and economy. Economic and developmental
imperative being integral to India’s foreign policy, India has emerged with the
policy of 'Look East' and the approach of 'South Asian Sub-regional approach' to
achieve these necessities. India aims to address its domestic challenges through
fostering international collaborations which will promote growth, innovation and
sustainability to become an important player in the global economy.

1.4.4 International Institutions and Multilateralism

India’s foreign policy is based on international institutions and multilateralism,

a commitment to a rules-based global order and collective problem-solving.
Having been a founding member of the United Nations (UN), India has always
lent its support to the ideals of sovereignty, non-aggression and peaceful
coexistence. As a demonstration of its faith in multilateral action to deal with
global challenges, India has actively and consistently played a part in multilateral
organisations. India’s interaction with the UN system has been highly meaningful.
It has taken part in peacekeeping missions, joined disarmament initiatives and
pressed for sustainable development. As a result of this, India’s ambition to
have the UN Security Council reformed to make way for contemporary realities
commensurate with a fairer global governance structure. As a member of the
G77 and a participant in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), India has been
a forceful advocate for developing countries' interests, economic justice and
political equality. Beyond the UN, India is an energetic member of regional and Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES (SCO). These teams combine not only to help India project influence but also
to promote its developmental and strategic interests vis a vis major power. For
example, an example of cooperation of emerging economies is provided by
BRICS, while G20 allows India to contribute to talks at the global level on global
economic stability and climate change.
India’s aim in trade and economic partnerships is also multilateral because
the country is a member of the World Trade Organisation and has insisted on
the interests of developing nations in agricultural subsidies and intellectual
property rights. India’s forward-thinking, such as its leadership in initiatives
like the International Solar Alliance (ISA), shows its dedication to tackling
global challenges in a novel, cross-border way. SAARC and BIMSTEC are the
organisations that show how India is making efforts to bring regional integration
and cooperation. Within these frameworks, India’s leadership in disaster
management, connectivity projects and capacity-building initiatives demonstrate
India’s commitment to regional stability and the prosperity of the region. Finally,
it is concluded that India has the strategy of international institutions and
multilateralism as the basis of its foreign policy. India, taking an active role in
global and regional organisations, attempts to create a just and inclusive world
order, and work together with the world to tackle issues of common significance
like climate change, terrorism, economic inequality, and so on. This multilateral
approach not only carries India's global weight but also sends a powerful signal
that it is a responsible and proactive member of the global community.

1.5 THEORISING INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

As a theoretical scheme in international relations, realism stresses self-interest,

power, and survivability in an anarchistic international system. It defines the
states as rational and acts rationally to maximise the states' power and assure
the states' security. Though India was committed to non-alignment and idealistic
postures in its early years, its post-colonial foreign policy exhibits a mix of realist
underpinnings. It studies realist aspects of India’s foreign policy and shows how
national interest and pragmatism have guided its conduct in the international
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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

1.5.1 Realism in India’s Foreign Policy NOTES

Everything from the rubble of ruins of its colonial legacy to what it is today,
India has had a long journey after gaining its independence in 1947 as a newly
decolonised state. As the Cold War emerged between the United States and the
Soviet Union, dominating the international setting, setting pragmatic foreign
policy options became a necessity. Although Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first
Prime Minister, championed the ideal of non-alignment and international peace,
realism underpinned the following key decisions:
• Consolidation of Sovereignty: India pursued both territorial integrity and
sovereignty from princely state integration (e.g., Hyderabad, Goa), which
involved force.
• Strategic Neutrality: Non-alignment emerged in India to avoid choosing
sides among (aligning) power blocs, but it allowed India to retain strategic
autonomy and benefit maximally from both the Western and Eastern blocs.
• Defensive Posturing: A security-driven realism in India’s policy to
strengthen its military capabilities after the 1962 war with China was seen.

Realism in India’s foreign policy can be analysed through several key

principles:
It is discussed as follows:

1. National Security and Survival

It has been India’s first concern to safeguard its territorial integrity and national
security. Security considerations are underlined by the Kashmir conflict, conflicts
with Pakistan (since 1947, in 1948, 1965 and 1971) and the border dispute with
China. India’s pursuit of nuclear weapons development and its 1974 and 1998
nuclear tests represented its resolve to both deter external threats and prevail
with strategic autonomy.

2. Power Maximisation
India has been trying to boost its regional and international influence. In pursuance
of this end, the pursuit of economic and military strength is central. With India’s
rising naval presence in the Indian Ocean region and participation in forums Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES such as BRICS, G20 and the Quad, the country seems to be adopting the realist
approach towards augmenting power and influence in contrast to India’s stated
democratic approach.

3. Balance of Power
Realism defends the balance of power and its purpose is to fight against
forthcoming threats. The developing partnership with the US and the cooperation
with countries such as Japan and Australia is a defining characteristic of an Indian
strategy of balancing (especially vis à vis China’s rise and growing assertiveness
in Asia).

4. Economic Self-Reliance and Global Integration

India’s national interest has been based on economic development. After taking
a protectionist approach in the starting, India accepted liberalisation in 1991 to
integrate into the global economy. This aligned with the understanding of realism
that economic strength is the foundation for national power.

Realism Illustrated by Case Studies

Let us study some case studies in detail.

• India-Pakistan Relations
India has approached Pakistan with a realistic perspective. In 2016, India
conducted surgical strikes in response to terror attacks and in 2019, it bombed
alleged terrorist targets at Balakot in Pakistan in a brazen show of force to defend
Indian security and prevent terrorism.

• India-China Relations
This situation shows that India’s realist tendencies are really crystallising. After
the 1962 war, the emphasis was on military modernisation from that moment
onwards. Doklam (2017) and Galwan Valley (2020) signposts have shown India
stands on its territorial integrity and countering Chinese aggression.

• Non-Alignment and Strategic Autonomy

Non-alignment is an idealistic policy which is in consonance with realism
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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

rivalries, India was able to avoid entanglement and gain the maximum amount NOTES
of independence, aid and technology from both blocs.
o Act East Policy: Engagement with Southeast Asia by India is an attempt
to balance China’s influence and a move to obtain economic partners.
o Strategic Partnerships: To arbitrate between the demands of its major
regional allies and its more distant partners, India must balance its economic
and security interests and to this end, its relations with the United States,
Russia, and European countries are pragmatic.
o Défense Modernisation: India has dedicated its investments in indigenous
defence production and procurement of advanced weapons systems to
self-reliance and military power.
o Global Leadership: An active member of the multilateral organisations,
including its bid to attain permanent membership of the United Nations
Security Council, proactive India is a heightened global influence.
In India’s foreign policy, idealism is often present, but realism is a stronger
underlying current. This has been the pragmatic pursuit of its interaction with
the global stage and the pursuit of its national interest, security and power. With
India still learning to negotiate the shifting landscape of increasingly intricate
world order, realism will likely remain the cornerstone of India’s foreign policy
strategy. As a key player in the international system, India’s mindset adopts an
eminently qualified 'balance' between the idealistic and realist paradigms.

1.5.2 Liberalism and India

Since its independence in 1947, liberalism, as a political and economic

philosophy, has been an important element in India’s foreign policy. Believing
that individual liberty, democracy, free markets, and the rule of law should be
rooted and advocates of cooperation, multilateralism, and promotion of universal
human rights. The principles are synchronised with the principles of India’s
freedom movement and its subsequent conduct of international relations. This
lesson discusses liberalism to study how India's foreign policy as a postcolonial
state has been shaped by it and its interaction with India's strategic and domestic
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NOTES 1. The Liberal Foundations of India’s Foreign Policy

India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru articulated India’s foreign policy
with deep liberal ideals. Nehru’s vision was of democracy, international peace
and economic development. He believed in multilateralism and cooperation and
therefore India took a vigorous part in setting up the United Nations and other
international organisations. India’s commitment to liberalism during its formative
years can be seen in several aspects. Liberalism favours international cooperation
and supports national sovereignty. During the era of the bipolar Cold War,
India wanted to maintain its autonomy in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Liberally put, India was asserting its right to pursue its independent course, and
constructively engage with both blocs. India’s support for decolonisation was
active because of its liberal commitment to equality and justice. India always
stood for the rights of the new nations of Africa and Asia, a liberal position of
universal dignity and self-determination. India under Nehru gave the United
Nations a centre for settling international conflicts and advancing peace. India’s
participation in peacekeeping missions showed its commitment to the liberal
value of international cooperation.

2. Economic Policy and Liberalism

Liberalism’s economic dimensions had a great impact on India’s foreign policy.
India was initially practising a mixed economy model- a sort of blend of capitalism
and socialism. However, liberal economic policies began to gain prominence,
especially after the economic reforms of 1991. It liberalised India’s economy
with the core principles of liberalism. India became a major part of the world's
economy when it opened its markets, attracted foreign investment and began
engaging in international trade. Rather, India began pivoting its foreign policy to
one focused on improving economic partnerships, and regional cooperation. Its
liberal commitment to growth through collaboration is reflected in its membership
of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and India’s
role in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa).

3. Challenges to Liberalism in Indian Foreign Policy

While liberalism has been a guiding principle, India’s foreign policy also grapples
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security over liberal ideals of cooperation and dialogue. India has diverse socio- NOTES
economic realities and political dynamics which sometimes constrain its pursuit
of purely liberal policies domestically and internationally. India’s historical
experience of colonialism sometimes predisposes it to the conservative position
towards liberalism taken as a postcolonial state when dealing with Western powers
and institutions seen as hegemonic.

4. Liberalism in India’s Foreign Policy: Contemporary Relevance

It is discussed with the help of some examples.

Key examples
They are as follows:
• Promotion of Democracy: India's backing for democratic institutions
and governance outside has its base in its liberal beliefs for democracy as
a universal worth.
• Climate Change and Global Cooperation: India's liberal belief in
multilateral solutions to global challenges is evident from its proactive
role in responding to the challenges of climate change, through initiatives
such as the International Solar Alliance.
• Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy: Most interesting is India's use of
yoga, Bollywood and its diaspora as tools of cultural diplomacy that it
is consistent with if not even supportive of liberal ideals, specifically to
widen understanding of and peaceful engagement with others.
As a postcolonial state, India’s foreign policy has been founded on
liberalism. It has guided India's stress on democracy, multilateralism, and
economic cooperation. Yet India’s foreign policy also strikingly demonstrates an
effort to balance liberal values with the facts of security challenges and pressures
from home. Liberalism is an indispensable framework for India’s aspirations of a
peaceful, prosperous and equitable world order as India rises on the global stage.

1.5.3 Constructivism and Indian Identity

As an international relations theory, constructivism stresses the agency of

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NOTES explanatory factors in the behaviour of states and world outcomes. While realism
and liberalism focus almost exclusively on state material power and states and
institutions respectively, constructivism takes the position that the international
system is socially constructed. As an apt counter to the dominant realist tradition
in international relations, constructivism offers a method by which a postcolonial
state like India can analyse the way its own experiences, cultural heritage and
identity affect national foreign policy.

1. Constructivism: A Theoretical Framework

The constructivist challenge is the view that state behaviour is determined solely
by material interests or fixed preferences. Instead, it posits that:
• Identity Shapes Interests: A state’s identity derived from historical,
cultural and social factors dictates its interests.
• Norms and Ideas Matter: The interactions between states are based on
norms, values and shared ideas.
• Social Construction of Reality: International relations are not just shaped
by material power because they are shaped by shared understandings and
meanings.
Taking India as a case, constructivism reveals how India’s colonial past,
civilisational ethos and commitment to moral principles have influenced Indian
foreign policy behaviour.

2. The Indian Identity and Foreign Policy

The determination of India’s approach to international relations is largely based
on India’s identity as a democracy, a postcolonial state and a civilisational
entity. Several aspects of Indian identity influence its foreign policy, which are
discussed as follows:
Postcolonial Legacy: India learnt a lot from its colonial experience, which
has left an indelible mark on its foreign policy. Being a postcolonial state, India
is especially aware of sovereignty, non-interference and equality in international
relations. For example, it led the Non–Aligned Movement (NAM) seeking to
oppose the Cold War superpowers' dominance.
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• Civilisational Heritage: India’s self-perception as a moral force in global NOTES

politics is informed by its rich civilisational history which is based on values
of non-violence, tolerance and pluralism. This is evidenced by its promotion
of peaceful coexistence, for example, the principles of Panchsheel (Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence).
• Democratic Values: India is the world’s biggest democracy, and this
identity of India influences its effort to promote democratic values around
the world. It is evident in its work within multilateral forums in support
of multiform governance and in support of democratic institutions in
neighbouring countries.
• Leadership of the Global South: The Indian self-perception as a leader
of the Global South is based on India’s shared history of colonisation and
India’s commitment to championing the rights of the developing world.
It is this identity which informs its approach towards organisations such
as G77, BRICS and the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).

3. Constructivism in Action
Constructivism provides a useful framework to analyse India’s foreign policy
in various contexts:
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): India’s leadership of NAM during the
Cold War was part of a larger strategic choice as well as the reflection of
India as a postcolonial state seeking its place in the international system
in terms of its devising. The anti-imperialist and non-aligned movement
was in tune with India’s values and experiences.
• Nuclear Policy: India’s position on nuclear weapons and unwillingness to
sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty reflects its identity as a sovereign
and self-reliant nation. It is also the moral and ethical values of India, which
insist on global nuclear disarmament.
• Engagement with Multilateral Institutions: India is active at the
United Nations and in other multilateral organisations where it believes
in global cooperation and collective problem-solving. This is oriented to
its civilisational ethos and its identity as a responsible global actor.
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NOTES • Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy: A civilisational India, which has
used yoga, Ayurveda and its diaspora to describe its civilisational identity
and assiduously project a positive image abroad. These cultural factors
explain India’s foreign policy goals and actions according to constructivism.

4. Challenges to Identity-Based Foreign Policy

While constructivism highlights the importance of Indian identity in shaping
foreign policy, several challenges arise. India’s domestic identities are sometimes
at odds with defining a unified national identity. Foreign policy priorities can
become complex due to regional, linguistic and religious differences, for instance.
India’s policy of moral principles, non-alignment and peaceful co-existence often
clashes with the realities of realpolitik. The task is always to figure out how
to balance these competing imperatives. Other nations sometimes see India’s
identity-driven policies with a sceptical eye, when they seem to clash with
Western norms or strategic interests.

5. Constructivism as a Concept in Contemporary Relevance of Indian

Foreign Policy
India’s foreign policy retains its character of a postcolonial, democratic and
civilisational state in the 21st century. Constructivism helps explain several
ongoing trends:
• Act East Policy: India’s involvement with Southeast Asia is based on
its cultural and historical links with that region, it stresses common
civilisational values and mutual respect.
• Climate Leadership: Conforming to its identity of being a responsible
and moral global actor, India has an active and leading role in the change
in climate negotiations at the global level.
• Pursuit of Strategic Autonomy: India has always placed emphasis on
its own strategic autonomy and reluctance to integrate too closely with a
major power block; this identity is rooted in a commitment to sovereignty
and autonomy.
The contributions of constructivism to India’s foreign policy can be quite
useful in understanding the role of identity in shaping its foreign policy. India
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democratic values have deeply influenced its foreign policy. Although India’s NOTES
global behaviour remains a challenge, constructivism emphasises ideational
factors in understanding India’s global behaviour. Therefore, at the time while
India asserts itself more and more on the world stage, its identity will continue
to decide its foreign policy priorities and actions.

1.5.4 Alternative Perspectives

Understanding India’s foreign policy involves theorising it, and that necessitates
understanding the different perspectives that influence its decision-making and
foreign policy. The analysis of India’s foreign policy, through various theoretical
lenses, has been done in the light of its postcolonial legacy, geographical realities
and domestic imperatives. Traditional theories like realism, liberalism and
constructivism provide the basic frameworks, but alternative perspectives bring
in a different perspective to the complexity of India’s international behaviour.
This lesson is on how various alternative perspectives, postcolonial theory,
subaltern studies and critical geopolitics, allow us to better understand India’s
foreign policy.

1. Theory and India’s Foreign Policy: Postcolonial

Postcolonial theory analyses the influence that former colonies' historical
experience of colonisation exerts on the identities, policies, and intra-acts of the
colonised or inhibited. India’s colonial past has been the key to how it sets its
foreign policy priorities and perceptions.
• Sovereignty and non-alignment: India's stress on sovereignty and its
leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) represents a post-
colonial assertion of independence and the rejection of neo-colonialism.
India rejected alliances in the Cold War because the country did not want
to become a pawn of great power politics.
• Support for Decolonisation: Finally, India’s foreign policy has always
backed up the right to decolonise and support the rights of newly
independent states. Shared experiences of colonial exploitation are the
reason for this solidarity with the Global South.
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NOTES • Critique of Western Hegemony: There is India’s critique of Western

dominance of institutions like the United Nations Security Council or
Bretton Woods’s institutions it is a postcolonial perspective of democratising
global governance.

2. India’s Marginal Voices and Subaltern Studies

In subaltern studies, marginalised groups and their agency in the history and
politics of history and politics are the focus. This perspective is applied to
Indian foreign policy to show how domestic inequalities and regional disparities
influence India’s international behaviour.
• Domestic Impacts on Foreign Policy: India’s foreign policy priorities
are issues of poverty, caste dynamics and regional inequalities. To pick up
a specific example, India’s position in World Trade Organisation (WTO)
negotiations has been informed by issues of food security.
• Focus on People-Centric Diplomacy: India’s focus on developmental
partnerships with Africa and South Asia is a subaltern perspective that
puts grassroots development before elite-centric approaches.
• Diaspora Engagement: The Indian case represents one of many in
which marginalised voices have found agency to shape foreign policy.
The influence of NRIs and PIOs as contributors to economic and cultural
diplomacy is evident currently.

3. India’s Spatial Identity: Critical Geopolitics

The critical geopolitics questions the traditional definition of geography as a
geographical factor which determines the state behaviour. It does not, however,
analyse how geographical identities are constructed or used to justify policy
decisions. This view of India helps us understand how India’s self-perception
and regional aspirations inform its foreign policy.
• India as a Regional Power: Since India is the leader among the countries
of South Asia, its foreign policy including the country’s relations with the
countries of its neighbourhood like Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka
is greatly influenced by the same. The Indian Ocean as India’s strategic
backyard is a constructed spatial identity which prioritises maritime security
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• Engagement with Asia and Beyond: India’s Act East Policy is a recasting NOTES
of India’s geographical identity to include Southeast Asia as the core.
India’s engagements with Africa and Latin America similarly challenge
traditional North-South divides and push out its global reach.
• Border Issues and Territoriality: India’s borders with China and Pakistan
are also seen through the lens of contested borders through critical
geopolitics. They are not only material but symbolic. The disputes are
about competing narratives of national identities and sovereignty.

4. India’s Foreign Policy from a Feminist Perspective

The traditional foreign policy is critiqued for its male-dominant character and
gender in international politics becomes significant. Women are slowly finding
their place in Indian diplomacy as well. India’s focus on food security, climate
change and health is in line with feminist concerns which place human security
over military power. They also explain how foreign policies as trade agreements
or labour migration frameworks in general disproportionately impact women in
the Global South.

5. Environmental Perspectives and Sustainable Diplomacy

Foreign policy should be guided by ecological sustainability, according to
environmental perspectives. This perspective is particularly important for India,
where it is particularly vulnerable to climate change and ecological challenges.
• Climate Leadership: This also reflects India’s commitment to balancing
development with sustainability in any global climate negotiation, including
the Paris Agreement. India is leading the way in renewables, showcased
by initiatives like the International Solar Alliance.
• Water Diplomacy: India’s regional interactions are marked by a significant
role played by environmental factors (especially transboundary water
disputes with neighbours such as Pakistan (Indus Waters Treaty) and
Bangladesh (Ganges River Agreement).
• Green Development Partnerships: India’s developmental assistance
programs are now including more sustainability, with advances in
renewables, conservation and climate resilience.
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NOTES Postcolonial theory, subaltern studies, critical geopolitics, feminist

approaches and environmental perspectives provide alternative perspectives to
India’s foreign policy. Illuminating ideational, social, and ecological factors that
have shaped Indian international behaviour. With these perspectives, we strive
to move beyond traditional frameworks to gain a nuanced understanding of the
complexities and contradictions that are part and parcel of India’s foreign policy
as a postcolonial state. In addition, these alternative frameworks will continue
to understand India’s evolving role and aspirations in the world as the country
continues to negotiate an increasingly multipolar world.

1.6 SUMMARY

India's policy towards the world, as a postcolonial state. Following independence

in 1947, India was confronted with the twin tasks of establishing its sovereignty
and coping simultaneously with a highly complicated international environment
determined by the Cold War. India’s foreign policy is premised on the principles
of peace, tolerance and dialogue that emerge from a rich civilisational heritage.
The culture was influenced by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru and was a non-aligned and anti-imperialist culture dictating the need to
avoid being aligned with any major power bloc. In the maritime world, India’s
position, borders with China and Pakistan and its role in the Indian Ocean region
are important geopolitical factors that determine the course of policy decisions
that render India secure and increase regional stability. India’s global engagements
are also driven by economic and developmental imperative, foreign policy is
used to strengthen access to resources, technology and markets to support India’s
national growth. Meanwhile, India’s support for a rule-based global order and
its engagement with international institutions such as the United Nations show
the country’s draw for the cause of the Global South.
The theoretical frameworks provide a more in-depth insight into India’s
foreign policy. India’s defence policies and strategic alliances follow a realist
path, and power, security and survival in a competitive global system are the
accent behind India’s pursuit. As a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement and as a
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party to multilateral organisations, India is seen to put emphasis on cooperation, NOTES

institutional frameworks, and trade partnerships as articulated in liberalism.
The second is the conception of India as a postcolonial state that aspires to
constructive norms, including non-violence and global equity, in its foreign
policy. Postcolonial and critical perspectives offer the lens through which to
read India’s attempts to decolonise international relations and bring the voice of
the Global South to the table. When taking these sources and theories together,
India’s foreign policy is a complicated one and India is becoming an important
global actor.

1.7 GLOSSARY

• Postcolonial State: A country that has gained independence after being

colonised and is in the process of defining its identity, governance, and
foreign relations.
• Non-Alignment Movement (NAM): A policy of not formally aligning
with any major power bloc during the Cold War, emphasising independence
and sovereignty.
• Civilisational Legacy: The influence of India’s ancient culture, traditions,
and philosophies on its modern outlook.
• Geopolitics: The study of how geography influences political and strategic
decisions.
• Self-Reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat): Emphasis on domestic development
to reduce dependency.
• Soft Power: India’s use of cultural diplomacy, such as yoga, Bollywood,
and heritage.
• Strategic Autonomy: India’s approach to maintaining independence in
its foreign policy decisions while engaging with global powers.
• Foreign Policy: A country’s strategy in dealing with other nations to
achieve national objectives.
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NOTES
1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain how historical and civilisational legacies shape India's foreign

policy.
2. What role does economic development play in India’s foreign policy
decision-making?
3. Briefly discuss the significance of multilateralism in India’s foreign policy.
4. How does the realist perspective interpret India's approach to foreign
relations?
5. Compare and contrast liberalism and constructivism as theoretical
frameworks for understanding India's foreign policy.
6. Reflect on alternative perspectives that challenge mainstream theories in
analysing India’s foreign policy.

1.9 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Shahi, D. (2019). Kautilya and Non-Western IR Theory. Switzerland:

Palgrave Pivot, pp. 95126.
• Rajagopalan, S. (2014). “Grand Strategic Thought” in the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. In Kanti Bajpai, Saira Basit and V. Krishnappa (eds.), India’s
Grand Strategy: History, Theory, Cases (1st ed.,) (pp. 31-62). New Delhi:
Routledge.
• Jaishankar, S. (2021). The India Way: Strategies for an Uncertain World.
New Delhi: Harper Collins India, pp. 45-68.
• Narlikar, A., & Narlikar, A. (2014). Bargaining with a Rising India: Lessons
from the Mahabharata. Oxford: OUP, pp. 1-23.
• Dixit, J.N. (1998). Across Borders: Fifty Years of India’s Foreign Policy.
New Delhi: Thomson Press, pp. 1-13.
• Menon, S. (2021). India and Asian Geopolitics: The Past, Present. Penguin
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A. Sources of India’s Foreign Policy B. Theorising India’s Foreign Policy

• Thakur, V. (2012). Indian Foreign Policy. In Bhupinder S. Chimni & NOTES

Siddharth Mallavarapu (eds.), International Relations: Perspectives for
the Global South (1st ed., pp. 39-53). New Delhi: Pearson.
• Bajpai, K. (2015). Five Approaches to the Study of Indian Foreign Policy.
In David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan, & S. Raghavan (eds.), The Oxford
Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy (pp. 21-34). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
• Mallavarapu, Siddharth. (2015). Theorizing India's Foreign Relations, in
David M. Malone and C. Raja Mohan and S. Raghavan (eds.), The Oxford
Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy. United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press, pp. 35-48.
• Chacko, Priya. 2019. Constructivism and Indian Foreign Policy. In Harsh
Pant (ed.), New Directions in India’s Foreign Policy: Theory and Praxis
(pp. 48-66). Cambridge University Press.

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LESSON-2 NOTES

DIMENSIONS OF INDIA’S
FOREIGN POLICY: DOMESTIC
AND INTERNATIONAL AND FROM
NON-ALIGNMENT TO STRATEGIC
ENGAGEMENTS IN A MULTIPOLAR
WORLD
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Objectives
2.3 Dimensions of India’s Foreign Policy: Domestic and International
2.3.1 Domestic Dimensions
2.3.2 International Dimensions
2.4 From Non-Alignment to Strategic Engagements in a Multipolar World
2.4.1 Non-Alignment Policy: Foundation and Evolution
2.4.2 Transition to Strategic Engagements
2.4.3 Key Strategic Partnerships
2.4.4 Role in Global Governance and Multilateralism
2.5 Summary
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Self-Assessment Questions
2.8 References/Suggested Readings

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NOTES
2.1 INTRODUCTION

An integral aspect of India's postcolonial odyssey, India's foreign policy

has mirrored altered ambitions, national interests and responses to world
developments. In the nearly 75 years since gaining independence in 1947, India
has worked to create a foreign policy, reflecting its special position as a newly
decolonised state amid the machinations of global geopolitics in a way that
ensures sovereignty and is consistent with national development. This lesson
looks at various domestic and external dimensions of India’s foreign policy
and its journey from a policy of non-alignment to a strategic engagement in
today’s world of multipolarity. India’s foreign policy is based on its historical
experience, socio-economic imperatives and cultural ethos. The internal factors
shaping India’s international engagements have been the Constitution, economic
modernisation and national security, which are internal forces. However, its
global dimensions express the fact that India is a significant global player who
comports its policy for major powers, contributing to regional cooperation and
championing a just and equitable international order. India's practical responses
to a changing international order are encapsulated in the evolution of its foreign
policy from non-alignment to strategic engagements. India’s external strategy
was based on the policy of nonalignment during the Cold War, which gave
India independence in decision-making and put development at the centre of
everything. However, the post-Cold War era and the arrival of the multipolar
world order forced India to shift the gears. India’s foreign policy has become a
strategy of strategic engagements, major power partnerships and involvement
in multilateral forums.
The lesson gives a detailed account of domestic and international aspects
of India’s foreign policy and the transition from non-alignment to strategic
engagements in a multipolar world. By exploring this, the learners will learn how
India’s foreign policy is still changing to become a responsible global actor on its
own while dealing with the challenges of today. In the following sections, we will
discuss the dual dimension of India’s foreign policy, by analysing the domestic
and international factors that determine its trajectory. Secondly, we will examine
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including important partnerships, India’s contribution to global governance, and NOTES

its role in the multilateral world. This lesson examines these aspects of India’s
foreign policy in a postcolonial and contemporary context in order to give learners
a sense of the complexities and dynamics of India’s foreign policy.

2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

• Understand the domestic and international dimensions of India’s foreign
policy and analyse how internal and external factors shape India’s global
engagements
• Explain the concept of non-alignment as the foundation of India’s foreign
policy and trace its evolution in the postcolonial context
• Analyse the shift from non-alignment to strategic engagements in response
to the changing global order and the emergence of a multipolar world
• Assess India’s role in global governance and multilateral institutions,
focusing on its contributions to addressing global challenges
• Evaluate the balance between India's strategic autonomy and its international
engagements in the contemporary geopolitical landscape

2.3 DIMENSIONS OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY:

DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL

As a post-colonial state, India’s foreign policy has grown in line with the
dynamics between domestic priorities and international aspirations. Born from
the womb of colonialism in 1947, India was assigned a foreign policy that needed
to address its peculiar developmental challenges while asserting its role as a
responsible stakeholder on the contemporary world stage. Indeed, the tension
between the fraught and extraordinary circumstances of domestic imperatives
and international ineluctabilities has been a hallmark of India’s experience of the
global. India’s foreign policy is domestically influenced by its socio-economic Self-Instructional
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NOTES needs, political ideologies and cultural heritage. Its diplomatic strategies have
generally been determined by issues of economic development, national security
and social cohesion. India's foreign relations have been based upon its striving for
strategic autonomy, multilateralism, and support for a just global order overseas.
This lesson studies the various dimensions of India’s foreign policy,
exploring how internal factors influence its external dealings, and how external
trends influence its internal workings. Grasping these dimensions will help us
understand more intricately and more compassionately the interventions India
can and should be making in the world order today.

2.3.1 Domestic Dimensions

India's foreign policy, as a postcolonial state, is thoroughly embroiled with

its domestic dimensions. The country’s approach to questions of international
relations has historically been embedded in these domestic factors, which speak
to what the country values, what it confronts, and what it hopes for. Below is
a detailed exploration of the key domestic dimensions that influence India’s
foreign policy:

1. Historical and Cultural Factors Role

The foreign policy of India has been affected by its heritage and culture. India
is one of the world’s oldest civilisations, where cultural ethos revolves around
the values of non-violence, tolerance and peaceful co-existence. The values
that underpin India’s international position are rooted in philosophies such as
Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. India’s experience with the British colonial
power has had an immense effect on India’s foreign policy. A strong sense of
principles like sovereignty, non-alignment, and anti-imperialism is the legacy
of the anti-colonial struggle and guides India’s dealings with the world. India’s
priceless cultural heritage, among other fields like art, philosophy and science
forms the bedrock of India’s soft power. This influence is reflected for instance, by
the popularity of Indian cinema worldwide, the happiness and interest generated
by the celebration of International Yoga Day.

2. Developmental Goals and Economic Priorities

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and its economic realities, with special attention to the post-independence era NOTES
characterised by India’s emphasis on economic self-reliance. In 1991, the foreign
policy was shifted majorly with the liberalisation of the Indian economy. At the
top of the scale was economic diplomacy concentrating on trade, investment and
technology transfer. India's foreign policy engagements, particularly with the
Middle East, Central Asia and Africa's oil-exporting nations, have been driven
by its growing energy needs. India is looking at strategic partnerships with major
economies such as the United States, Japan and the European Union in order to
accelerate its economic growth and at the same time, work in forums such as
BRICS and G20 with developing nations.

3. T
 o Develop how Foreign Policy is Impacted by Domestic Political
Stability
Foreign policy is coherent and consistent if politics within a domestic realm
are stable. Being the world's largest democracy, India's foreign policy is based
on principles of democratic governance, pluralism and the rule of law. India’s
position internationally tends to be strengthened by the domestic political
consensus on key foreign policy issues. The instability of politics in some states
or the region, in particular the border areas can affect India’s relations with
neighbouring countries. For example, India’s policies towards Bangladesh and
Pakistan have been hit directly by insurgencies in the Northeast and terrorism in
Jammu and Kashmir. In the digital age, where real-time information can shape
perceptions and decision-making, domestic public opinion and media are playing
an ever more important role in shaping foreign policy.

4. Institutional Framework: Parliament, Ministry of External Affairs

and Civil Society Role
India has an institutional structure that makes foreign policy not just the province
of the executive but also a huge set of stakeholders. It is a place to debate and
scrutinise foreign policy decisions. A very important aspect of India’s external
engagements is parliamentary committees, such as the Standing Committee
on External Affairs. India’s foreign policy is formulated and implemented by
the MEA which is the primary institution. Its function is primarily to oversee
diplomatic missions, engage in multilateral negotiation and work in conjunction
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NOTES Foreign policy discourse is enriched by some civil society organisations, academic
institutions and think tanks each providing research, policy recommendations and
advocacy. The Observer Research Foundation (ORF) and Institute for Defence
Studies and Analyses (IDSA) play a role in influencing policy, by virtue of their
expertise. The large, influential and spread out diaspora of India also influences
foreign policy and the diaspora has a role in countries that have large populations
of people of Indian origin, especially in the United States, Canada and the Gulf
states.
International engagement of India must be in accordance with its domestic
priorities and values and is best viewed in relation to its domestic dimensions as
a component of its foreign policy. As a postcolonial state, India has walked the
tightrope by using its historical, and cultural strengths, addressing developmental
needs, maintaining political, stability, and harnessing a robust institutional
framework in the complex dynamics of global politics.

2.3.2 International Dimensions

India’s peculiar geopolitical position, historical experiences and determination

to assert its power as a major world player account for its foreign policy as a
post-colonial state. India’s foreign policy bears the international dimensions of
both its own efforts to address its sovereignty concerns, its defence priorities, its
economic interests and its leadership in the multilateral forums. The domestic
imperatives and international dynamics are mixed in these priorities.

Sovereignty and territorial integrity as the most important priorities

The preservation of its sovereignty and territorial integrity has been one of India’s
foremost priorities of foreign policy. When India became a newly independent
state in 1947, it also acquired unresolved territorial disputes with India's
neighbouring countries, Pakistan and China. The problem of Jammu and Kashmir
was a persistent problem, and Pakistan’s claims over the region and its backing
of cross-border terrorism continue to be a major issue. Like border disputes
with its neighbour, China, which has been growing since the Sino–Indian War
of 1962 and saliently in 2005 and 2008 when incidents along the Line of Actual
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has adopted a two-pronged strategy. It was strengthening its military capacity, NOTES
while conducting diplomatic negotiations. India has also turned to international
forums such as the United Nations both to bolster its claims and create a pushback
against global support for its territorial anxieties.

Defence and Security Matters

India’s foreign policy attaches a great degree of importance to defence and
security, as the country has a complex neighbourhood and experience of conflicts.
These border disputes with Pakistan and China demand a healthy set of defences
and strategic watchfulness. India’s security concerns are also intensified by
persistent threats of cross-border terrorism. The 2008 Mumbai attacks brought
major incidents to the fore, and we must have a coordinated counterterrorism
strategy. On the international front, India has been involved with multilateral
organisations like FATF and the UN Counter-Terrorism Committee and talked
to member countries to keep the fight against terrorism alive. India's nuclear
policy of credible minimum deterrence is also consistent only if India supports
strategic stability. Despite not being a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) India stated its commitment to the peaceful use of nuclear energy
and has been lauded for its nuclear-responsible behaviour by being part of the
Indo-US Civil Nuclear Deal.

Globalisation and Economic Diplomacy

In the age of globalisation, economic diplomacy has become an important
component of India’s foreign policy. Aiming at bringing national development,
India has negotiated trade agreements and economic cooperation with various
countries around the globe. In this endeavour, India has used Free Trade
Agreements (FTAs) and Comprehensive Economic Partnerships (CEPs) as
some of the main tools to provide better market access and foster economic
growth. India’s engagement with the global trade system has been done through
organisations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Moreover, India has
been actively involved in regional economic groupings including the ASEAN,
BRICS and BIMSTEC and is moving ahead to foster regional economic
integration including South-South cooperation.
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NOTES Multilateralism and India

India’s foreign policy throughout has been supportive of multilateralism as a
means to confronting global problems and advancing equitable international
relations. India has played an active role in the UN peacekeeping mission and
works for reforms in global governance structures aspiring for a UN Security
Council permanent seat as a founding member of the United Nations. Alongside
India’s interests in global governance, it has more intensively asserted itself in
international economic and political governance through platforms like the G20
and the WTO. India’s participation in these forums and its willingness to work
on issues spanning from climate change and trade disputes to global financial
stability are key aspects of its foreign policy.

Leadership in the Global South

India has played a leader in the Global South, representing the rights and
development of emerging and developing countries. Its own experience as
a postcolonial state and its sense of identity with other states that came into
existence through colonialism are the sources of this commitment. India’s
initiatives, including the India-Africa Forum Summit and the ISA, are testimony
to India’s proactivity in tackling the developmental and environmental problems
confronting the countries of the Global South. India has strengthened its position
as a leader of developing nations by supporting its case to have the world follow
policies that will be more equitable for all countries and by campaigning for debt
relief, fair trade and technology transfer.
India’s foreign policy’s international dimensions consist of a fine balance
between attending to immediate security needs and its role in the world order.
We will trace India’s arrival into international relations by examining the state’s
role in safeguarding sovereignty, treading the path of economic diplomacy, and
advocating for the Global South. As it attempts to secure its national interest
and values, India carries on its passage but on keeping its values intact, it uses
multilateral forums and bilateral partnerships.

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NOTES
2.4 FROM NON-ALIGNMENT TO STRATEGIC
ENGAGEMENTS IN A MULTIPOLAR WORLD

The transition in India’s foreign policy since Independence in 1947 has been
substantial. In the beginning, as a post-colonial state with a Cold War-dominated
international system, India promoted the principle of non-alignment and sought
to keep strategic autonomy away from the pull of superpower blocs. While the
passing of the Cold War and the transition from a unipolar to a multipolar world
order have demanded a reassessment of India's foreign policy priorities, some
basic elements of Indian foreign policy remain immutable. Adhering to the ideals
of non-alignment to strategic partnerships to multilateral engagements, India
has evolved from its aspirations as a global player. This lesson charts India's
path from its founding foreign policy principles to its energetic part in crafting
a multi-polar world, reconciling traditional values with pragmatic imperatives.

2.4.1 Non-Alignment Policy: Foundation and Evolution

During the Cold War era, the Non-Alignment Policy came out as a strategic
response to the polarised world order. Following the end of World War II, the
world was divided into two dominant power blocs: was between the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation led by the United States, the main leader of the
Western bloc and the Warsaw Pact, led by the Soviet Union which led the Eastern
bloc. The bipolarity of this reality produced a ferocious political, military, and
ideological struggle in which newly independent nations, notably in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America, were forced into securing their protection and economic
gains by allying with one of the superpowers. As one of the main architects
of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) India, under its first Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru, was among the key founding members. Nehru, taking the
risk of being neutral in the Cold War, tried to keep India sovereign and free in
decision-making. India’s colonial past characterised by the loss of autonomy,
influenced the decision to sidestep external dominance.

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NOTES Non-alignment was laid down by the Bandung Conference held in

Indonesia in 1955. The 29 countries of the Global South that gathered there
stressed cooperation, economic development and rejection of colonialism and
neocolonialism. It was in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in 1961, under the leadership
of Nehru, Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Kwame
Nkrumah (Ghana) and Sukarno (Indonesia) that the NAM was formalised,
Non-Interference, Peaceful Coexistence and Sovereignty. Principles to support
global peace, cooperation and the sovereignty of the member state underpinned
the Non-Alignment Movement. These principles included the independence and
territorial boundaries of all countries, big or small, powerful or weak, which had
to be respected by NAM nations. For its part, NAM preached a non-interference in
the domestic affairs of other states. Member states urged nations to have peaceful
relations even if they are ideologically different. It promoted development and
decolonisation; it rejected the entire idea of siding with either the United States
or the Soviet Union and instead tried to imagine a third path. In Asia, Africa, and
Latin America, liberation movements were actively supported by NAM countries
that challenged colonial and apartheid regimes.

Analysis of Achievements and Limitations of Non-Alignment

It is discussed as follows:
Preservation of Sovereignty
By resisting any external pressures on them, NAM gave the newly
independent nations the freedom to project their respective positions in
international relations. It also made NAM an important site for debating the
problems of developing countries and pointing to global inequalities. Nuclear
disarmament and reducing tension between the superpowers ensured NAM's
advocacy for the global climate was stable. In dismantling colonial empires,
and in supporting liberation movements in African and Asian colonies, NAM
was instrumental. South cooperation was encouraged by NAM, the basis for
the Group of 77 (G-77) ever since to address economic disparities. Diversity
in the political and economic interests of NAM members frequently ensured its
fragmented unity and weakness. NAM countries were economically dependent;
if they were on one side or another from the Western or Eastern bloc, they could
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not act independently. Non-alignment was criticised as sometimes vague, with NOTES
critics alleging that some member states stayed closer to one superpower than
to others. Increasingly, however, NAM’s impact waned during the late 20th
century as the bipolar world order collapsed, and globalisation fashioned a new
world order where internal tensions of drought, genocide, poverty, and corruption
weakened the group further.
At the end of the day, the Non-Alignment Policy was an innovative way to
avoid Cold War politics in the complexity it was. It gave newly independent states
to act independently and to call for a more just world order. Non‐alignment offers
the guiding light to India's foreign policy even as it enters strategic partnerships
in a multipolar world.

2.4.2 Transition to Strategic Engagements

The transformation of India’s foreign policy from non-alignment to strategic

engagements was a great leap for the country in the changing global order
after the Cold War. As a multipolar world came into being, India had to change
its approach to ensure the safety and security of India's national interests and
elevate India's status in the comity of nations. In 1991, the Cold War ended, and
the Soviet Union and the bipolar world dominated by the United States and the
USSR disintegrated. During this period, there were several centres of power and
economic globalisation, and the rise of emerging economies such as China, India
and Brazil took place. Global power was increasingly decentralised by the global
growth of regional players in Asia, Europe, and Latin America, and globalisation
entwined economies to render traditional power politics less effective. However,
the end of the Cold War drew political attention to the role which international
institutions like the United Nations, the World Trade Organisation, and regional
bodies began to play in establishing international norms in solving conflicts.
India’s decision to leave a rigidly held non-alignment policy in favour of
more dynamic strategic engagement was shaped by a variety of domestic and
international factors. Since 1991 India’s economic liberalisation has opened
its markets to global trade and investment and therefore enhanced economic
cooperation with major powers such as the USA and the European Union becomes
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NOTES imperative to sustain growth. India's regional security concerns, which include the
rise of China, assertiveness in the Asia-Pacific, and Pakistan – India's consistent
conflict partner, with an ongoing war in 1999 in Kargil, as well as cross-border
terrorism demanded its defence and internal security thus fostered with other
regional powers. The global trade networks were expanded by globalisation, but
India needed to be integrated into the international markets to remain competitive,
and membership in the BRICS, G20 and ASEAN helped India to expand its
diplomatic reach. India’s growing prowess in IT and space technologies and
technological advancements in the world require, at the same time, collaboration
with advanced economies for benefits that are mutually beneficial.
While India’s transition to strategic engagements did not underwrite the
principle of strategic autonomy, India’s chief tenet of foreign policy New Delhi’s
strategic autonomy remained largely sacrosanct. Rather, it aimed to work out
relations with major powers while making the decisions independently. Post-
Cold War, the relationship between India and the US changed, and initiatives
such as the Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement of 2008 were taken. Even as the
Soviet Union fell, Russia remained an integral partner to India in defence and
even energy. Economic cooperation with China continued but India countered its
influence with Quad, a union of India, the USA, Japan and Australia. Additionally,
India diversified its partnerships by fostering relationships with emerging powers,
namely Brazil and South Africa, through IBSA (India, Brazil, South Africa),
and expanding African outreach, West Asian and Southeast Asian outreach for
which Look East and Act East policies were introduced. The defence and security
cooperation rose through enhanced defence procurements and joint military
exercises with Israel, France and Japan and counterterrorism cooperation with
the USA and other nations.
The non-alignment to the strategic engagement of India demonstrated the
pragmatism with which India has approached the complexities of a multipolar
world. Thus, India has been transformed into an important player in world politics
through its efforts to maintain relations with the leading powers by solving
regional problems and promoting its strategic independence.

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2.4.3 Key Strategic Partnerships NOTES

India’s foreign policy has now become the key strategic partnership that suits the
changing dynamics of a multipolar world. Relations between India and the US,
long characterised by estrangement during the Cold War because of India's non-
aligned position, are now a comprehensive partnership. The new era post-Cold
War has seen increased collaboration in the areas of defence, trade, technology
and so on, as reflected in agreements such as the Civil Nuclear Deal and LEMOA.
Now both nations have common goals in the Indo-Pacific, countering China’s
assertive rise and building stability in the region. This transformation is essentially
the fusion of democratic values with those of strategic interests.
India-Russia relations form the cornerstone of India’s foreign policy, a
continuity with adaptation. This partnership is rooted in Cold War-era defence
and economic ties and continues robustly with defence procurement, energy and
space technology. Despite India’s move towards the US and Russia’s increasing
closeness to China, the relationship has survived because both countries are
desirous of keeping a balanced order in the world. This strategic bond is a
testimony to India’s multi-alignment.
There has been a development in India’s engagement with East and
Southeast Asia from Look East to Act East Policy. This initiative, taken on a
proactive basis, envisages integration of the economies, and formation of strategic
partnerships and is premised on connectivity projects such as India-Myanmar-
Thailand trilateral highway. India’s stronger ties with ASEAN, Japan, and South
Korea show India’s will to have more to say on the Indo-Pacific. Meanwhile, the
Neighbourhood First Policy delegates regional stabilisation and development by
giving additional emphasis to the SAARC and BIMSTEC nations. However, due
to India’s diplomatic nature, challenges such as strained relations with Pakistan
and China present their set of problems; nonetheless, it seeks to enlarge the
sphere of cooperation, connectivity, and harmonious neighbourhood with other
regional countries and show its ability to be pragmatic in their foreign policy
and adapt to new realities.

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NOTES 2.4.4 Role in Global Governance and Multilateralism

For decades, India’s role on the world stage has been transformed. As a rising
power, it is developing aspirations of what its role might be in global governance
and multilateralism. It is central to its role because of its active involvement in
multilateral platforms such as BRICS, QUAD and G20, which are platforms to
push its national agenda and take part in global issues. India’s participation on
these platforms reflects India’s commitment to shaping fair and equitable global
governance, and economic development and getting to the bottom of transnational
challenges. In this lesson, India’s use of its participation in these organisations to
manage the intricacies of international politics while preserving its strategic and
economic interests, is examined. Further, India's involvement with the BRICS
(Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) reflects India's attention to
South-South cooperation and building an alternative to the Western-dominated
global financial systems. Being an original member, India has been leading in
the formation of BRICS initiatives such as the New Development Bank (NDB)
and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement, to tackle development financing of
the emerging economies. This serves as a platform for India to voice its concerns
on trade protectionism, inequitable distribution of global riches and reformed
multilateral trading system. Geopolitical tensions, especially with China, have not
been able to deter India from seeing the BRICS and picturing this as a strategic
grouping that can supplement India’s vision of a multipolar world order.
Intending to join the QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue) hints at
India’s increasing interest in maritime security and Indo-Pacific stability. India
has emerged as a key player along with the United States, Japan and Australia,
ensuring a free, open and rules-based Indo-Pacific region. India’s strategic pivot
as a counterbalance to China’s assertive moves in the region is reflected in the
QUAD which simultaneously protects its own interests at sea. India has attempted
to portray the QUAD as not merely a military alignment by presenting it as a
forum to address non-traditional security challenges through initiatives such as
disaster response, vaccine diplomacy and technology cooperation. The dialogue
has also kept India’s profile as a dependable partner in promoting both regional
and global stability.
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Being a G20 member, India has become a crucial voice for the Global NOTES
South. India has a chance to use the G20 to push for a fairer international financial
and trade system. However, it has actively participated in discussions of debt
sustainability, global economic recovery and digital inclusion. In 2023, India
assumed the presidency of the G20 and under the theme of inclusive growth,
sustainable development and global health security, it took forward the agenda
of the group. India has become a bridge between developed and developing
countries and a mediator in the global economic and political negotiations by the
G20. Another cornerstone of India’s global governance strategy has been United
Nations Security Council (UNSC) reforms for which it has been an advocate.
India has long called for a permanent seat in the UNSC, as it is one of the world’s
largest democracies and its economy is one of the fastest growing in the world.
India says that the current structure, based on the post-World War II era, no
longer reflects today's world, particularly the rise of the Global South. India has
built its case to join up with these credentials including its UN peacekeeping
missions, multilateral commitments, and reputation as a responsible nuclear
power. However, this has been a protracted struggle, and entrenched powers have
resisted and rivalries within the UN membership have complicated it.
At last, India’s leadership on global challenges such as climate change,
terrorism and sustainable development has demonstrated its constructive
multilateralism. The country has placed itself at the forefront of global climate
action by kicking off projects such as the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and
Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement. India has always
advocated a comprehensive convention on international terrorism at the UN and
has done so from the experience of being a victim of cross-border terrorism. It
has prioritised the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and has been
advocating technology transfer, capacity building and equitable financial flows
to developing countries. Together these efforts illustrate India’s resolve to set the
world agendas and push for an inclusive and sustainable future.

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NOTES
2.5 SUMMARY

India’s postcolonial foreign policy has been a complex intermix of domestic

priorities and international aspirations, a unique historical, cultural and
geopolitical position. India’s foreign policy has deep domestic dimensions,
derived from problematic nation-building, economic development and social
cohesion in a diverse and pluralistic society. On gaining independence in 1947,
India made an effort to protect its hard-earned sovereignty, political stability
and economic self-reliance. These priorities were to be accompanied by stress
on secularism, democracy and promotion of social justice, which became the
identity of a post-colony state. The formulation of foreign policy was also affected
internally by the imperative to redress regional imbalances, raise the status of
downtrodden groups and build up a robust defence infrastructure to take care of
both external and internal security threats. Soft power was another dimension of
importance of India's domestic policies; they also projected India on the global
plane as a moral force on the basis of its rich cultural heritage, values of non-
violence and democratic ethos.
India’s foreign policy internationally focused on projecting a country that
could be independent and influential in the face of the international situation
controlled by the country rivalry of the Cold War. During its earlier years, the
policy of non-alignment, under the emerging period of the nation, turned into
the main guideline of Indian remote strategy. The aim was to keep autonomy
in decision-making while avoiding alignment with either the United States led
capitalist bloc or the Soviet-led communist bloc. The non-aligned movement
(NAM) came into being as a forum for newly independent states to counter neo
colonial pressures and support economic and political self-determination. By its
leadership in NAM, India was able to occupy a moral high ground, championing
disarmament, decolonisation and peaceful coexistence. But of course, the policies
didn’t come without challenges: India had to keep its eyes on regional conflict,
with its wars with Pakistan and China, and its commitment to nonalignment.

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Globalisation, economic liberalisation and the rise of the multipolar world NOTES
order have brought a great change in India’s foreign policy in the post-Cold
War era. The second reason was the dissolution of one of India’s major allies,
the Soviet Union, and the emergence of whole new international challenges
that challenged the society to think and act more pragmatically and flexibly.
India discarded its long history of rigid policy of non-alignment for strategic
engagements, pursuing burgeoning partnerships with major global and regional
powers to secure its economic and security interests. To emphasise this shift
strategic partnerships are established with the United States, Russia, Japan, the
European Union as well as Partnership and Cooperation Agreements with ASEAN
countries and so on. These were partnerships of cooperation in defence, trade,
technology and counter-terrorism; India’s response to the need for a multi-faceted
and adaptable foreign policy.
India also treasured its multilateralism and global cultural ties, which
included a more just international system. It has been an active player in the
global podium, being at the United Nations, G20 and BRICS, to push for global
institutions’ reforms to reflect the realities of the 21st century. India plays a
responsible global role by being a responsible global actor in addressing climate
change, finding means of sustainable development in an interconnected world
and performing its role in helping keep the world a peaceful place. The country
also sought to balance traditional values with modern requirements, formed
regional cooperation in BIMSTEC and SAARC and increased its influence in
the QUAD and Indo-Pacific. Finally, India’s foreign policy has moved on since
its postcolonial beginnings as a champion of non-alignment and anti-colonial
solidarity to a complex web of strategic partnerships and multilateralism in a
multipolar world. Such a transformation of India has been possible only because
India could adapt itself to dynamic global settings without compromising on its
foundational values of sovereignty, peace and justice. As India rises as a global
power, its foreign policy will probably continue to be a mixture of pragmatism and
idealism, with national imperatives leaning up against foreign policy objectives
aimed at constructing a more inclusive and sustainable global order.

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NOTES
2.6 GLOSSARY

• Domestic Dimensions: Elements of foreign policy that are influenced

by internal factors such as political stability, economic priorities, societal
needs and cultural values.
• International Dimensions: Aspects of foreign policy shaped by external
factors such as global power dynamics, trade relations, regional alliances
and international norms.
• Strategic Engagements: Deliberate and planned interactions with other
nations focusing on long-term mutual benefits, encompassing areas such
as defense, trade, technology and cultural exchange.
• Strategic Autonomy: The ability of a nation to pursue its national interests
independently, without undue influence from other powers.
• Act East Policy: India’s foreign policy initiative aimed at strengthening
relations with Southeast Asia and the broader Asia-Pacific region through
economic, cultural and strategic partnerships.
• BRICS: An association of five major emerging economies (Brazil, Russia,
India, China and South Africa) focused on cooperation in economic,
political and security domains.

2.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How has India’s economic growth since liberalisation influenced its foreign
policy objectives?
2. What role does India’s geographical location play in shaping its foreign
policy at the international level?
3. Highlight the significance of India’s strategic partnership with the United
States.

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4. How does India’s bid for permanent membership in the United Nations NOTES
Security Council reflect its aspirations in global governance?
5. Do you think India’s foreign policy as a postcolonial state successfully
balanced domestic priorities and international aspirations? Provide
arguments to support your answer.

2.8 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Raghavan, P.S. (2020). National Security Determinants of Foreign Policy.

In Arvind Gupta & Anil Wadhwa (eds.), India’s Foreign Policy: Surviving
in a Turbulent World (pp. 34-44). New Delhi: Sage Publications.
• Bandyopadhyay, J. (2003). Making of India's Foreign Policy. New Delhi:
Allied Publishers, pp. 29-80.
• Appadorai, A. (1981). The Domestic Roots of India’s Foreign Policy.
New Delhi: OUP, pp. 126. Zajaczkowski, J. (2014). India’s Foreign Policy
Following the Cold War Year. In Jacub Zajaczkowski, Jivanta Schottli, &
Manish Thapa (eds.), India in the Contemporary World: Polity, Economy,
and International Relations (pp.265-308). New Delhi: Routledge.
• Sahni, Varun. (2007). India's Foreign Policy: Key drivers. The South
African Journal of International Affairs, 14 (2), 21-35.
• Mishra, K.P. (1981). Towards Understanding Non-alignment. International
Studies, 20 (1-2), 23-37.
• Pant, H.V., & Super, J.M. (2015). India’s ‘non-alignment’ conundrum: a
twentieth- century policy in a changing world. International Affairs, 91(4),
747-764.
• Hall, Ian (2019). Modi and the Reinvention of Indian Foreign Policy.
Bristol: Bristol University Press, pp. 21-40.
• Kaura, V. (2021). Debating the Relevance of Non-alignment in Indian
Diplomacy. India Quarterly, 77 (3), 501-506.
• Tripathi, S. (2020). India’s Foreign Policy Dilemma over Non-Alignment
2.0. Mathura Road: Sage Publications, pp. 99-145. Self-Instructional
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NOTES • Saran, S. (2015). India’s Contemporary Plurilateralism. In David M.

Malone, C. Raja Mohan, & S. Raghavan (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of
Indian Foreign Policy (pp.623-635), Oxford: OUP.
• Roy, G. S. (2021). ASEAN in India's Act East Policy. In M. Mayilvaganan
(ed.), ASEAN and India–ASEAN Relations Navigating Shifting
Geopolitics. London: Routledge, pp. 91-106.
• Panda, J. P. (2021). India's Indo-Pacific Prism Finding Strategic Autonomy
in the Face of Chinese Adventurism. In Brendon J. Cannon & Kei Hakata
(eds.), Indo-Pacific Strategies Navigating Geopolitics at the Dawn of a
New Age (pp.62-80). London: Routledge.

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Unit-II : India and the Changing Global Power Equations

Lesson-3 India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China
India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China

LESSON-3 NOTES

INDIA AND THE USA, INDIA AND RUSSIA

AND INDIA AND CHINA
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Objectives
3.3 India’s Foreign Policy and the Changing Global Power Equations
3.4 India and the USA
3.4.1 Historical Overview
3.4.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
3.4.3 Future Prospects
3.5 India and Russia
3.5.1 Historical Overview
3.5.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
3.5.3 Future Prospects
3.6 India and China
3.6.1 Historical Overview
3.6.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges
3.6.3 Future Prospects
3.7 Summary
3.8 Glossary
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions
3.10 References/Suggested Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The post-Cold War era is eminent by the transformation of the global power
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NOTES dominance. The wake of history has seen India emerge as one of the largest
democracies and fastest-growing economic powers of the emerging world order.
India’s policy in resolving these changes by recognising its historical experiences,
geopolitical imperatives and aspirations of becoming a global power has been
instrumental. In this lesson, we will look at India’s bilateral relations with three
major global powers, i.e., the United States of America, Russia and China, and
what they mean for India’s role in the world. India’s relations with the USA,
Russia and China are full of variety, deeply rooted in history and motivated by
today’s geopolitical problems and advantages. These three locations are utilised
as power and influence models by three different nations, and in each of them,
India has separately engaged depending on its strategic autonomy and varied
diplomatic strategies. As the world’s leading superpower, the USA provides
the opportunity for India to collaborate with the country in the field of defence,
technology and economic growth but is also going to have challenges regarding
trade policies as well as geopolitical interests with India. While India’s long-
standing defence procurement and energy security partner, Russia is central to its
defence procurement and energy security, its closer ties with China and the West’s
sanctions have complicated this partnership. India’s neighbour and regional
competitor, China, presents its own unique challenges in terms of unresolved
border disputes, trade imbalance, and two different strategic ambitions alike
creating opportunities for economic cooperation.
In this lesson we will explore India’s relations with these three global
powers, tracing their evolution over time, the strategic partnerships and challenges
that they present and their prospects in the context of a rapidly changing global
landscape. Through the examination of these relationships, students will gain
an in-depth understanding of India’s strategies to safeguard its national interests
and assert its influence in the global arena, ensuring that it makes it way in the
complex arena of international relations. The students will derive information
about India’s foreign policy contours, the importance of maintaining equilibrium
among competing powers, and the function of diplomacy in tackling troubles and
grasping openings in a multipolar world through this analysis. Appreciation of the
complexities of India’s foreign policy necessarily depends on the understanding
of its fundamentals.
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NOTES
3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

• Analyse the historical trajectories of India's relations with major global
powers such as the USA, Russia, and China, identifying key turning points
and milestones that have shaped these relationships
• Evaluate the strategic dimensions of India's engagements with the USA,
Russia, and China in the context of changing global power dynamics,
focusing on areas of cooperation and friction in political, economic and
security spheres
• Explore how India's interactions with these three nations are influenced
by broader geopolitical trends, including the rise of multipolarity, shifts
in global economic power, and evolving security architectures
• Examine how India's relationships with the USA, Russia, and China
align with its national priorities such as economic growth, technological
advancement, energy security and territorial sovereignty
• Reflect on the potential pathways for India's foreign policy concerning these
three countries, including opportunities for strengthening partnerships,
addressing mutual challenges, and navigating regional and global tensions

3.3 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY AND THE

CHANGING GLOBAL POWER EQUATIONS

With the changing and multi-dimensional global power equation, India’s foreign
policy has come a long way since independence. It moves the world from a
unipolar order in the hands of the US to a multipolar configuration into which
India enters the global stage as a pivotal actor in the international system. Driven
by historical legacies, domestic aspirations, and changing global geopolitics, this
transformation has occurred. The global order is changing offering opportunities
as well as challenges for India. Indian diplomatic engagement has found itself in
a complex environment due to the ongoing rise of China, resurgence of Russia Self-Instructional
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and enduring strategic importance of the United States. The increased partisanship
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES of the system is, however, the product not only of events in Washington but also
of new challenges in global governance generated by emerging powers, regional
organisations, and transnational issues, including climate change, terrorism or
technological advancements.
In this context, the Indian foreign policy tries to strike between its
historically held commitments to non-alignment and strategic autonomy with
what is functionally the consideration of national interest. On the other hand,
India’s relations with the major global powers, i.e., the United States, Russia
and China are critical to whether it can steer itself through this dynamic. The
relationships affect India’s economic growth, security policies and its standing
in the world. This lesson explores India’s engagement with three major powers
like United States, Russia, and China. In each case, history has written the
background, and the present outlines the challenge and the future aspiration.
By this analysis, students will have a little idea of how India is adapting to the
changing global power equations and how it is realising its significance as a lead
player in world affairs.

3.4 INDIA AND THE USA

In the 21st century, India and the United States have transformed a Cold War-era
mistrust into a dynamic strategic and economic partnership. This transformation
is underpinned by shared democratic values, growing economic ties and mutual
security concerns. Trade and investment in both directions have been on the rise
and there has been considerable cooperation in technology, energy and innovation.
India is now a key defence partner where we have deepened defence ties and
have done agreements like COMCASA and BECA. In terms of strategy, the U.S.
regards India as absolutely critical for maintaining stability in the Indo-Pacific
and shares concern with India regarding China’s assertiveness, as evidenced by
cooperation in the QUAD. The relationship is still multifaceted and is shaping
global power equations.
This analysis provides insights into the strategic calculations and diplomatic
manoeuvres of India vis a vis the USA, Russia and China, with reference to the
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larger power equations at the global level and India’s quest for strategic autonomy.

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India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China

The theory is integrated with foreign policy practical cases of India’s NOTES
engagement with the USA, Russia and China to give a holistic understanding
of the subject, draw informed and reasoned projections of the ways in which
India should steer its relations with the major powers so as to secure long-term
strategic and economic interests in an emerging global order.

3.4.1 Historical Overview

It is discussed as follows:

1. India-USA relations during the Cold War

India's decision to adopt a non-alignment policy had a great deal to do with
India's relationship with the United States during the Cold War. After gaining
independence in 1947, India, under the leadership of its first Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru, did not formally tie itself to any of the two big powers
belonging to the United States and to the Soviet Union. Underlying it was
India's colonial experience as well as its desire to defend its sovereignty and
foreign policy strategic autonomy. The Bandung Conference of 1955 was the
representative venue of the principles of non-alignment and later institutionalised
into the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) explaining the aspiration of India
to develop an independent foreign policy. Instead, India wanted to be treated
like a neutral actor by avoiding the Cold War power play, preferring instead to
decolonise, develop economically and secure global peace.
Initially, the United States liked India’s democratic model, but Washington
became suspicious of India’s non-alignment policy, which it interpreted as a lack
of commitment to the Western bloc. Given India’s socialistic economic policies
and explicit opposition to American military alliances, India was often assumed
to be tilting toward the USSR, and hence attempting to maintain equidistance
between the US and the USSR.

Divergences Resulting from USA’s Ties with Pakistan

The strategic alliance of Americans to Pakistan was a central source of tension
India shared with the United States during the Cold War. To contain the Soviet
Union, the US wanted to strengthen alliances in South Asia. In 1954, Pakistan
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES joined the US-backed military alliances, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation
(SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO).
The United States-Pakistan alignment resulted in a lot of friction in India-
US relations. Pakistan’s reliance on the military aid provided under these alliances
was viewed from India’s point of view as a very serious threat to the country’s
security, as it concerns the Kashmir dispute. Despite India’s protests, the US
persisted in helping Pakistan because the support was directed against Soviet
influence, not India. A divergence grew deeper at times of regional conflict, as
the post-1965 and post-1971 Indo-Pak wars prove. This only served to heighten
India’s perception of the unevenness of US policies in South Asia, in India’s
favour, while the US alleged became more suspicious of India’s apparent move
away from non-alignment, represented most emphatically by India’s 1971 Indo-
Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Co-operation.
India and the United States went in opposite directions on a variety of
strategic and geopolitical questions during the Cold War. With India having a
policy of non-alignment and the US allying with Pakistan, this created a kind of
suspicion and mistrust between India and the US. Nevertheless, the exchange of
food aid under the PL-480 program was what shaped the most cooperation in the
relationship, although divergence was the norm. This historical legacy of India-
US relations in the post-Cold War era was shaped by the recalibration that both
nations underwent, as they tried to realign their interests on strategic apartment.

2. Post-Cold War Shift

The wake of the end of the Cold War was a seismic call engaged in the making
of global dynamics and brought a big change to the way India approached its
foreign deals with. The Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, the emergence of the
United States as the sole superpower, and growth of globalisation gave India new
opportunities and challenges. It was the crucial period for a radical reorientation
of India’s external relations in connection with the most powerful countries of
the world, including the United States, Russia and China.

Convergence of Interests End of the Cold War

India had taken a policy of non-alignment, playing both the USA and the Soviet
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War. However, the disintegration of the Soviet Union required a change in India’s NOTES
foreign policy. India realised that it had to do business with Washington more
urgently than ever to defend its national interests. The US became a dominant
world power.
This convergence of interests between India and the US was driven by
several factors, which are discussed as follows:
• Geopolitical Shifts: The international system became less bipolar, thereby
enabling India and the US to see that they had overlapping strategic
goals such as counterterrorism, regional stability and non-proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction.
• Globalisation: However, with the growth of the global economies
becoming increasingly intertwined there were new opportunities for
economic cooperation between the two nations.
• Shared Democratic Values: A more ideological base was built to support
the bilateral ties between India and the US in as much as both started
highlighting their shared zeal for democratic principles, human rights and
the rule of law.

Bilateral Ties under the Impact of Liberalisation on India’s Economy

India's engagement with the world began to change in 1991, when its economic
liberalisation, in response to a balance of payments crisis, began to transform
the country. Built around India's introduction of market-oriented reforms such
as lowering trade barriers, deregulation of industries, and recruiting foreign
investment, India now more closely approximated the economic practices of the
West, particularly the United States.
• Economic Engagement: India became an attractive destination for
American businesses because of liberalisation. A lot of interdependence
was created between the two nations through trade and investment flow
between them. With the structure of cooperation mainly concentrated in
key sectors, such as information technology, pharmaceuticals and services,
it became an economic pillar.
• Strategic Partnerships: At the same time, economic reform took place
alongside increased strategic collaboration. The US-India Civil Nuclear Self-Instructional
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NOTES Deal (US-India Civil, 2005) symbolised the increasing cooperation between
the two countries. India got a new status as an economic and strategic world
player.
• Shift in Global Perceptions: India’s liberalisation signalled that the
country was ready to open itself to the world and was no longer the
protectionist inward-looking state that it was perceived to be. This helped
Western powers to accept India as a partner more.
The foreign policy of the post-Cold War removed the rigidity of an ideology
and paved the way to a pragmatic approach. With the democratically achieved
credentials, economic promise and strategic location, India started to stake its
claim as a major player in the new emerging global order. This historical overview
provides the context for understanding India’s relations with the major powers,
particularly the United States, Russia and China, in a fast-changing geopolitical
environment.

3.4.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges

India’s regional and global power structure is changing and the role of strategic
partners plays a major role in this transformation. The Indo-US Civil Nuclear
Agreement (2008) is a landmark agreement that stands out in India’s foreign
policy. Signed at a time when the world was watching India’s nuclear programmes
closely, this agreement ushered India into the global nuclear mainstream, despite
being a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). However,
the agreement while it permitted India access to nuclear technology and fuel for
civilian use strengthened India’s image as a responsible nuclear power. Beyond
that, the implications went beyond the effects of strengthened Indo-US relations
and global acceptance of India’s strategic autonomy. However, challenges persist.
India’s efforts to join the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) continue to be stymied
as China and others oppose it, and geopolitical complexity around India’s nuclear
ambition. Domestic challenges such as land acquisition and local protest also
continue to hinder the implementation of these nuclear projects, often in balance
with energy security and socio-political considerations.
India, for both strategic and historical reasons, now occupies a central role
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India and the USA, India and Russia and India and China

partner to bear on ensuring regional stability and prosperity. India’s de facto NOTES
participation in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), coupled with the
Indo-Pacific Strategy, signifies its commitment to a rules-based order both in this
contested region, and more so within the Indo-Pacific. The QUAD, i.e., India,
the US, Japan and Australia, has come to the forefront as a vehicle to push back
against China’s rabble-rousing. Areas in which cooperation extends are maritime
security, supply chain resilience, climate change and infrastructure development.
Joint naval exercises like Malabar are one more way in which India is proving
itself in the game of regional security. However, these engagements come with
their own problems. The QUAD, China perceives, is a containment strategy,
which has only served to heighten tensions along India’s northern borders. Also,
India has to strike a balance between its QUAD commitments and its engagement
in the ASEAN cantered frameworks which have an emphasis on inclusivity.
This is critical to India’s vision of an open, free and inclusive Indo-Pacific in the
context of an increasingly economically interdependent region.
In fact, India’s defence relations with the United States have become
quite deep through the foundational agreements CONCASA (Communications
Compatibility and Security Agreement), LEMOA (Logistics Exchange
Memorandum of Agreement) and BEC (Basic Exchange and Cooperation
Agreement). Together, these agreements strengthen interoperability, secure
communications and geospatial intelligence sharing between the two nations
and help India’s defence modernization efforts. Secondly, they also indicate a
strategic convergence between India and the US in dealing with the same threats
and in the Indian Ocean region (IOR) and beyond. But this new alignment with
the US is problematic. India’s reliance on Russia for military hardware has always
been a delicate balancing act. India must maintain its historical ties with Moscow
while growing closer to Washington. Added to these partnerships are concerns
about India’s over-dependence on the US for crucial defence technologies, as
well as apprehension about the impact on India’s strategic autonomy. Among
other indicators of political resistance and failures of bureaucratic delays, the
defence agreement implementation can also be delayed painstakingly, which
makes systemic reforms necessary to take full advantage of this collaboration.
The complexity of strategically partnering in a fast-moving global environment
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NOTES Challenges in India and the Changing Global Power Equations

At a time when the world is increasingly being dominated by trade disputes and
economic protectionism, India must deal with the dynamics of its increasing
relationship with major countries like the US, Russia and China. Hurdles for
Indian exports have been created by rising protectionist tendencies, especially in
the advanced economies, from which it does not have access to critical markets.
Added to that have been disputes over tariffs, intellectual property rights and trade
imbalances, in which India has not always enjoyed harmonious relations with,
such as its disputes with the United States. In addition, if its interests are not well
protected in the regional trade agreements and bloc-based economic strategies,
India may end up mistreated in global trade negotiations. The challenge is to
combine safeguarding domestic industries with the attainment of competitiveness
in the global market by India. Pursuing both regional value chains and multilateral
trade mechanisms, promoting the strengthening of such multilateral mechanisms
as well, can also mitigate the destructive effect of protectionism.

Global Governance and Human Rights: Diverging Views

India’s interactions with global powers are characterised by divergences in the
way it views global governance and human rights. So, for instance, a multipolar
world is what India speaks for, but not without trying and advocating for reforms
in institutions like the UN Security Council. However, other powers may resist it
to stay relevant. Also, India's stress on sovereignty and non-interference can also
be a contrast to Western approaches to promoting human rights and democracy
even if these efforts sometimes provoke the tensions that New Delhi faces with
the USA and European countries.
Indeed, these divergences have the potential to undermine India’s capacity
to form agreements on crucial international concerns inside and outside the
UN, for example, climate change, migration, and conflict resolution. To strike
this balance, India will have to hone its diplomatic acumen and, within its own
boundaries, strike a balance between asserting the principles that define it and
presenting itself constructively to other viewpoints that differ from its philosophy.
Harnessing its Global South leadership presence in the G20 (and beyond) can
provide a space to advocate its vision of inclusive and equitable global governance
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these challenges will play a huge role in how well it suits and moulds the new NOTES
global power equations.

3.4.3 Future Prospects

India’s participation in the changing global power equations is set to determine

its role in the international arena in future. In terms of deeper collaboration with
major powers in new areas such as technology, artificial intelligence (AI) and
climate change, this is a large area of potential. By partnering with the USA, India
can utilize frameworks such as the Indo-US Critical and Emerging Technologies
(iCET) to promote AI, quantum computing and cybersecurity innovation, and
build India’s skilled workforce to match America’s technological leadership, for
instance, there is the opportunity to establish partnerships in space exploration,
nuclear energy and digital or cyber technologies with Russia. Strategic rivalries
notwithstanding, cooperation for green technologies and adaptation to climate
is a possibility with China, even if it means under specific circumstances. At the
heart of India’s global strategy is addressing mutual concerns about China’s rise
and Indo-Pacific stability. India and the USA are in sync on countering China’s
assertiveness through QUAD and maritime security initiatives, but India’s
relationship with Russia is about reorienting Moscow’s presence in South Asia.
Improved infrastructure investments, defence partnerships and a rules-based
order and confidence-building measures with China can help create Indo-Pacific
stability, which is a shared interest among QUAD’s nations, and prevent further
escalation. When India pursues these goals, its balancing of democratic values
brings a nuanced layer of commitment to its relations with the authoritarian
powers of Russia and China, to safeguard national interests in a pragmatic
manner. To contribute to India’s strategic autonomy and global stability and
sustainable development, India is fostering such collaborations and addressing
their shared challenges.

3.5 INDIA AND RUSSIA

India and Russia have had a time-tested and multi-dimensional relationship since
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NOTES trust and strategic convergence, and has evolved into a partnership that adapts
to changing global power equations while retaining its special character. Today,
the India-Russia relationship has gone from defence cooperation and energy
partnerships to space technology and multilateral forums collaboration.
Despite changes in international alignments (notably since the Cold War
ended and new power centres arose), the bilateral relationship hews to the normal
state of alliance relations. This lesson examines the foundations of the India-
Russia partnership, areas of cooperation, and challenges and opportunities for
the India-Russia partnership in light of India’s foreign policy objectives.

3.5.1 Historical Overview

During the Cold War, it was a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy based on
mutual trust, strategic alignment and developmental collaboration between
India and the then-Soviet Union. The proposed partnership was a product of a
polarized world order where shared goals of resisting Western domination and
promoting divergent development were constructed. It was during this time that
India found the Soviet Union as a predictable partner that did not preach to it, but
was supportive and constructive in defence, economic and diplomatic spheres, a
useful ally out of the East. This relation was founded in the 1950s during which
India asserted its sovereignty and instilled its strategic position in the South
Asian region. Their bond was formalized in the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of
Peace, Friendship and Cooperation through which the USSR promised Indian
support in crucial moments, such as the Bangladesh Liberation War, when the
USSR stood in the role of checkmating the US and China pressures against India.
Defence collaboration between Indo-Soviet was one of the most defining
aspects of Indo Soviet relations. Advanced weaponry, and often technology
transfer, were provided by the Soviet Union and supplied at favourable terms;
the Soviet Union was India’s principal supplier of military equipment. The MiG-
21 fighter jets which were of crucial significance in terms of key acquisitions,
revolutionised the air defence of India. The USSR also helped India kick off its
defence manufacturing by supporting joint production. Arms supply was not
the only thing this partnership involved; it also had strategic backing in military
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Ocean to prevent the US or British intervention during the war. Its security was NOTES
strengthened, even as India's strategic autonomy was enhanced, in a volatile
regional environment, by this comprehensive defence cooperation.
The Soviet Union helped India’s defence but it also helped a lot in India’s
economic and industrial development. The USSR recognised India’s need for
self-reliance in certain key sectors and provided financial assistance, soft loans
and technical expertise. Only iconic projects like Bhilai and the Bokaro Steel
Plants forged in Soviet collaboration would act as a symbol of how committed
the USSR was to India’s industrialization. India’s economic growth was not the
only benefit; these initiatives helped create technological self-sufficiency. The
Soviet cooperation in the fields of energy, metallurgy and space exploration also
helped India develop the groundwork for long-term technological development.
The rupee rouble trade mechanism thus further locked their economic ties and
enabled India to do mutually beneficial trade without exhausting its foreign
exchange reserves.
On critical issues, the USSR came out as a steadfast supporter of India,
diplomatically. The Kashmir dispute served as an example of where absolutizing
had the worst effects, given that the Soviet Union routinely vetoed inappropriate
resolutions at the United Nations Security Council freeing India from facing
international pressures. The USSR also encouraged India’s bigger thrust to
keep away from the global supremacy contests of the superpowers. The Soviet
Union lent diplomatic backing while recognizing India’s regional aspirations,
which helped raise the whole country on the world stage. The presence of this
multifaceted partnership during the Cold War laid the strong foundation of the
immutably growing relationship between India and Russia which streamlines in
accordance with the variable global situation.
India and Russia faced a highly complex political and geopolitical
environment in the post-Cold War period, characterized by the unipolar world of
the United States and the rise of new extra-regional powers. The historical warmth
between the two nations did not want the transformation of Russia’s domestic and
foreign policy priorities. Instead, the strategic interests of the two countries were
recalibrated with the relationship. Substantial events during what turned out to be
a long period of good relations included the signing of the Treaty of Friendship
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NOTES esteem, non-interference and shared fundamental ideals. Secondly, in 2000,

the Declaration on Strategic Partnership represented the zenith of the bilateral
relations institutionalized through regular high-level dialogues and expanded to
all sorts of sectors, especially the defence, energy and space exploration.
Through stone layers, Russia continued to be the key supplier of military
hardware to India. It made alliances like this, only the defence projects like the
BrahMos missile system or Sukhoi fighter jets serve as icons here. At the same
time, energy partnerships were blossoming, with India putting money into Russian
oil and gas ventures and Russia backing India's search for energy security. India
and Russia have been on the same page by all means in multi-lateral forums
on the global stage. Both nations have been working in harmony in the BRICS
framework, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and the United Nations
to fight for a multipolar world order grounded in sovereignty and law.
The source of such resilience and the enduring strategic convergence
between India and Russia are to be found in the post-Cold War period. Occasional
divergences on several issues notwithstanding, the partnership remains a
fundamental aspect of India's foreign policy and proof that India and its portfolio
share an identical vision to promote a stabilised and wholesome worldwide
framework.

3.5.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges

India and Russia have a time-tested relationship that has now become a multi-
faceted strategic partnership. The partnership is rooted in historical links,
mutual trust and common interests, and has been based on strong defence
cooperation, energy cooperation and a common vision of a multipolar world
order. Nevertheless, this relationship has come under pressure arising from
changes in global power equations and the increasing India's engagements with
other major powers. India-Russia strategic partnership that was formalized in
2000 is in the domains of defence, energy, space, science and technology. The
two countries hold regular high-level dialogues through mechanisms such as
the Annual Summit, Inter-Governmental Commission and through BRICS and
SCO platforms. This relationship has a strategic depth of shared positions on
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global issues, such as counter-terrorism, non-proliferation and advocating for a NOTES

multipolar world order.
The India-Russia partnership has been based on defence cooperation for
decades. India is still one of the largest importers of Russian defence equipment,
taking about 20 per cent of Russia's total defence exports. Notable collaborations
include S-400 Missile Systems, which represent the high level of trust and
strategic alignment between the partners. These air defence systems have been
dubbed the S-400 Triumf. In 2018, India said it had inked a $5.43 billion deal
for five S-400 systems, bolstering its air defence capabilities after US CAATSA
(Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) could result in
sanctions. India has bought a lot of Russian military hardware: Sukhoi fighter
jets, T-90 tanks and naval platforms such as submarines. Successful defence
technology collaboration is shown by the joint production of the BrahMos
supersonic cruise missiles.

Energy Cooperation
Another important pillar of the partnership is energy collaboration. India
is a large energy-required country in South Asia, and Russia is a very important
partner in terms of energy security, and we have been cooperating in the nuclear
as well as the hydrocarbon sectors.
• Nuclear Energy: The flagship project of the India-Russia civilian nuclear
energy collaboration is India's Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP)
in Tamil Nadu. Units 1 and 2 have been built with Russian assistance and
are operational, units 3 and 4 are under construction. Further expansion
of nuclear energy cooperation is under discussion.
• Hydrocarbons: India has bought Russian oil and gas assets, including
Sakhalin-1 and Vankor. In return, Russia has become India's main crude
oil and natural gas supplier. The two countries are looking at enhanced
cooperation in LNG projects and the Arctic energy resources.

Challenges
Despite the robust partnership, India-Russia relations face several challenges
stemming from evolving global dynamics and domestic priorities:
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NOTES • Geopolitical Shifts: India’s foreign policy calculus has been transformed
by the rise of India’s growing strategic ties with the United States, especially
through platforms like the QUAD. It has raised concerns in Moscow that
the partnership may be diluted.
• Russia-China Relations: With the draping of Western sanctions, Russia's
forging of ties with China could make things complicated for its relationship
with India. However, India is cautious about this alignment because it is a
border-issue country, and there is also strategic competition between China
and India.
• Sanctions and Economic Constraints: Since the same Ukraine conflict,
western sanctions on Russia have particularly hit Russian defence and
energy sectors including complicating bilateral trade and collaboration.
• Diversification of Partners: India’s efforts to diversify its defence
imports from countries such as the US, France and Israel aim to reduce its
reliance on Russian military hardware. In the wake of all this, India assures
Russia that its partnership with it will be strengthened. Potential areas for
deepening cooperation include Making in India initiative on expanding
defence co-production, supporting collaboration in emerging technologies,
artificial intelligence and cybersecurity, long-term supply agreements and
joint ventures in renewable energy, and leveraging platforms such as the
International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), and the Eurasian
Economic Union (EAEU) as a way to promote trade and investment.
All in all, the India-Russia partnership continues strong, but it must work
itself up to the changes in the global power equation and the open consideration
that national priorities face. It will be important for both nations to balance a
traditional tie to each other with nascent opportunities to sustain and further their
strategic partnership. There are several challenges to the India-Russia partnership
that need to be well managed to keep it from losing its strategic relevance.
Russia’s growing alignment with China, which is a product of Western
sanctions and the changing global order, is one of the biggest issues. In the defence
and energy sectors, the deepening of the Russia-China nexus complicates Indian
strategic calculus because it has an adversarial relationship with China. It has also
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relations with the USA, including defence pacts and the QUAD. Added to this NOTES
complexity is the possibility that India may have already fallen foul of CAATSA
sanctions, for procurement of Russian defence equipment. Furthermore, trade ties
between India and Russia are quite underwhelming, disadvantaged by logistical
barriers and little diversification, albeit despite ambitious trade targets. Finally,
the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict has intensified further with the subsequent
partition of global alliances, and India’s involvement is required to find its
strategic autonomy while staying at a balanced distance from Russia and the West.
Historical ties, mutual strategic interests and a shared range of global
objectives continue to keep the India-Russia relationship alive. However, these
competitive relationships are increasingly driven by emerging challenges, such
as Russia’s pivot to China and India’s balancing act with the USA, which call
for proactive or adaptive diplomacy. To maintain this partnership, it will be a
key to strengthening economic engagement, diversifying defence cooperation
and developing people-to-people connections.

3.5.3 Future Prospects

The technology and space exploration domains can be one of the most promising
areas of future collaboration between India and Russia. New opportunities
for collaboration arise beyond old areas such as defence and energy with
technological advancements and the growth of the digital economy. Both
countries have recognised the transformative potential of Artificial intelligence
(AI), cybersecurity, and green technologies. India and Russia can mutually
strengthen their specialities by engaging in joint ventures and shared research to
solve world problems and develop new cutting-edge innovations. For example,
Russia’s advanced scientific research experience and India’s fast-growing tech
industry can be combined to develop AI applications for healthcare, agriculture
and defence. Likewise, cybersecurity cooperation can also help both nations build
their digital ecosystems by protecting data and strengthening the cyber resistance
against cyber threats. As the world’s focus gradually moves toward sustainable
development, collaboration on green technologies like hydrogen energy, nuclear
power, and carbon capture could have an immense role to play in the global
energy transition and a solution to climate change challenges. Self-Instructional
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NOTES Another area where India and Russia can pick up from their previous
projects is space exploration and reach greater levels. Russia has historically
been a very important partner in India’s space program, and this partnership can
be taken forward to undertake more ambitious joint space missions. Russia’s
experience in manned spaceflight and India’s burgeoning cost-effective space
missions could be put to collaborative use in lunar and interplanetary exploration.
This can be integrated and expanded in the compatibility between India’s NavIC
satellite navigation system and Russia’s GLONASS to obtain a better navigation
solution for civil as well as military purposes.
However, there is also a great opportunity to commercialize the space
industry as it is growing and both nations can develop a cost-efficient launch
vehicle and space technology and capitalize on the growing demand for space-
based services. Not only would such a line of endeavour enhance bilateral
relations, but it would also put both countries on the map in the world’s space
industry. India and Russia have some promising things going on but with a
changing global power dynamic and a rapidly changing world few things are
staying the same, both countries are at the tipping point where they too will have
to exert adjustment to keep the strong playing traditional relationship. Among
the biggest obstacles is the shifting geopolitical environment, more specifically
the opposing interests of the world’s leading nations.
The paradox of a growing strategic partnership between India and the
United States, especially through the QUAD, with Russia is a challenge. At the
same time, Russia’s growing closeness to China is a source of strategic worry
for India, as India and China are already at loggerheads. Both nations, though,
have repeatedly reaffirmed the need for strategic autonomy, the ability to pursue
national interests without the rigidity of alliance nor global axes of power.
Maintaining such a relationship both pragmatic and independent of the Western
cooperation appears possible for India and Russia if they adhere to this principle.
Defence cooperation has been a cornerstone of India-Russia relations for
long, but it has been hit by India’s diversification of its defence procurement in
recent years. India has expanded its relationship with Western countries through
defence partnerships but has not distanced itself from Russia for many of its
critical defence technologies. BrahMos missile initiative is an example of joint
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ventures' mutual development of technology, India’s quest for modernizing NOTES

its defence efforts and Russia’s ability to expand its defence exports. Looking
forward, they can be a model for how to attack challenges in the defence industry
while maintaining a strong and resilient relationship.
Another area of great potential for economic cooperation between India
and Russia is that which has to be planned strategically to overcome challenges.
Trade in energy continues to be a cornerstone of their economic relationship, but
the need is growing to diversify trade beyond energy. Both nations can further
cooperate in areas which have not been fully explored, such as pharmaceuticals,
agriculture and information technology. The imposition of Western sanctions on
Russia has made bilateral trade such a complicated affair that innovative solutions
like the Rupee-Ruble mechanism have been introduced for local currency trade
arrangements. They can be such measures to ease external pressures and maintain
the stable growth of economic ties.
Finally, the future of India-Russia relations hinges on the development of
such opportunities and their resolution of challenges on a balancing and pragmatic
basis. Technology and space exploration can together enhance cooperation, and
become a catalyst for innovation and joint growth, whereas strategic autonomy
for international affairs is a principle to navigate the global power dynamic.
India and Russia can take their historic ties and mould them into a relationship
which is mutually beneficial and enduring in the years in future by building on
their shared history. The strategic partnership with Pakistan will not only further
enhance the Pak-China partnership but will also bring other parts to crafting a
more balanced and multipolar world order.

3.6 INDIA AND CHINA

Though India and China are two of the world's largest countries in terms of
population and age, they have a complicated multi-layered relationship impacted
by historical, geopolitical and economic factors. The bilateral evolution of their
ties, though, has been one of cooperation and competition, with the shared borders
disputes, regional aspirations, and global governance roles interlaced. The input
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NOTES India as a major voice of developing nations have redrawn their interactions
in terms of new global power configurations. Despite working together in
multilateral regimes, BRICS, SCO and G20, there is a strategic rivalry brewing
in trade imbalances, border tensions and reaching into the Indo-Pacific and the
South Asian regions. To assess the impact of dynamics between India and China
on regional stability and broader international system, we should understand
them well. Their relationship is a key lens through which we can analyse how
the future trajectory of global power shifts.

3.6.1 Historical Overview

The cultural and economic exchange between India and China is long-standing,
dating back to what we might now call ancient times. An example of an important
extended relationship was established through trade along the Silk Road, with
the propagation of Buddhism, and intellectual exchanges. However, with new
dynamics both nations were out of colonial and semi-colonial experiences
and became independent states. The historical connection was the basis for
cooperation in the first few years after India's independence in 1947 and the
formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. At first, both countries
saw themselves as leaders of the postcolonial world, espousing nonalignment
and resisting imperialism.

India-China relations before and after 1962

A significant milestone in their relations was the Panchsheel Agreement of
1954, which outlined five principles of peaceful coexistence: non-aggression,
non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit,
peaceful coexistence, mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity. It
was an agreement of a spirit of cooperation and mutual trust. Unresolved border
disputes still existed behind disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.
The relationship was strained by these territorial disagreements on China's side
(they claimed Tibet) as well as India later accepting the Dalai Lama in 1959, as
a refugee. Their bilateral ties hit a turning point in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.
It cited Indian incursions into the disputed territories as the reason for launching
a military offensive. It was a huge loss for both India and China which exposed
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war, diplomatic relations broke down and there was a long streak of hostility. It NOTES
sealed a course in Indo-Chinese relations, whose legacy continues to bespeckle
bilateral perceptions. After the 1970s, relations became increasingly cautious with
both nations being aware that it was time to talk and work together. Diplomatic
ties were restored in 1976 and paved the way for high-level visits and confidence-
building measures. Agreements concerning peace and tranquillity along the Line
of Actual Control (LAC) as well as on economic cooperation were negotiated
during the 1980s and 1990s. The trade between China and India was very high
which made China India’s largest trading partner. Grace in the relationship,
however, has come under periodic strain with border face-offs like the Doklam
crisis in 2017 and the Galwan Valley clashes in 2020 such that tensions have
not abated altogether.
The complexity of Indian Chinese engagement is underscored by India-
China relations of historical evolution. Although diplomatic and economic
relations have grown, the legacy of the 1962 war unclaimed border disputes and
intense strategic rivalry in the Indo-Pacific remain a factor in their bilateral shape.
It is important to understand these historical phases to analyze and understand
contemporary issues and challenges and opportunities of India-China relations.

Evolving relations in the 21st century

Given the paradox of increasing economic interdependence and recurrent
geopolitical and border tensions between India and China, India-China relations
in the 21st century have been marked by a paradox. The two countries have
become major trading partners, economically, and China is now India's largest
trading partner. The bilateral trade volume has increased rapidly due to India's
demand for enterprises' Chinese goods and China's interest in the Indian market.
The economic ties are balanced by frequent border disputes, particularly along
the Line of Actual Control (LAC). The enduring fragility of trust between the
two nations may be seen in incidents like the clash in Galwan Valley in 2020.
China’s strategic alliances in South Asia its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and
increasing footprint in the Indian Ocean region have only complicated matters
further. However, India and China engage in dialogue to manage, a pull no closer
to peace, competition, and cooperation that mirrors broader trends in the global
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NOTES 3.6.2 Strategic Partnerships and Challenges

Let is discuss this in detail.

Cooperation
India and China are two of the world’s largest, most populous, and most
economically influential nations. The two countries' relationship is fraught with
both strategic partnerships and persistent challenges. They are both regional
players and neighbours, and theoretically, their interactions will not only impact
regional stability but also the global mechanisms of international politics.
Trade, multilateral engagements and investment have over the years cooperated
and highlighted areas of benefit to both. Therefore, China is making strides in
becoming an important market for Chinese goods although the bilateral trade
balance remains heavily in favour of China. Additions in infrastructure and sector
things also bolster the two nation's economic interdependence. In addition, India
and China work together through a number of multilateral forums such as BRICS
(Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) and SCO (Shanghai Cooperation
Organization), to tackle overarching global issues such as the recovery of
economies by addressing climate change and sustainable development. They
present a base of dialogue and collective action, in which their shared aspirations
for a multipolar global order are revealed.
There are, however, some challenges to this partnership. Relations have
been strained by territorial disputes, including the long-standing problem of a
border and the standoff at various places on the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
China also worries India due to its rising influence in South Asia and the projects
under the Belt and Road Initiative Initiative (BRI). While there are differences,
these nations realize that engagement and dialogue are needed to manage conflicts
and help them arrive at a place where competition and cooperation are balanced
enough to create a relationship. The realization of its aspirations as leading global
powers and for regional stability depends on it to achieve this delicate balance.

Conflicts
They are discussed as follows:
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relations are fragile incidents like the 2017 Doklam standoff or the 2020 NOTES
violent clashes in the Galwan Valley. The disputes are over differing
perceptions of the Line of Actual Control (LAC), and continue to erode
trust between the two nations.
• Strategic Rivalry: India and China typically don't see eye to eye in
South Asia and the Indian Ocean region, where China's ascendancy, with
initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), is considered encircled
by India strategically. On the other hand, Beijing is suspicious of India’s
partnerships with countries such as the USA, Japan and Australia under
frameworks such as the QUAD. The duality of the cooperation and conflict
presents an interesting challenge to the management of a relationship
between two rising powers within an increasingly multipolar world.

3.6.3 Future Prospects

India and China have a relationship of cooperation and competition. These two
ancient civilisations are major global players. In economic interdependence,
regional aspirations and historical legacies, they are shaped by bilateral dynamics.
In the 21st century, both nations have made great economic and strategic strides,
but the future of their relations will be shaped by how well they deal with current
problems and open doors to cooperation. India and China have healthy economic
ties with China being one of India’s biggest trading partners. In recent decades,
bilateral trade has wildly expanded, contributing to economic growth and work
creation in both countries. However, the relationship is not symmetrical, India
has a large trade deficit with China. Like all the countries around us, India needs
more access to the Chinese markets and tries to reduce dependence on Chinese
markets through domestic manufacturing, a part of India’s ‘Make in India’
initiative. Their relationship is dominated by strategic caution even though they
are economically cooperating. Most important are unresolved issues of borders,
especially in Ladakh, fuelled by China's rising influence in South Asia via the
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). China's strategic bids add to India's fears of
China's ties with Pakistan and activities in the Indian Ocean Area. This requires
India to maintain a fine balance while partnering economically with them while
protecting the interest of national security. Self-Instructional
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NOTES India-China relations are still marked by the most contentious issue, the
border. The volatility along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) is underscored
by crashes like the 2020 Galwan Valley clash. Unless something is done to
prevent escalation, strengthening border management mechanisms is essential.
Such confidence building measures (CBMs), regular high-level military and
diplomatic dialogues and agreements to keep peace and tranquillity along the
Line of Actual Control play an important role. Both nations should ensure that
all border protocols are adhered to and are seeking the clarification of the LAC
in order to reduce ambiguity. Better surveillance, infrastructure development and
technology deployment along the border can help India’s defensive capabilities.
However, at the same time, that doesn't mean you can't maintain open channels
of communication with China, and open channels to mitigate misunderstandings
and promote a stable environment in the border regions. Key players in regional
and global platforms are India and China, BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO) and the G20. These multilateral forums offer both nations a
chance to work constructively on issues such as climate change, global economic
recovery and counterterrorism. They often have different global ambitions but
cooperation in these platforms can help them to build mutual trust and contribute
to regional stability. India can work with like-minded nations to counterbalance
China's dominance without going to an outright confrontation. It shows its effort
to raise strategic autonomy through Indo-Pacific strategy, through the partners
it has within the QUAD framework, and through growing ties, it is developing
with countries like the United States and Japan in addressing regional concerns.
Pragmatic engagement with the complexities of the India-China relationship
is the future of India-China relations. Economic cooperation, technology
exchanges and global challenges are all things both nations stand to gain from.
But to realize this vision, it has to overcome deep-seated mistrust and manage its
competition in Asia and elsewhere. A balanced foreign and domestic economic
and technological capacity and a prepared military and civilian capacity should
be the key for India. It paved the way for better relations with India; it can create
goodwill with other countries in the region, and address Beijing’s assertive
policies that are worrying to many countries. In the end, the trajectory of India and
China relations will depend on how smoothly their differences can be overcome,
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the issue of mutual respect and sovereignty and the order of putting regional NOTES
stability on the top of the agenda over making short-term geopolitical gains.

3.7 SUMMARY

The changing global power equations and their impact on India’s foreign policy
is the framework within which this lesson explores the evolving relationships
that India has had with three major global powers: the United States, Russia and
China. The history of India-US relations shows a period of relatively limited
engagement during the Cold War, with ideological differences, followed by a
sharp post-Cold War turn towards closer relations. Today's partnership includes
defence, technology, trade, and climate change, but there are challenges such
as trade disputes, immigration issues and competing geopolitical priorities.
This relationship has a very promising future, as we share common interests in
fighting terrorism, maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific, and technology-
driven collaboration. India’s decades-long relations with Russia had always been
characterized by deep and close cooperation, when Russia was an important ally
of India during the Cold War, sending military hardware and supporting India
during critical times. The energy, nuclear technology and space exploration are
now added to the list of strategic partnerships. But there are challenges that Russia
is becoming closer to China, India is getting closer to the USA, and it is necessary
to navigate with care. India and Russia want to continue their historical ties but
also look to new opportunities for cooperation. India’s relationship with China
is an economic interdependence and strategic competition. Although there has
been a long history of cooperation/punctuated by conflict, it was most notably
the 1962 war episode as well as through multilateral forums such as BRICS and
SCO. A lingering tension in ties often has been strategic challenges, including
unresolved border disputes, China's growing influence in South Asia and rivalry
in the Indian Ocean. But trade, climate change and global governance have the
potential for cooperation if mutual trust can be restored. This lesson, in general,
pays attention to the role of the three bilateral relationships in shaping the foreign
policy and strategic objectives of India and its ability to navigate in a multipolar
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NOTES
3.8 GLOSSARY

• Chabahar Port Project: A strategic initiative by India in Iran to counter

China’s influence in the region and enhance connectivity with Afghanistan
and Central Asia.
• Defence Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI): A mechanism to
deepen defence cooperation between India and the USA through joint
development and technology sharing.
• China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): A massive infrastructure
development project aimed at enhancing China’s connectivity with the
world, often viewed by India as a challenge to its strategic interests.
• Make in India Initiative: A flagship Indian government program
promoting domestic manufacturing, which has implications for India’s
defence procurement and economic partnerships.
• Cold War: A period of political and ideological tension between the United
States and the Soviet Union (1947–1991) that shaped global alliances,
including India's relations with both superpowers.

3.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How has the global power equation changed over the years, and why is it
significant for India’s foreign policy?
2. How did the Cold War period shape Indo-US relations?
3. How has the transition from the USSR to Russia impacted bilateral ties
with India?
4. What role does regional and global competition play in shaping the future
of India-China relations?
5. How do strategic partnerships impact India’s position in global politics?

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NOTES
3.10 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Tellis, Ashley J. (2013). The Transforming US-Indian Relationship and

Its Significance for American Interests. In Kanti P. Bajpai and Harsh V.
Pant (eds.), India's Foreign Policy: A Reader (pp. 303-320). New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
• Pande, Aparna. (2021). Natural Allies. In Shweta Dhaliwal (ed.) , Indo-US
Relations: Steering through the Changing World Order (pp. 10-35) . New
York: Routledge.
• Hagerty, D. T. (2016). The Indo-US Entente: Committed Relationship or
‘Friends with Benefits’? in Ganguly, Sumit (ed.), Engaging the World:
Indian Foreign Policy Since 1947 (pp. 133-155), New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
• Madan, T. (2020). Fateful Triangle: How China Shaped US-India Relations
During the Cold War. Washington D. C.: Brookings, pp. 1-13; 291-300.
• Dhaliwal, S. (2021). Introduction. In Shweta Dhaliwal (ed.), Indo-US
Relations: Steering through the Changing World Order (pp. 1-9). New
York: Routledge.
• Malhotra, A. (2020). India–Russia Ties: Exploring Convergences and
Divergences. In Arvind Gupta & Anil Wadhwa (eds.), India’s Foreign
Policy: Surviving in a Turbulent World (pp. 266280). New Delhi: Sage
Publications. (33).
• Upadhyay, A. (2015). India and Russia in Changing World. Economic and
Political Weekly, 50 https://www.epw.in/journal/2015/33/commentary/
india-and-russia-changingworld.html
• Tellis, A.J. (2022). “What is in Our Interest”: India and the Ukraine War.
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.
org/2022/04/25/what-is-in-our-interestindia-and-ukraine-war-pub-86961
• Menon, R. (2015). India and Russia: The anatomy and Evolution of a
Relationship. In David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan, & S. Raghavan (eds.),
The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy (pp.509-523). Oxford: Self-Instructional
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 India’s Foreign Policy: Challenges and Strategies

NOTES • Kapoor, N. (2019). India-Russia ties in a changing world order: In pursuit

of a Special Strategic Partnership. ORF Occasional Paper. https://www.
orfonline.org/research/india-russia-ties-ina-changing-world-order-in-
pursuit-of-a-special-strategic-partnership-56877/
• Ollapally, Deepa M. (2010). The Evolution of India’s Relations with Russia,
In Sumit Ganguly (ed.), India’s Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect
(pp. 226-247). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Singh, A.I. (1995). India’s Relations with Russia and Central Asia.
International Affairs, 71 (1), pp. 69-81.
• Tellis A., & Mirski S. (2013). Introduction. In A. Tellis and S. Mirski (eds.),
Crux of Asia: China, India, and the Emerging Global Order, Washington:
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, pp. 3-44.
• Gokhale, V. (2021). The Road from Galwan: The Future of India-
China Relations. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://
carnegieindia.org/2021/03/10/road-from-galwanfuture-of-india-china-
relations-pub-84019
• Mansingh, S. (2016). Rising China and Emergent India in the Twenty-first
century Friends or Rivals? In Kanti P. Bajpai & Harsh V Pant (eds.), India's
Foreign Policy: A Reader (pp. 281302). New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
• Pardesi, M.S. (2016). India's China Policy. In Sumit Ganguly (ed.),
Engaging the World: India's Foreign Policy Since 1947 (pp.167-189). New
Delhi: OUP.
• Swaran, S. (2021). COVID-19 and India-China Equations: Examining their
Interface in the Indian Ocean Region. Chinese Studies Journal, 15, 11-132.
https://jnu.ac.in/Faculty/ssingh/Singh_Covid19%20and%20India%20
China%20Equations_C SJ%20Vol%2015-2021.pdf

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Unit-III : India in South Asia: Issues and Challenges

Lesson-4 A. Issues: Land and Boundary, Migration, and Refugee Crisis

B. Debating Regional Strategies: SAARC and BIMSTEC
A. Issues: Land and Boundary, Migration, and Refugee Crisis B. Debating.....

LESSON-4 NOTES

A. ISSUES: LAND AND BOUNDARY,

MIGRATION, AND REFUGEE CRISIS
B. DEBATING REGIONAL STRATEGIES:
SAARC AND BIMSTEC
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Objectives
4.3 Issues: Land and Boundary, Migration, and Refugee Crisis
4.3.1 Land and Boundary Disputes
4.3.2 Migration Issues
4.3.3 Refugee Crisis
4.4 Debating Regional Strategies - SAARC and BIMSTEC
4.4.1 SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
4.4.2 BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation)
4.4.3 Comparing SAARC and BIMSTEC
4.4.4 India’s Strategies in South Asia
4.5 Summary
4.6 Glossary
4.7 Self-Assessment Questions
4.8 References/Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION

South Asia is one of the most dynamic and complex regions in the world and
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NOTES the great Himalayas and in the south by the immense Indian Ocean. The region
encompasses eight nations: They are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, which together make a mosaic of
different cultures, languages, religions and traditions. Nearly 25% of the world’s
population lives in South Asia, almost half of which are concentrated in extremely
densely populated areas. Although South Asia is characterised by remarkable
diversity in its peoples, beliefs, customs, economic systems, and languages, its
nations share the profound historical, cultural and economic connections that
myriad reasons make them interdependent. The region is economically marked
by disparities, where India is the largest economy and the most important
regional player. Little nations like Bhutan and Maldives are heavily dependent
on trade, tourism and development assistance from big neighbours. Like the
economic interdependence of South Asia, the flow of goods, services, labour,
and capital between South Asian countries is something similar. However,
this interdependence is frequently undermined by political mistrust, historical
grievances and unresolved disputes that continue to be a great challenge to
regional cooperation.
The issue of managing relations with its neighbours for India, the largest
and most influential nation in South Asia, is both a strategic imperative and an
elusive task. India borders six of the eight South Asian countries, and therefore,
land disputes, migration and refugee crises are all important aspects of India’s
foreign policy. India as a geographical power is positioned in opportunities
and responsibilities but its relationships with its neighbours have been marred
by historical legacies, political ideology and competing national interests. An
unresolved land and boundary dispute remains one of South Asia's most stubborn
problems. Territorial disputes are often the source of disputes that result in
territorial tensions, or in turn violent confrontations, that hinder regional stability.
India's boundary disputes with Pakistan over Kashmir and with China over
Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin have had great consequences for regional
security. India’s border disputes with Nepal and Bangladesh show how lines
should have been redrawn during colonial times. Solving these disputes needs
different kinds of diplomacy presenting long term solution that can create trust
and cooperation. Migration is another major thing in South Asia. Economic
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migration, legal and illegal, to the region. Social tensions and political challenges NOTES
are most often the genesis of cross border migration in countries like India, which
receives overwhelming numbers of migrants from neighbouring countries like
Bangladesh and Nepal. The refugee crisis, coupled with migration, is another
matter of South Asia that a refuge for millions fleeing conflicts and persecution.
In Bangladesh and India, for example, there has been enormous pressure from
the Rohingya refugee crisis on human rights, security and resources.
South Asia is not immune to these challenges while simultaneously having
seen attempts of regional cooperation in the many organisations like South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and Bay of Bengal Initiative for
Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an association formed in 1985
for increasing economic and regional integration of the South Asian countries.
But its effectiveness has been hindered by political differences notably between
India and Pakistan. However, BIMSTEC, a platform of South and Southeast
Asian countries, has emerged as an alternative platform to discuss things like
trade, connectivity and climate change.
The strategies in South Asia followed by India are attempts to keep the
region stable while playing its role as a leader. India is pushing to boost its ties with
its neighbours and to develop regions through initiatives such as "Neighbourhood
First Policy" and "Act East Policy". Yet, as the region confronts a host of internal
and external challenges, the relativity is that these objectives are much easier
spoken than they are to accomplish.
This lesson takes a closer look at these issues, beginning with a discussion
on the acute problems of land and boundary disputes, migration and refugee
crisis. The historical context, current status and implications for India’s foreign
policy of each of these issues will be analysed. Further, the lesson looks at the
role of regional organisations such as SAARC and BIMSTEC in tackling those
challenges and promoting cooperation. We will examine the potential for these
two frameworks to improve regional integration and stability by comparing
the two. The lesson concludes with a review of India’s strategic approaches to
resolving these complex challenges in South Asia. South Asia is important due
to its vibrant diversity and interdependence that holds great potential for regional
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NOTES unresolved disputes have blocked the way to this potential. The region is an
opportunity for India to project its leadership and a challenge to maintain stability
and harmony in the region for India. Such an understanding is important for
formulating India’s engagement in South Asia.

4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

• Understand Key Regional Issues: Identify and critically analyse the major
land and boundary disputes, migration challenges, and refugee crises in
South Asia, with a focus on their impact on regional stability and India's
foreign policy
• Evaluate Regional Cooperation Mechanisms: Explain the objectives,
structures, and functions of SAARC and BIMSTEC as regional
organisations and assess their roles in addressing South Asia's challenges
• Compare Regional Strategies: Compare and contrast the effectiveness of
SAARC and BIMSTEC in promoting regional integration and cooperation,
highlighting India's engagement and contributions to these platforms
• Analyse India's Role and Strategies: Assess India's strategies for dealing
with regional issues, its leadership role in South Asia, and its approach to
balancing its national interests with regional aspirations
• Develop Policy Perspectives: Formulate informed perspectives on how
India can address land and boundary disputes, migration issues, and refugee
crises while strengthening regional cooperation frameworks

4.3 ISSUES: LAND AND BOUNDARY, MIGRATION,

AND REFUGEE CRISIS

Its large size and manifold complexity in terms of its cultural, political and ethnic
diversity makes South Asia one of the most geopolitical complex region on the
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recurring refugee crises add to this complexity and constitute major challenges to NOTES
regional stability and cooperation. These are in most cases the result of historical
heritage, socio-economic disparities and political tensions, which are not only an
obstacle to the improvement of the situation of South Asian countries’ bilateral
relations, but a source of tensions within South Asian regional dynamics. In
this lesson, we look at the causes of these pressing issues, land and boundary
disputes, socio-economic implications of migration, and humanitarian challenges
of refugee crises. If we can understand these challenges, we can understand what
they mean for India and the broader South Asian region. In this section, India’s
strategies and regional cooperation mechanisms for dealing with these persistent
concerns are examined.

4.3.1 Land and Boundary Disputes

Boundary Issues in South Asia: Historical Context

South Asia’s land and boundary disputes have a colonial legacy and the arbitrary
demarcation of borders out of which partitions of British India in 1947 resulted.
The absence of a precise mapping, in conjunction with the area's complicated
topography and ethnic diversity, has served to keep conflicts in the area going.
These disputes end up remaining many of them unresolved, flagging the
bilateral relations and the stability in that region. At the same time, South Asia's
historical and geopolitical complexities have been linked to contemporary
security, economic and political concerns, and boundary disputes have remained
a perennial problem.

India-Pakistan: Sir Creek Dispute and the Kashmir Conflict

The Kashmir conflict is one of the longest running, and most intractable, territorial
disputes in the world. The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had its origins
as a flashpoint emerging from the partition of 1947 which saw the ruler choose
to join India, leading immediately to a military confrontation between Pakistan
and India. Despite the United Nation's interventions and several wars, the region
has been in targets of Pakistani army and terrorists, while India controls Jammu,
Kashmir and Ladakh. It is a point that is deeply rooted in religious, political
and strategic considerations, and that is constantly punctuated by cross border Self-Instructional
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NOTES skirmishes. The Sir Creek dispute is over a 96-kilometre estuary in the Rann of
Kutch region where the maritime boundary between India and Pakistan has not
been settled. The issue is over the boundary on the easternmost channel of Sir
Creek as Pakistan has argued in the middle as India has claimed. The dispute
is important because it also pertains to access to marine resources and that of
exclusive economic zones.

India-China: Eastern Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh Disputes

The boundary disputes between India and China primarily centre on two
regions such as Arunachal Pradesh and Eastern Ladakh. The Chinese reject
the validity of the agreement, which was then crossed during a McMahon Line
established at the Simla Convention of 1914, to be the basis for Indian claim in
Arunachal Pradesh. Hostilities continued and diplomatic stand offs between the
two countries, as corruption and problems between the army majors worsened
during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Eastern
Ladakh is poorly demarcated and its incursions and clashes, including the 2020
Galwan Valley encounters are quite frequent. These disputes strangle the ties
between the two nations and are a broader challenge to regional security with
both nations' border militarised.

India-Bangladesh: The Resolution of Enclaves under the 2015 Land

Boundary Agreement
The India-Bangladesh boundary issue, based on the partition of 1947, was over
enclaves pieces of one country surrounded by another. This unique situation
caused such difficulties in logistics and administration that the residents became
stateless and economically poor. This issue was settled by the historic 2015 Land
Boundary Agreement between India and Bangladesh, which uncoupled borders
by exchanging 162 enclaves, and regularising borders, and gave citizenship to
affected residents. This model of peaceful dispute resolution in South Asia is
often hailed an agreement.

India-Nepal: Kalapani and Lipulekh Issues

Kalapani and Lipulekh disputes between India and Nepal are over territorial
claims in northwestern region of Nepal. The squabble involves which side of
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Sugauli Treaty in 1815, when British East India Company signed an agreement NOTES
with Nepal. India says the Kalapani area is part of Uttarakhand, while Nepal says
it is part of its Darchula district. Just as the Lipulekh Pass, which has strategic
importance for trade and military is the scene of a dispute with Nepal over India's
construction in the area. Bilateral relations have remained strained, however,
periodically these disputes have stirred nationalist sentiment in both countries.
Boundary disputes in South Asia are important to both regional and
bilateral politics. Mistrust and hostility among nations, regional cooperation,
and economic integration are all things they perpetuate. Disputed borders are
frequently militarised making allocations of resources into developmental priority
often diverted to defence expenditures and augmenting sociological disparities.
For India, these disputes present a dual challenge: at a time when it has to
also manage bilateral tensions while remaining a leading country in maintaining
its leadership role in regional stability. Persistent security threats such as cross
border terrorism and strategic encirclement are caused by unresolved disputes
with Pakistan and China. At the same time, India’s smaller neighbour Nepal, in
particular run the risk of denting India’s image as a regional partner and leader.
Broad regional implications include hindering efforts such as the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) which are ineffective in part
because of interstate rivalries. In addition, the absence of trust and collaboration
with boundary issues impedes South Asia from fulfilling its economic potential,
with intra-regional trade being the lowest in the world. Historical legacies of
land and boundary disputes in South Asia, geopotential noises and geopolitical
ambitions contribute to deepen the spots. Some disputes among India and
Bangladesh, for example, have been peacefully settled through normalisation and
mutual agreement; these have not been entirely neutralised, however; and they
undoubtedly lead to creating insurmountable hurdles in achieving regional peace
and stability. These disputes need conversation, must stick to basic norms of the
international community, and must embrace solutions that promote development
and security at the expense of parochialist agendas. In terms of South Asia,
for India, it will have to speak to its security concerns towards a leader of its
neighbours and yet try to balance its regional aspirations for its regional leadership
too to create a stable and prosperous South Asia.
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NOTES 4.3.2 Migration Issues

The migration has always been a part of South Asia’s socio-political fabric.
By nature, the migration is driven by economic inequalities, environmental
challenges and political realities, with labour migration, cross border flow and
forced displacement being the most common segments of migration. This lesson
then analyses the patterns of migration in South Asia, the influences that shape
these migrations and India as both a destination and transit country.

1. Patterns of Migration in South Asia

There is migration in South Asia in various shapes influenced by economic
opportunity, historical ties, and political circumstances.
• Labour Migration: South Asia accounts for a large share of migration
flows through labour migration. However, every year millions of workers
from countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan migrate to Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in order to work in construction, as
well as other labour-intensive industries. Migrants to these countries send
remittances that are key for their home countries, they help GDP growth
and alleviate poverty. For example, in 2022, Bangladesh received over $20
billion in remittances to support economy and rural households. Notable
also is intra-regional labour migration. A lot of labour migrants come from
Nepal and Bangladesh to India. Under the open border agreement, Nepalese
workers work in India’s sectors such as hospitality, security services and
agriculture. Like Bangladeshi labourers also get employment in India’s
informal sectors, particularly in the states of West Bengal, Assam and
Delhi. Historically, South Asia’s porous borders have allowed for cross
border migration.
o India-Bangladesh Border: There is lots of movement across this
border because of shared linguistic, cultural and familial ties. People
in Bangladesh are pushed to India by economic pressures and
environmental vulnerabilities.
o India-Nepal Border: There is an open border between India and Nepal
that allows anyone to travel, trade, work, and exchange cultural ideas.
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The reasons for Nepalese migration to India are employment, mostly NOTES
in urban areas.
o India-Sri Lanka Border: Much migration from Sri Lanka to Tamil Nadu
has been historical and due to shared Tamil ethnicity, particularly in
the context of civil conflict in Sri Lanka.
• Forced Migration: Large scale forced migration has been caused by
conflicts, persecution and environmental disasters. Rohingya crisis is
a prime example: Nearly a million refugees from Myanmar escape to
Bangladesh and more. The Partition of India in 1947 was the result of the
largest mass migration in history and reshapes the region’s demographics
and political boundaries.

2. Factors Influencing Migration

Typically, migration in South Asia is driven by a number of factors, such as
environmental and developmental forces, and economic needs.
• Economic Disparities: Migration is a result of economic inequality.
o Push Factors: To escape from extremely high levels of poverty,
unemployment, lack of education and health care in rural areas, people
migrate to urban centers and neighbouring countries.
o Pull Factors: When India grows rapidly, as it has recently, it brings
migrants with better employment and higher wages. Opportunities in
India’s booming industries and urbanisation are not available in smaller
South Asian economies.
• Environmental Challenges: Climate change and natural disasters are
highly threatening to south Asia.
o Climate-Induced Migration: Coastal communities in Bangladesh are
threatened by rising sea levels and are forced to relocate. Millions
are displaced each year by floods and droughts, making existing
vulnerabilities worse.
o Natural Disasters: Population is often displaced by cyclones and
earthquakes. For instance, in the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, which
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NOTES • Development Projects: While infrastructure projects are important to

economic growth, local populations get displaced by them.
o Dams and Urbanisation: Millions have been displaced in India, Pakistan
and Bangladesh from large scale projects such as the construction of
dams and industrial zones.
o Agricultural Land Acquisition: Usually, cities and industrial needs
expand at the expense of existing agricultural lands, compelling rural
communities to migrate into the cities, or to move to neighbouring
countries to find new livelihoods.

3. India as a Destination Country

India’s geographic position and its shared borders to its neighbours and the
country’s economic position encourage it to become a key destination for migrants
in South Asia.
• Migration from Bangladesh: Bangladeshi migrants are among the largest
of India’s foreign-born workers. They migrate to India from poverty,
unemployment and natural disasters to seek better economic opportunities.
Most settle in West Bengal, Assam and Tripura to add to the labour force in
agriculture, construction and domestic work. But there has been political
controversy over the same, especially regarding illegal immigration and
its socio-economic impact.
• Migration from Nepal: The 1950 India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and
Friendship, facilitates Nepalese migration to India. Majorly the Nepalese
workers are employed in the sectors of hospitality, security services, and
retail. There are various Nepalese communities in the cities of Delhi and
Mumbai.
• Refugees from Sri Lanka: Sri Lankan Tamils have been a refuge in India
during periods of civil conflict in Sri Lanka. Thousands of refugees are
hosted in Tamil Nadu in camps and then helped to integrate. After the
conflict, many refugees have returned to Sri Lanka but many remain in
India and are contributing to local economies.

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4. India as a Transit Country NOTES

India is also a transit point for migrants hoping to reach other parts of the world,
in particular the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
• Gulf-Bound Workers Transit: India is a transit point for many South
Asian migrants to reach GCC countries. This movement is facilitated by
India’s existing air and sea connectivity, and regional role.
• Transit for Refugees: Many refugees that flee neighbouring countries first
go to India to seek political asylum in Western countries or to relocate in
Southeast Asia. For instance, Rohingya refugees first arrive in Bangladesh
before they are sent on to India to get to destinations in Southeast Asia or
the Middle East.
• Transit Migration Challenges: India has unique challenges of transit
migration; border management, humanitarian and international diplomatic
implications. India is a main power in the region and a domestic task has
been a key challenge for India.
Unlike most of the development literature on migration in South Asia,
this lesson seeks to understand the multidimensionality of migration in South
Asia, tied to its origins in economic, environmental and political processes.
The network's interconnectedness of migration patterns litigated by labour
opportunities, landmark cross-border ties and forced displacement is a hallmark
of the region. India's function as a destination as well as transit country underlines
the significance of this country in the management of the flows of these
migrations. Migration stimulates economic development and the enhancement
of cultural diversity, at the same time it presents obstacles for the management
of borders, social and political tensions, and man-made crises. To address such
issues, we have to deal with human rights and regional cooperation within an
economic development framework that strikes the right balance. To turn migration
challenges into opportunities for regional stability and growth, South Asian
nations need to cooperate more on migration, and to do so because of robust
domestic policies.

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NOTES 4.3.3 Refugee Crisis

Refugee Flows in South Asia

Unfortunately, South Asia has been a prime target of massive refugee flows
because of its confusing relationship of ethnic conflicts, political turbulence,
and disparity in its income nexus. Some of the world's most protracted and
politically sensitive refugee crises have been formed by historical legacies and
socio-political tensions in the region. Refugee movements in South Asia are
frequently cross border, due to the porous boundaries and cultural affinities
of the region. Refugee flown from South Asia are driven by armed conflicts,
ethnic and religious persecution, environmental disasters, and socio-economic
hardship. Mainly refugees coming from countries plagued with internal strife
are Myanmar, Afghanistan and Sri Lanka who find refugee in their adjacent
countries like India, Bangladesh and Nepal. South Asia hosts substantial refugee
populations but is not party to the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol
and does not have a unified regional framework to deal with refugee issues. This
has left responses to region refugee crises frequently being ad hoc and shaped
by domestic political concerns.

Myanmar Rohingya Refugees

Rohingya crisis ranks among top calling card humanitarian challenges in South
Asia. It has been decades of systemic discrimination, denial of citizenship
and violent persecution for the mainly Muslim Rohingya, a minority group
from Myanmar's Rakhine State. In 2017, they all came to a head, when a
military crackdown in Myanmar forced more than 700,000 Rohingya to flee to
Bangladesh. Over a million Rohingya now live in the refugee camps in Cox's
Bazar, Bangladesh, which are now among the largest in the world. These camps
are also facing severe challenges: overcrowding, poor healthcare and lack of
access to education. The crisis has stressed Bangladesh’s resources and has
raised serious security and environmental issues. Although not a major host for
Rohingya refugees, India has seen an influx of Rohingya seeking asylum. There
has been a classic controversy over national security, resource allocation, and
humanitarian responsibilities in India's response to the crisis. But some states
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have stepped in with temporary relief, while others have clamped down on NOTES
deportation and border security.

Sri Lanka During Civil War Refugees

Large scale displacement of the Tamil population in Sri Lankan Civil War
(1983–2009) was mainly due to conflict between the Sri Lankan government in
power and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The conflict produced
substantial refugee movements, principally to India, to Tamil Nadu of which
Sri Lankan refugees were the major beneficiaries. Nearly 100,000 Sri Lankan
refugees were hosted in India in camps and urban settlements and had the basic
life necessities and education in Tamil Nadu because of its cultural and linguistic
relations with the Sri Lankan Tamils was a key to supporting these refugees. Yet
the experience of prolonged displacement involved integration, repatriation and
securing the refugees’ security.
But the civil war did not end the refugee problem, repatriation was delayed
by fears about safety and political instability in Sri Lanka. Refugees have since
integrated into Indian society and others remain in camps waiting for durable
solutions.

India’s Policies on Refugees

Refugees have been hosted in India for a long time, including Tibetans,
Bangladeshis, Afghans and Sri Lankans. But it has no legal framework for refugee
protection. India, however, deals with refugee problems through a combination
of ad hoc measures, administrative policies and judicial interventions.

The Challenge and Legal Framework

India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol,
the two protocols together defining international standards of refugee protection.
There is no refugee specific law in place and refugees are dealt with under the
Foreigners Act, 1946, which does not differentiate between refugees and illegal
immigrants. Usually, a legal ambiguity leads to inconsistent and discretionary
handling of refugees.

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NOTES National Security Concerns

National security considerations play a big role in India’s policies toward refugees.
Rohingya refugees have spurred debate in recent years over whether they could
be linked to terrorism or organised crime, and that has led to tighter borders and
deportation, prompting alarm from human rights groups.

Humanitarian Assistance
Though it is a security driven approach, India has also been supportive, providing
humanitarian assistance to refugees. One example is that Tibetan refugees have
been given special permits to allow them to set up settlements and get education
and employment. Like Sri Lankan refugees in Tamil Nadu, state support has
extended to housing and education for Sri Lankan refugees in India. But the
support varies according to the refugee group and its perception of being aligned
with India’s strategic interests.

International Collaboration
International organisations, including the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR) have joined India for addressing the refugee issues.
UNHCR operates in India, where it assists refugees from countries not bordering
India like Afghanistan, Somalia and Myanmar. Yet India is surprisingly inactive
in its interaction with the UNHCR, which reflects its preference for sovereign
approach to refugee management.

Managing Large Scale Migrations: Challenges

• Resource Constraints: India’s resources, including housing, healthcare
and education are put under pressure by refugee inflows. The tension
and social friction of competition for limited resources is typical of host
communities competing for resources in the area.
• Lacking a Comprehensive Policy: A lack of uniform legal framework
means that refugees are not treated in the same way, policies are different
from state to state and from refugee group to refugee group. It prevents
the development of long-term solutions.
• Social and Political Tensions: Political rhetoric that characterises
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and compounds the hostility and refugees too often face discrimination in NOTES
host communities.
• Regional Implications: The refugee crises in South Asia have regional
dimensions and therefore impact on bilateral relations and regional stability.
The Rohingya crisis has strained India’s relations with both Bangladesh
and Myanmar.
• Repatriation and Integration: A durable solution such as voluntary return,
local integration, or resettlement continues to elude help for refugees.
Refugees all over are displaced for long periods of time in situations where
they have very limited access to basic rights and opportunities.

India’s Way Forward

• Legal Reforms: A comprehensive refugee law would afford both clarity
and consistency in refugee issues, it would act in accordance to international
standards and address any national security concerns.
• Regional Cooperation Strengthening: For India to be able to play a
leading role in promoting regional dialogue on refugee issues SAARC and
BIMSTEC are successful platforms. Common efforts to fix the obstruction
causes displacement and bolster of local refugee protection mechanisms.
• Improving Humanitarian Response: Education, healthcare, and
livelihood access for refugees also provide them with an opportunity to
become increasingly self-reliant, and offload some of the burden on host
communities. International Partnerships leveraging India can therefore
further increase its ability to manage incoming refugee flows and to
contribute to durable solutions by strengthening collaboration with the
UNHCR and other international organisations.
However, national security has always been the highest priority, and India
must balance that with its humanitarian obligations to treat refugees with its
dignity and compassion. The realisation that refugee crises in South Asia indicate
the region’s wider social, political problems, which call for joint efforts at the
national, regional, and international levels. The crises in India are not only a
humanitarian imperative, but also a strategic necessity to continue to manage
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NOTES
4.4 DEBATING REGIONAL STRATEGIES - SAARC
AND BIMSTEC

A region with shared cultural heritage and economic potential, South Asia is beset
by a variety of interlinked challenges that require collective action. This kind of
platform is fundamental for the development and stability in these regions. Several
of these are South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC). While SAARC, which was formed in 1985 for South Asia, is
recognised, and BIMSTEC, formed in 1997 for the region that bridges South
and Southeast Asia, offers wider economic and strategic possibilities. However,
both organisations are hampered by political conflicts, asymmetries in member
capacities, and conflicting interests. This lesson discusses the structures, functions
and effectiveness of SAARC and BIMSTEC and their approaches to regional
cooperation, and how India is using these frameworks to tackle the changing
challenges in South Asia.

4.4.1 SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established
in 1985 with the aim of fostering regional integration and cooperation among its
member states: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
and Afghanistan. SAARC was envisioned to represent nearly a quarter of the
world’s population, to address common challenges of poverty, underdevelopment
and socio-economic disparities, and to promote peace, stability and prosperity
in the region. Nevertheless, SAARC has been rather ineffective because of its
high ambitions but also those hurdles that always got in the way.

Background and Objectives of SAARC

The idea for SAARC came about because South Asia’s developmental challenges
were more effectively addressed through regional cooperation. The idea had been
initiated by Bangladesh's President Ziaur Rahman in the late 1970s, and picked
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The core objectives of SAARC as outlined in its charter include: NOTES

• Promoting Welfare and Quality of Life: Accelerated economic growth
and social progress in the interests of improving South Asia’s people’s
welfare.
• Fostering Collective Self-Reliance: To promote collective self-reliance
in other fields of activity among member states.
• Strengthening Collaboration: To enhance collaboration in the field of
economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields.
• Contributing to Global Cooperation: Promoting global peace and
stability actively with international and regional organisations.

Achievements of SAARC
SAARC is certainly no perfect union, its limitations are clear but it has managed
to achieve some notable successes, most notably with trade, cultural exchanges
and disaster management. Some of its achievements are:
• Trade Agreements (SAFTA): The South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA)
agreement signed in 2004 to reduce tariffs and increase trade among
members. Intra-regional trade is however low (around 5% of total trade),
and SAFTA was a positive step in acknowledging the economic potential
of regional integration. It also provided the ground for the South Asian
Regional Standards Organisation (SARSO) to harmonise trade standards
and ease trade within the region.
• Cultural Exchanges: One of the things that SAARC has done, in order to
bring the people of the member states together is initiatives like the SAARC
Cultural Centre in Sri Lanka, the SAARC Film Festival and scholarships
that the organisation has conducted to encourage the education and cultural
understanding of the member states. They have helped to build people to
people ties in a region that has shared cultural and historical legacies.
• Disasters Management and Humanitarian Assistance: South Asia’s
vulnerability to disasters such as earthquakes, floods as well as cyclones
has made it a priority area of work for SAARC. The SAARC Disaster
Management Centre (SDMC) was set up to coordinate disaster risk
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NOTES Projects to mitigate climate change impacts in the region have also been
taken up by SAARC.
• Health and Social Welfare: Regional health programs have been
implemented by SAARC including programmes to combat HIV/AIDS and
other communicable diseases. Based in Nepal, the SAARC Tuberculosis
Centre is a regional example of efforts to confront public health problems.

Limitations of SAARC
SAARC has however not been able to achieve its mandate for various reasons like:
• India Pakistan Political Rivalries: The main reason why SAARC has not
been able to succeed is the enduring hostility between India and Pakistan.
Repeatedly, political tensions, especially over Kashmir and cross border
terrorism, have stalled SAARC initiatives. It is a stark reminder of the
vulnerability of SAARC summits to bilateral disputes since 2014 when
they were suspended.
• Lack of Implementation: SAARC has adopted several declarations and
agreements, but the effective implementation mechanisms have wrested the
effectiveness to achieve tangible outcomes. However, many initiatives are
stuck on paper because there is not enough political will and not enough
resources.
• Structural Issues: Unanimity principle is the basis of SAARC operation,
i.e., decisions are taken only after the consensus of all member states.
This structure has frequently led to a deadlock, especially when political
differences are more prominent on the agenda. Moreover, absence of solid
dispute resolution mechanism cast curbs on SAARC to solve conflict
between member states.
• Economic Disparity and Asymmetry: SAARC has been marked by an
asymmetry due to wide economic disparities between member states and
India’s overwhelming size and economic power. For smaller countries,
SAARC is seen as being India-centric and fraught with apprehension and
little trust among members.
• Lack of Connectivity and Integration: One of the lowest in the world,
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and the trade between the South and Southeast Asia have been burdened NOTES
by poor infrastructure, the restriction trade policies and non-tariff barriers.

India’s Role in SAARC and its Strategy for Engagement

India is the largest and the most influential member of SAARC and has
tremendous role in setting the tone of the organisation. Yet, engagements with
SAARC in India have been marked by both circumstances and problems.

India’s Vision for SAARC

The SAARC is an important platform for the advancement of regional stability and
development, according to India. India’s economic integration and connectivity,
as well as its dealing with common challenges including poverty, terrorism, and
climate change, are pursued through SAARC.

Initiatives by India
It includes:
• Economic Cooperation: India has a long history of relatively active
promotion of regional trade, initiated by SAFTA, indeed, as reflected in
the India-SAARC Food Bank. India has also contributed generously to the
development of projects of smaller member states.
• Connectivity Projects: It is attempting to increase regional connectivity
through projects ranging from road, rail and energy linkages. But these
projects are delayed because of political and logistical hurdles.
• Disaster Management: At SAARC’s initiative, India has provided the
expertise and the finance for technical resource pooling to its program for
disaster management.

India’s Engagement Challenges

It includes:
• India-Pakistan Relations: The strained India Pakistan relationship
severely curtailed India’s ability to play a game changing role in the
SAARC fora. In fact, Pakistan has been often reluctant to India led
initiatives and political tensions have been frequenting which has led to
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NOTES • Perceptions of Dominance: Smaller SAARC members might sometimes

find India actions hegemonic, and so mistrust and unwillingness to
cooperate fully. To address concerns raised above, India has strived to
pursue such inclusive initiatives and engage bilateral with smaller states.

India’s Shift Towards BIMSTEC

The inefficacy of SAARC has prompted India to look to other regional platforms
such as BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation). India can also pursue its regional goals by looking at
countries which are parts of BIMSTEC, but do not carry the weight of Indo-Pak
tensions.

Strategic Outlook
India understands that continuity with SAARC has actually been undermined by
political rivalries and by structural weaknesses within the organisation. India’s
strategy is to continue with SAARC as a regional dialogue platform while moving
ahead with sub regional cooperation initiatives with willing partners like the
BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal).

Way Forward
To revitalise SAARC and enhance its effectiveness, several steps can be
considered:
• De-politicising SAARC: Bilateral disputes have to take a back seat
to regional cooperation. With India and Pakistan, confidence building
measures, mediation by third parties, could reduce tension.
• Strengthening Implementation Mechanisms: This will ease the
implementation of SAARC initiatives in a robust manner and create robust
monitoring and evaluation frameworks that check initiatives in SAARC.
• Promoting Connectivity: Infrastructure investment and trade liberalisation
can enhance intra-regional trade as well as economic integration.
• Empowering Smaller Members: A guarantee that smaller member states
would participate in an effort equally and concerns about that would build
trust and foster cooperation.
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• Leveraging Complementary Frameworks: As it is, SAARC can fill in as NOTES

a complementary organisation with respect to other regional organisations,
BIMSTEC and ASEAN in particular, for the purpose of allowing South
Asia to participate more meaningfully in the fora regarding the global and
the interregional dialogues. Finally, SAARC continues to be the appropriate
forum for South Asian common challenges. Despite political rivalries,
structural issues and progress, it cannot be overlooked that it’s potential to
foster regional integration and stability cannot be overlooked. Engagement
with SAARC for India is strategic, its limitations need to be addressed for
India to promote regional prosperity and assert its leadership in South Asia.

4.4.2 BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical

and Economic Cooperation)

BIMSTEC Formation and Objectives

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC) was established in 1997 as the region's organisation
for promoting cooperation among countries in South and Southeast Asia.
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand are its
founding members. As opposed to SAARC which stays confined within South
Asia, BIMSTEC brings South Asia into a wider strategic platform of regional
cooperation and integration with Southeast Asia. Economic growth promotion,
regional connectedness extension, and various fields’ cooperation are the
main objectives of the organisation. The consensus based working principle of
BIMSTEC focuses on technical and economic collaboration in the identified
priority areas. The 14 sectors that these areas are currently expanded to include
are trade, connectivity, energy, security, technology and tourism. Unlike other
regional groupings, it focuses on technical cooperation and sector specific projects
and is a pragmatic platform for achieving common objectives.

Focus Areas of BIMSTEC

• Trade and Economic Cooperation are always a Priority: Trade and
economic integration are given top priority in BIMSTEC as drivers of
regional development. Intra-regional trade and investment holds great Self-Instructional
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NOTES potential in the Bay of Bengal region that hosts over 1.5 billion people.
The organisation tries to establish a free trade agreement (FTA) among
its members in order to increase exchange of economic and decrease the
trade barriers. Improved trade links in BIMSTEC not only act to deepen the
economic interdependence, but also play an important role in the region’s
overall prosperity.
• Connectivity: BIMSTEC’s agenda is grounded in connectivity. The
organisation has taken several steps to enhance physical, digital and
institutional linkages across the region. Areas of substantial infrastructure
commonly created such as roads, railways, ports and aviation links are
being forecast by projects like the BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport
Connectivity. Improved connectivity helps trade, investment flows, people
to people interactions run smoothly and make the region more integrated
into the global value chains.
• Energy Cooperation: The region’s growing energy demands also means
energy is a critical focus area. BIMSTEC undertakes initiatives like
transnational energy grids and renewable energy projects to promote energy
cooperation, and projects related to natural resources exploration shared
by countries. The BIMSTEC Energy Centre is a knowledge exchange and
project coordination platform in the energy related sector in India.
• Security and Counterterrorism: In BIMSTEC’s agenda, security
cooperation, especially in counterterrorism, disaster management and
maritime security, has become a focus. The region, which shares challenges
such as terrorism, transnational crime and natural disasters has been called
upon to work together. Intelligence sharing, border security and building
capacity for disaster risk reduction have been adopted by BIMSTEC.

India’s Shift from East Asia to BIMSTEC as a Regional Alternative

India’s growing orientation towards BIMSTEC has the flavour of a strategic
transient of India from SAARC to BIMSTEC. However, regional cooperation
initiatives have stagnated because of SAARC’s lack of a clear path towards
its objectives, and political tensions in particular between India and Pakistan
dominate the body. India’s indecision to keep sitting on dissent has necessitated
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looking for new platforms that are more flexible and offer greater opportunities NOTES
to progress India’s regional aspirations.
India's role in BIMSTEC is in accordance with its overall foreign policy
moorings, such as its Neighbourhood First, Act East and Indo Pacific ideologies.
As a bridge between South Asia and Southeast Asia, by doing this, India can
increase its regional influence while remaining connected with the Southeast
Asian economies. Pragmatic and sectoral bilateral cooperation is closer to what
India envisions for the development of its region.
BIMSTEC’s exclusion of Pakistan also allows India to bypass the political
hurdles that have slowed down SAARC. Thus, BIMSTEC becomes an Indian
initiative plaque to lead in areas like connectivity, energy and security thus
signalling its fundamental leadership role in the region.

Success Stories in BIMSTEC

• Regional Connectivity: Promotion of regional connectivity is one
of BIMSTEC’s biggest accomplishments. Development of integrated
infrastructure network was laid by BIMSTEC Transport Infrastructure
and Logistics Study (BTILS) and BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport
Connectivity. Physical linkages are improved by tangible outcomes in
projects such as the Kaladan Multi Modal Transit Transport Project and
the India Myanmar Thailand Trilateral Highway.
• Energy Cooperation: In terms of energy collaboration BIMSTEC has
come a long way, especially in the field of renewable energy and power
grid integration. Research and coordination on energy related sectors has
been facilitated by the establishment of the BIMSTEC Energy Centre in
Bengaluru, India. BIMSTEC emphasises on sustainable energy solution
through collaborative effort to explore hydropower potential in Bhutan
and Nepal and efforts for energy trading among member states.
• Disaster Management and Counterterrorism: As mechanisms such as
the BIMSTEC Convention on Cooperation in Combating International
Terrorism, Transnational Organised Crime and Illicit Drug Trafficking
has increased the cooperation in counterterrorism, BIMSTEC has grown
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NOTES building also contributed to build the region’s preparedness to respond to

natural calamity effectively.
• Institutional Strengthening: In recent years, BIMSTEC has improved its
institutional framework. Coordination and operational efficiency has been
increased through the establishment of a permanent Secretariat in Dhaka,
Bangladesh. The BIMSTEC Charter adopted in 2022 represents a major
step in formalising the organisation’s structure and decision making.

Challenges in BIMSTEC
• Lack of Implementation: BIMSTEC has prepared some ambitious plans
and frameworks, but their projects often require lags not only because of
lack of finance, bureaucratic bottlenecks and political disagreements among
member states. The gap between what the organisation says and what it
does compromises the organisation’s credibility and effectiveness.
• Asymmetries among Members: Diverse socio-economic and political
contexts of BIMSTEC members make consensus and equitable participation
difficult. Smaller countries such as Bhutan and Nepal may need to get their
capacities on board the ambitious goals of bigger economies like India and
Thailand.
• Overlapping Mandates: BIMSTEC’s growing agenda of 14 priority areas
runs the risk of reducing its focus and stretching its resources too thin. The
lack of prioritisation and the coordination of these areas can impede on
what progress is meaningful.
• Geopolitical Dynamics: It also could present problems for BIMSTEC’s
cohesion and effectiveness, the region’s geopolitical complexities, including
China’s growing influence. External power alignments of member states
can cause considerable frictions, if not impeded collective action.
• Resource Constraints: Funding of large-scale projects is limited by
BIMSTEC’s reliance on member contributions. Sustainable financing
mechanisms, however, is important if its agenda of development is to be
advanced.
For regional cooperation, especially in South and Southeast Asia,
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and sectoral collaboration which is in tune with the development priorities of its NOTES
member states and has potential for economic growth, connectivity and security.
The strategic shift towards BIMSTEC exposes India’s capacities to fill the voids
with its regional aspirations and to overcome weaknesses of other forums such
as SAARC. Yet for BIMSTEC to fully develop its potential, its institutional and
operational weaknesses need to be addressed. Implementation must be a priority
for member states, their agenda should be streamlined, and they should increase
financial and technical resources. First, strengthening institutional mechanisms
and second, promoting more political influence among members are needed to
advance BIMSTEC’s objectives. BIMSTEC is witnessing its evolution towards
becoming a cornerstone of regional integration, linking South and Southeast
Asia, and complementing the wider Indo-Pacific vision. Landing at BIMSTEC
initiatives, India would not only boost its regional prowess but would also ensure
fulfilment of its efforts for inclusive and sustainable development in the Bay of
Bengal region.

4.4.3 Comparing SAARC and BIMSTEC

SAARC and BIMSTEC: Geopolitical Significance

There are two distinct, but interrelated approaches to regional cooperation,
referenced by the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC). SAARC, established in 1985, focuses exclusively on
South Asia, bringing together eight nations: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The focus of its mandate is on promoting economic
cooperation, alleviating poverty and achieving social progress. The geopolitical
importance of SAARC however has been distorted by political rivalries between
India and Pakistan, a crisis that has prevented SAARC from realising its full
potential.
BIMSTEC, however, which was formed in 1997, bridges South Asia and
Southeast Asia by bringing together five South Asian countries (Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) and two Southeast Asian countries (Myanmar
and Thailand). This hybrid composition makes BIMSTEC unique in having a
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NOTES two dynamic regions. BIMSTEC stands out when its importance is verified by
the fact that the Bay of Bengal, being an important and strategic place that serves
as the hub of global maritime trade, plays a role. The other aspect of what has
managed to capture the public’s attention is that it focuses on sectors, such as
trade, connectivity, energy, and security aligns with the broader Indo-Pacific
strategy, which naturally makes it a key platform for regional integration.

SAARC: Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths: The potential for South Asian countries to unite into a region
with shared cultural, historical, and economic ties is the main strength
of SAARC. Their willingness to jointly address regional challenges
through its endeavours such as trade facilitation, disaster management
and social development underscores its capacity to function as a regional
solo arrangement. The SAARC Development Fund supports projects in
the field of sustainable development and the South Asian Free Trade Area
(SAFTA) to boost intra-regional trade.
• Weaknesses: Despite the promise, SAARC has been unable to achieve its
objectives because it has been bedevilled by deep seated political tensions,
especially between India and Pakistan. It has frequently stalled its progress
through these hostilities, with summits postponed or cancelled. In addition,
SAARC’s decision-making process by unanimity of all the member states
has made it susceptible to political closure. Yet what relevance did the
organisation have? The organisation focused its concerns on limited facets
of security and could not enforce agreements. This has further diminished
its importance in a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape.

BIMSTEC Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths: BIMSTEC’s hybrid membership is not confined to South and
Southeast Asia but is of a geopolitical and economic breadth. In the case of
BIMSTEC, Pakistan is being explicitly removed permitting it to escape the
India Pakistan rivalry which has brought SAARC to its knees. Targeted and
pragmatic cooperation is provided by the organisation’s sectoral approach,
which addresses issues such as energy, trade, connectivity and security. The
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Plan for Transport Connectivity are examples of connectivity projects that NOTES
BIMSTEC stresses on.
• Weaknesses: BIMSTEC has the potential, but it is constrained by capacity
and institutional constraints. Closely related to lack of transnational
cooperation, member states tend to prioritise bilateral relationships
above commitments within a region, failing to provide cohesive,
consistent participation and implementation. The organisation is poorly
institutionalised, with limited resources and over reliance on voluntary
contributions. In addition, its broad mandate covers so many sectors that
it is likely to shrink the focus and stretch resources too thin.

India’s Strategic Calculus between Balancing SAARC and BIMSTEC

Both SAARC and BIMSTEC and the way India sees it, namely as behemoth in
South Asia who is an emerging global player, are seen through India's strategic
interests. SAARC is important for promoting good will and stability in the region
whereas BIMSTEC is a more congenial group for India in terms of connectivity
and economic integration in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Prioritising BIMSTEC over SAARC: As an increasingly viable platform
for regional cooperation, India has increasingly been shifting its focus
to BIMSTEC. India’s frustration with SAARC’s broken political logjam
has driven its shift to a bilateral path of development cooperation over
SAARC. By excluding Pakistan, BIMSTEC heals India out of the baggage
of bilateral hostilities to forge new relations with unaffected South Asian
nations. Additionally, BIMSTEC is greatly aligned in contact with India’s
‘Act East Policy’ and Indo Pacific strategy.
• Leveraging SAARC for Soft Power: Despite its evident shortcomings,
SAARC is an important forum for India to present its leadership, and its
commitment to South Asian unity. SAARC is India's venue to promote
soft power via cultural exchanges, educational scholarships and extends
disaster relief programs. This showed India’s willingness to lead in regional
pursuits to common challenges as with SAARC led efforts in response to
the COVID19 Emergency Fund.
• Enhancing Connectivity and Security through BIMSTEC: BIMSTEC Self-Instructional
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NOTES and addressing cross border security threats like terrorism, piracy and
cyber-crime. The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles
Agreement and the BIMSTEC Energy Grid are examples of India’s
initiative to use BIMSTEC to boost trade and energy security. BIMSTEC
has also highlighted the importance of maritime help, which is also in
congruence with India’s attempt to secure the Bay of Bengal under the
larger maritime perspective.
• Balancing Regional and Extra-Regional Interests: India’s approach to
SAARC and BIMSTEC is a result of a desire to strike a balance between
regional aspirations and extra regional ambitions. SAARC is for South
Asia’s internal dynamics, but BIMSTEC is a gateway to South East Asia
and the broader Indo Pacific. This dual approach would allow India to
respond to short term regional issues and to play an important role in global
geopolitics.

Comparing SAARC and BIMSTEC: Effectiveness and Challenges

• Scope and Membership: BIMSTEC as indicated by its name covers South
and Southeast Asia has a broader geopolitical reach. With Myanmar and
Thailand in this BIMSTEC, India is connected to Southeast Asian markets
and to its position strategically in the Bay of Bengal region.
• Political Constraints: Effectiveness of SAARC has been impeded,
especially between India and Pakistan which made the whole SAARC
constrained by their political rivalry. Excluding Pakistan from BIMSTEC,
however, bypasses this major impediment and enables the forum to
concentrate on functional cooperation.
• Institutional Framework: While there exists an institutional framework,
importantly through permanent secretariat in Kathmandu and a range of
specialised bodies, SAARC has a more developed institutional framework
than the Greater Arab Summit. However, BIMSTEC is lagging in the
development of its institutional capacity, and therefore the process of
executing and monitoring of initiatives is challenging.
• Focus Areas: While SAARC’s mandate is wider, it covers the economic,
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BIMSTEC’s sectoral approach, in terms of connectivity, trade and energy, NOTES

has made it more relevant to contemporary regional needs.

Way Forward for India

• Reinvigorating SAARC: India’s concentration on BIMSTEC is
understandable, but it cannot afford to entirely discard SAARC in view
of its importance in terms of South Asian unity. Within SAARC of India
also pushes for reforms for making it more relevant, like flexible decision
making process and more participation of other member states.
• Strengthening BIMSTEC’s Institutional Capacity: To unleash the
potential of BIMSTEC, India should work for a stronger institutional
architecture, with a permanent secretariat as well as dedicated funding
mechanisms. By enhancing the operational efficiency of BIMSTEC, its
projects will be executed in time.
• Promoting Complementarity: SAARC and BIMSTEC should be used
by India to address specific regional problems and India should leverage
the complementarities between the two platforms. While SAARC can
concentrate on the socio-economic issues of South Asia, BIMSTEC can
promote connectivity and security cooperation across South and Southeast
Asia.
• Building Consensus: India has to create a consensus among member states
and to establish a spirit of cooperation and mutual trust. Bilateral relations
with individual member nation could be used to secure their support to the
India’s regional initiatives.
Finally, SAARC and BIMSTEC are both important to India’s regional
strategy on its own terms, but in its own ways as they play complementary
but distinct roles. SAARC is India’s commitment to South Asian unity while
BIMSTEC is in line with India’s dreams of a broader connectivity and economic
integration. These platforms will have to be balanced otherwise India will not
be able to address regional challenges, increase its geopolitical influence and
contribute to the stability and prosperity of South and Southeast Asia.

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NOTES 4.4.4 India’s Strategies in South Asia

It is the Vision of India’s Regional Leadership and the Cooperation amongst the
countries.
India’s greatest position as a South Asian nation is India’s most strategical
placement, for largest and most economically developed country. India's links of
history, culture and geography to the neighbouring countries have been used by
India to take up the leadership role in promoting stability, economic development
and regional integration. The belief underpins this vision that a prosperous and
stable South Asia is critical for India’s growth and security.
India’s principle of leading regionally in a multilateral trading environment
and inclusive growth is what drives India’s approach to regional leadership.
India sees a South Asia where economic cooperation, connectivity and collective
security are given top priority through SAARC and BIMSTEC platforms.
BIMSTEC, however, is broader than SAARC, encompassing Southeast Asia as
well as South Asia, as is India’s Act East Policy. Both frameworks offer India the
ability to further cement its leadership credentials by developing trade, energy
cooperation as well as people to people exchange.

Resolving Boundary and Migration Issues

Land and boundary disputes, and migration challenges, are among the most
intractable of issues in South Asia, complicating bilateral and regional relations.
India has adopted a combination of bilateral agreements, regional mechanisms,
and diplomatic engagements to address these challenges.

Resolving Boundary Disputes

India has been devoting itself to negotiating the border disputes bilaterally with
its neighbours. The India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement of 2015 is a
notable success. It made a long-standing issue right in sticking enclaves and
demarcating borders. It was hailed as a model of peaceful conflict resolution, and
India’s elder statesmen celebrated their ability to put diplomatic overtures ahead of
guns blazing. India, like China, has undergone a continuous dialogue with China
to address the two contentious border issues with China at the Line of Actual
Self-Instructional Control (LAC). But there is no sign of easing tensions, and mechanisms like
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Managing Migration Challenges NOTES

South Asia poses problems of migration, both voluntary and forced. India has
to deal with the twin problem of undocumented migration from Bangladesh and
the refugee problem, in particular, the Rohingya refugees from Myanmar. India’s
approach to migration has been twofold. The border security while ensuring an
adequate humanitarian response to the crisis. Among these measures taken is
increased surveillance, more fencing along the India-Bangladesh border, and
deportation. Meanwhile India itself has given sanctuary to persecuted minorities,
Tibetan exiles and Sri Lankan Tamils, evidence of its humanitarian stance. But
a lack of a comprehensive refugee policy means that there are inconsistent
responses, such as the difference in treatment of Rohingya refugees across states.

The Role of the “Neighbourhood First” Policy in Ties Strengthening

Underpinning the Neighbourhood First policy launched in 2014 is India’s desire
for close relations with its South Asian neighbours. Proactive engagement, mutual
trust and cooperative development are the focus of the policy, which aims to deal
with common challenges. Key aspects of the policy include:
• Economic and Infrastructure Development: To trade and people to
people links, India has pursued regional connectivity projects like Kaladan
Multi-Modal Transit Transport project and the India-Nepal cross border
railway. The objectives of these initiatives are to reduce dependence on
the outside such as China, and encourage regional self-reliance.
• Energy Cooperation: Energy trade and cooperation in India has been a
major focus of South Asia’s energy sector. As projects like the South Asia
Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) power grid connect India’s
energy resources to countries around it, energy has become a means of
forging interdependence and mutual benefit.
• Humanitarian Analysis and Disaster Relief (HADR): The swift
response from India to natural disasters in the region, such as the 2015
Nepal earthquake and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami has helped India’s
good image to be a trustworthy partner. Such efforts fit in with the
Neighbourhood First policy’s emphasis on developing inclusive and
sustainable development. Self-Instructional
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NOTES • Leveraging SAARC and BIMSTEC: India's involvement with

SAARC has declined in recent years because of its disturbed geopolitics
especially with Pakistan. Yet it is a vital arena for dealing with regional
problems, including poverty, health and education. However, India has
actively promoted BIMSTEC as an alternative because it is focussing on
connectivity, trade and counter terrorism.

India’s Regional Strategies: Challenges

Despite its proactive approach, India faces significant challenges in asserting
its regional leadership:
• Balancing China’s Influence: Fragmented and averse to alliance, South
Asian education systems create a challenge to China’s strategic presence
in the region through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and economic
investments in the region. Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal have furthered
their ties with China, which has made for competition on influence in the
region. China’s funding of the Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka and the China
Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) are examples of China’s strategic
foot hold.
India has responded by increasing its investments in regional infrastructure
and forging partnerships with likeminded countries such as Japan and the
United States to offer alternative development models.
• Addressing Anti India Sentiment: Nationwide, the sentiments of the
neighbouring countries are directed against India that it is dominating and
interfering in their domestic affairs. For instance, political elites in Nepal
have also blamed India for using ‘its whips to improve’ the constitutional
process and concentrate on blockades. Pakistan's story also usually depicts
India as an aggressor, increasing India-Pakistan mistrust. To deal with these
issues India has tried to emphasise respect for each other and partnership
on equal terms in its diplomatic approach. Certain cultural exchanges,
educational scholarships and people to people ties are the basis of goodwill
and friendly relations-originated initiatives.
• Managing Domestic Pressures: India’s foreign policy continues to be
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tensions have risen over whether to uphold the Citizenship Amendment NOTES
Act (CAA) and how that will affect undocumented migrants as with
Bangladesh.
• BIMSTEC’s Challenges and SAARC’s Limitations: The fact that the
effects of Pakistan on the meet of SAARC are seen in political tension,
especially between India and Pakistan and stopped the progress of the basic
work. BIMSTEC, however, provides a favourable alternative, but its wide
membership and overlapping interests make reaching consensus difficult.

India’s Way Forward

• Economic Integration: A closer relationship with neighbours can broaden
India’s economic influence and help bring neighbours into a shared stake
in regional stability. The South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) should
be reinvigorated, both to lower trade barriers and strengthen economic
interdependence.
• Regional Connectivity Promotion: Road, rail and digital infrastructure
can enhance linkages, thus integrating more smoothly and lowering the
reliance on external ‘actors.’ Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN)
Motor Vehicle Agreement type projects should be prioritised to increase
intra-regional trade.
• Enhancing Multilateral Engagement: India should tap both SAARC and
BIMSTEC to deal with regional challenges and manage their shortcomings.
SAARC is the place where India can concentrate on nonpolitical issues
like health and education, whereas BIMSTEC is the place where India can
expand cooperation in trade and security.
• Balancing External Influences: India’s regional efforts would be
complemented by strategic partnerships with like-minded countries and
organisations such as the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) that will
block out China’s influence without raising the temperatures.
• Soft Power Building Trust: India’s educational, tourism and media
initiatives can tap its culture and historical links to its neighbours.
Mitigating the anti-India sentiment and wining the goodwill of the region
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NOTES Lastly, India’s tactics in South Asia suggest a cautious equilibrium between
its dream to leadership at the regional level, the intricacies of bilateral relations
and the wide issues that global geopolitics presents. If India takes on these
challenges with a forward-looking, and inclusive vision then it can put great
arms in developing peace, stability, and development in South Asia.

4.5 SUMMARY

South Asia is a region of great diversity and strategic importance, but it is beset
by a variety of problems that impede regional integration and stability. Land
and boundary disputes and migration and refugee concerns are among the most
pressing of all. The root causes of these challenges lie in the region’s colonial
heritage, socio-political ambits and economic inequalities, therefore they need
to be addressed through bilateral and multilateral efforts. With the largest and
most influential South Asian country, India is an important player in recognising
these issues and trying to balance its national interests and regional aspirations.
Tensions between South Asian nations have been land and boundary disputes.
Territory disputes linger as that conflict as India and Pakistan's festering dispute
over territory and India's ongoing stand-off with China on the Line of Actual
Control continues to strain bilateral relations and limit regional cooperation.
The complexities of managing historical legacies are played out, too, in smaller
disputes such as the India-Nepal border squabble over Kalapani and Lipulekh.
While India has acted proactively in working out some of the conflicts in an
outstanding landmark of 2015 in India Bangladeshi Land Boundary Agreement,
but some disputes still remain unresolved which need more diplomatic efforts.
South Asia is also confronted by migration and refugee flows. It is
economic migration, caused by poverty and unequal development and leading
to demographic pressure and social strains in host countries. Refugee crises also
pose human security and security challenges at the same time. The humanitarian
crisis wrought by the influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh and India, and
by the displacement of Sri Lankan Tamils during the civil war, are two recent
examples. On these issues, India has adopted a dual approach border security
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means it cannot deal consistently and effectively with these crises. The South NOTES
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of Bengal
Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
are central to debates and solutions for South Asia’s shared challenges. The
SAARC, set up in 1985 was aimed at offering a regional integration platform
to encourage such regional integration to address common issues like poverty,
health, etc. It has, however, been subverted by political gamesmanship between
India and Pakistan. However, BIMSTEC, established in 1997, offers a larger
umbrella within its purview for South and Southeast Asian countries, seeking
economic cooperation, connectivity and counterterrorism. Since Pakistan was
not included in BIMSTEC, India has supported it as a more effective regional
collaboration platform for India’s Act East Policy.
India’s South Asia strategies are based on its vision of regional leadership
and Neighbourhood First policy. This policy is about building relations with
neighbouring countries through economic, infrastructure development and
humanitarian assistance. Indications of this commitment include cross border
energy projects, regional connectivity programmes, and disaster relief efforts. But
India's leadership is handicapped by such factors as China's growing influence in
South Asia, anti-India sentiments in some neighbouring countries and domestic
political pressures. India needs to strike a delicate equilibrium, on the one hand,
the need to pursue bilateral agreements to address overlapping issues and, on
the other hand, multilateral forums for discussing common issues. Finally,
we find that aspects of South Asian geopolitics and history, such as land and
boundary disputes, migration, and refugee ‘crises,’ are inseparable from South
Asia’s extensive problems. These issues have important regional strategies such
as SAARC and BIMSTEC, however these work only to the extent philosophy
and structure overcome political and structural hurdles. Futuring of South Asia
hinges on India’s role as a regional leader that will balance the desire for regional
integration with promotion of Indian national interests. If India tackles these
challenges strategically, it can help a more stable, more prosperous and more
integrated South Asia.

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NOTES
4.6 GLOSSARY

• Bay of Bengal Region: A strategically important region encompassing

South and Southeast Asia, with the Bay of Bengal serving as a vital
maritime hub for trade and connectivity. BIMSTEC focuses on fostering
cooperation among countries in this region.
• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): China’s global infrastructure development
strategy that has significantly influenced South Asia through projects like
the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The BRI poses challenges
to India’s regional influence.
• Cox’s Bazar: A region in Bangladesh that hosts the world’s largest refugee
camp, primarily sheltering Rohingya refugees fleeing violence in Myanmar.
• Land Boundary Agreement (LBA): A 2015 agreement between India and
Bangladesh that resolved longstanding territorial disputes by exchanging
enclaves and demarcating borders, setting a precedent for peaceful conflict
resolution in South Asia.
• Neighbourhood First Policy: India’s foreign policy initiative that
prioritises strengthening relations with its South Asian neighbours through
economic cooperation, connectivity projects, and mutual trust-building
measures.
• Rohingya Crisis: A humanitarian crisis involving the forced displacement
of Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar’s Rakhine State due to ethnic violence
and persecution. Many Rohingya have sought refuge in neighbouring
countries like Bangladesh and India.

4.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Identify and discuss at least two major land and boundary disputes in South
Asia.
2. What are the primary causes of migration in South Asia, and how do they
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3. Provide an overview of refugee flows in South Asia, highlighting the major NOTES
drivers of displacement.
4. Evaluate the role of India as a regional leader in promoting cooperation
and resolving disputes.
5. How can India effectively leverage platforms like SAARC and BIMSTEC
to promote regional stability and development?

4.8 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Muni, S.D. (2003). Problem Areas in India’s Neighbourhood Policy. South

Asian Survey, 10 (2), pp. 185-196.
• Tripathi, D. & Chaturvedi, S. (2020). South Asia: Boundaries, Borders
and Beyond, Journal of Borderlands Studies, 35(2), pp. 173-181. DOI:
10.1080/08865655.2019.1669483.
• Shyam Saran, “Role of Border States in India’s Foreign Policy,” Speech
at IIT Guwahati, 29 March 2016.
• Chowdhory, N. Citizenship and Membership: Placing Refugees in India. In
Nasir Uddin & Nasreen Chowdhory (eds.), De-territorialised Identity and
Trans-Border Movementsin South Asia, pp. 37-54. Singapore: Springer.
• Ray Chaudhary, A.B., & Ghosh, A.K. (2021, April) Trans-Border
Migration: Bridging the Gap between State and Human Security. Observer
Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/research/trans-border-
migration-bridging-the-gap-between-stateand-human-security/.
• Dubey, Muchkund. (2016). Dealing with Neighbours in India's Foreign
Policy: Coping with the Changing World. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan,
pp.64-86.
• Das, P. (2014). Issues in the Management of the Indo-Pakistan International
Border. Strategic Analysis, 38 (3), pp.307-324.
• Ranjan, A. (2018). India-Bangladesh Border Dispute: History and LBA
Dynamics. Singapore: Springer, pp. 65-88.
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NOTES • Sekhon, J.S., & Sharma, S. (2019). Involuntary Migration in the Border
Belt of Indian Punjab. In Nasir Uddin & Nasreen Chowdhory (eds.), De-
territorialised Identity and Transborder Movements in South Asia, pp.
155-176. Singapore: Springer.
• Chari, P.R. (2003). Missing Boundaries: Refugees, Migrants, Stateless and
Internally Displaced Persons in South Asia: An Overview. In P.R. Chari,
Mallika Joseph, & Suba Chandran (eds.), Missing Boundaries: Refugees,
Migrants, Stateless and Internally Displaced Persons in South Asia, pp.
17-38. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers.
• Chatterjee, S. (2019). India and the SAARC: Security, Commerce,
and Community. In Shibashis Chatterjee, Sumit Ganguly, & E.
Sridharan (eds.), India’s Spatial Imaginations of South Asia: Power,
Commerce, and Community. Oxford Scholarship Online. DOI:10.1093/
oso/9780199489886.003.0004
• Gul, N. (2015). SAARC and the Regional Integration in South Asia. In
Rajiv Bhatia, Swaran Singh, & Reena Marwah (eds.), Transforming South
Asia: Imperatives for Action, pp. 159-174. New Delhi: KW Publishers &
Indian Council of World Affairs.
• Chakravarty, P. R. (2021). BIMSTEC: India's Foreign Policy Fulcrum. In
Aparna Pande (ed.), Routledge Handbook on South Asian Foreign Policy,
pp.183-201. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429054808.
• Parida, S.K. (2020). India, SAARC and the Covid-19 Pandemic. World
Affairs, 24(4), pp. 112-119.
• Muni, S.D., & Jetley, R. (2010). SAARC Prospects: The Changing
Dimensions. In S.D. Muni (ed.), Emerging Dimensions of SAARC, pp.
1-31. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
• Seema Narain (2010). SAARC and South Asia Economic Integration. In
S.D. Muni (ed.), Emerging Dimensions of SAARC, pp. 32-50. New Delhi:
Foundation Books.
• Omer, H. (2021). Perspective on BIMSTEC in Transforming South Asia.
In Adluri Subramanyam Raju & Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury (eds.), New
Self-Instructional Futures for BIMSTEC: Connectivity, Commerce and Security. New York:
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Unit-IV : Challenges of India’s Foreign Policy in the Global Domain

Lesson-5 Negotiating Styles and Strategies: Trade, Security and Climate

Change and India’s Engagements in Multilateral Forums: BRICS
Negotiating Styles and Strategies: Trade, Security and Climate Change and.....

LESSON-5 NOTES

NEGOTIATING STYLES AND

STRATEGIES: TRADE, SECURITY
AND CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA’S
ENGAGEMENTS IN MULTILATERAL
FORUMS: BRICS
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Objectives
5.3 Negotiating Styles and Strategies: Trade, Security, and Climate Change
5.3.1 Negotiating Trade Agreements
5.3.2 Security Negotiations
5.3.3 Climate Change Diplomacy
5.4 India’s Engagements in Multilateral Forums: BRICS
5.4.1 India’s Role in BRICS
5.4.2 Key Challenges
5.4.3 Successes and Impacts
5.4.4 Future Prospects
5.5 Summary
5.6 Glossary
5.7 Self-Assessment Questions
5.8 References/Suggested Readings

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5.1 INTRODUCTION

In the recent past, foreign policy of India has undergone a complete change,
reacting to the unfolding and determine global order. India often finds itself
involved in critical negotiations that matter to trade, security, and climate change.
It is a rising power and a new actor in the international relations system aspiring
to take on an even greater role. But what these arenas are, not only pivotal to
global governance but in securing India’s national interests, and in advancing
India’s developmental goals. Then, little of theoretical significance can be learned
about India’s diplomacy in the future 21st century by observing India’s negotiating
styles and strategies in these areas. In the global arena one has to not only have
the strategic acumen to determine what the best message could be, one must
also be adaptable to take advantage of the best practices from around the world
and make sure one’s message aligns with common international norms as well
as the national priorities of home. As in trade, India has sought to walk a fine
line between isolating its domestic industries and courting the big markets of the
world. Accordingly, its role in free trade agreements, World Trade Organisation
(WTO) negotiations and bilateral trade pacts has been particularly evident. India’s
position in negotiations has been to promote economic growth, but also to address
things like fair trade practices, intellectual property rights and market access.
India’s unfolding role as a regional and global power is an essential anchor
for the security negotiations that characterise India’s position in the world.
Therefore, India requires a nuanced approach towards security concerns including
terrorism, cybersecurity, and nuclear non-proliferation and defines cooperation,
a little assertiveness along with collaboration. The security negotiations of India
are as often inclined to craft an intricate geo politics mapping of major powers
and neighbouring countries to maintain peace, stabilise surroundings and check
its strategic autonomy. Another area where India is making its mark on the
negotiating strategies is climate change diplomacy. Being a developing country
with huge developmental challenges, India has always supported the principle
of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' in climate negotiations. By sitting
behind this principle, it becomes evident that developed countries need to act
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to switch to the sustainable development. India’s active intervention in taking NOTES

initiatives like International Solar Alliance (ISA) and commitment to achieve
net zero carbon emissions by including India in the movement of establishing
Global Environment Facility (GEF) unit there in Guwahati are a testimony to
such an initiative. India has shifted its focus from bilateral and domain specific
to multilateral negotiations, to influence global governance. Of these, BRICS
(Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) has come to be an important
arena for India to drive its vision of a more equal and multipolar world order.
By articulating the voice of emerging economies, BRICS is an attempt to deal
a blow to the control of traditional Western powers on global decision taking.
India’s BRICS role is multi-dimensional, both economically, politically
and developmentally. India has used BRICS to promote economically, working
within it to increase trade and investment between member states and to push
for reforms in global financial institutions, such as the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. BRICS offers India a political platform to talk
to other major powers on matters such as counterterrorism and regional security.
As an important instrument for financing infrastructure projects in member
countries, the New Development Bank (NDB) under BRICS is a developmentally
important institution. But in this, India’s relationship with BRICS is not without
challenges. Decision making processes are often complicated by differences
between member states, especially between India and China. Furthermore, the
geopolitical interests as well as the variant developmental priorities of the BRICS
countries at times undermine collective action. Despite these challenges, India has
made important contributions to BRICS, including negotiating on climate finance,
cooperation on technology and innovation, and people to people exchanges and
cultural cooperation.
India’s active participation in BRICS will continue to be important for
shaping the agenda of the forum and keeping it relevant in the fast changing
global environment. The future of the BRICS will probably hinge on the capacity
of member states including India to reconcile internal differences, forge common
priorities and adapt to new global challenges.
This lesson attempts to give a complete picture of the problems and
strategies that India’s foreign policy faces in the global domain. Using India’s
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NOTES negotiating styles and strategies in trade, security and climate change, and its
engagements within BRICS, students will be able to see the complexities of
India’s global diplomacy.

5.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

• Analyse India’s negotiating styles and strategies in the global context,
particularly in the areas of trade, security, and climate change
• Understand the processes and dynamics involved in India’s negotiation of
trade agreements and its approaches to global security issues
• Evaluate India’s role and contributions to climate change diplomacy on
international platforms
• Examine India’s engagements within the BRICS framework, including its
role, key challenges, and notable successes
• Assess the impacts of India’s participation in BRICS on its foreign policy
goals and global influence

5.3 NEGOTIATING STYLES AND STRATEGIES:

TRADE, SECURITY, AND CLIMATE CHANGE

India's foreign policy in the global domain has been engineered by its finesse and
diplomatic approach to bargaining in various relevant area, be it trade, security or
climate change. With emerging interests as a global player and diverse priorities at
home, India has endeavoured to walk the tight rope between its national interests
and its global responsibilities. In this lesson, India’s distinct negotiating styles and
strategies are discussed, as well as how it makes use of its position to negotiate
better trade agreements, deal with pressing security concerns, and to push for
just and sustainable solutions in climate change diplomacy.

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5.3.1 Negotiating Trade Agreements NOTES

India's consideration of how to best negotiate trade agreements is a result of

a central strategic balancing act in which it is careful to protect its domestic
economic interests, yet, equally important, it needs to be engaged in the global
trade architecture as a means for market access and economic growth. India, one
of the largest economies, and a major South player is always vocal against fair and
equitable trading policies in the multilateral and regional trade treaties. One of
India’s trade priorities is the active involvement in the World Trade Organisation
(WTO), Bilateral and Multilateral Free Trade Agreements (FTA) including with
India, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), etc. These
platforms are important conduits for India to share its economic vision with the
world on issues such as overcoming barriers to trade and protecting its Agri and
industrial sectors and ensuring innovation. Active India in the WTO reflects
India’s avowed rejection of anything unilateral when it comes to trade governance.
India has been one of the voices for the rights of developing nations at the WTO
in areas like agricultural subsidies and public stockholding for food security. India
has been a consistent critic of rules of trade that favour developed economies by
creating an unfair playing field for the economies of the Global South. India’s
G-33 and G-20 coalitions within the WTO were formed by India to represent
the developing nations’ interest, a show of India’s ability to form coalitions to
magnify their interest. But India too has found it difficult to participate in WTO
negotiations, where given the need for access to markets, India has had a challenge
in balancing the need to provide markets access while protecting its domestic
industries from unfair competition and dumping practices.
In addition, India has become more and more involved with FTAs as a
means of increasing its ties in key areas of trade. These agreements are generally
country specific, tailored to the unique economic context of each partner, and
cover a whole range of goods, services, investment and intellectual property
rights. India has had successful FTAs with countries like Japan, South Korea and
ASEAN bloc, which give openings for Indian businesses to procure larger market
openings, while encouraging foreign direct investment in important segments.
These agreements also present challenges as India frequently has to balance out
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NOTES goods that can harm India’s small-scale industries and agricultural sector. One
of the most important examples of India’s strategic decision making on trade
negotiations is its withdrawal from RCEP in 2019. The RCEP, with 15 countries
in the Asia-Pacific region, is the largest regional bloc on GDP and size of the
market. India pulled out of the deal after it expressed fears that the agreement
would hurt its domestic industries mainly agriculture and manufacturing because
of expected flood of cheaper imports, especially from China. India also wanted
stronger safeguards on rules of origin to prevent rule circumvention, and a more
balanced approach to trade in services, an area where India has a comparative
advantage. India did not like the agreement and despite extensive negotiations,
India ultimately deemed the agreement unpalatable for its economic stability
and domestic interests and in favour for regional integration, this reflects India’s
pragmatic style of negotiating trade.
India has significant challenges in its trade priorities. The constant demand
for tariffs on imported goods to be reduced allowing for greater trade is a common
problem in the trade negotiations and poses the risk of undermining those at
home industries of India. India has often been the scene of intense debates over
tariff liberalisation, with agriculture, textiles and automobiles fearing the adverse
effects of increased competition. As with subsidies in agriculture, the subsidies,
especially in the agriculture sphere, were another problem that has troubled both
regional and multilateral trade talks. Developed nations have often criticised
India’s policies of giving subsidies to support its farmers as distorting global trade.
Defending these subsidies, however, India says they are crucial to food security
and rural livelihoods, considering the socio-economic disparities in the country.
Learning to negotiate intellectually property rights (IPRs) is yet another
area of challenge in trade negotiations. India has tried to strike a balance
between the demands of developed countries for stringent IPR protections and
the requirement that such essential goods as medicines be affordable. India has
often found itself in conflict with other nations of the developed world in fighting
to maintain its leading role as an industry and political powerhouse regarding
its role in producing generic pharmaceuticals. These tensions are indicative of
bigger issues and India has refused time and again to compromise on these issues
in its negotiating positions of how trade rules influence public health and access
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Case studies can further understand the complexities of India’s trade NOTES
negotiations. As has already been mentioned, choices regarding the country’s
withdrawal from the RCEP reflect the balance between domestic concerns to the
country’s economic vulnerability and Global geopolitics. Critics say opting out
of RCEP would isolate India from regional economic integration, but proponents
say the decision is a cautious and well thought out one that protects India’s long-
term interests. India’s recent involvement in talks at the WTO can also tell us
something of its efforts to walk the tightrope between an obligation of entering
into global trade commitments and local imperatives. Just as an example, India
has urged continuation of the 'peace clause', which safeguards its food security
programmes from WTO disputes and points out that the development goal should
be safeguarded over rigid trade rule.
If it sounds like there have been challenges, there have been them, but
India’s trade strategies also achieved immense successes. They can negotiate
favourable terms in FTAs with countries such as Japan and South Korea and
that denotes that its influence in the shaping of regional trade dynamics is
rising. In addition, India’s active part in Indo-Pacific Economic Framework
and talk of supply chain resilience reflects the country’s strategic priority of
identifying trade policies in sync with ulterior political goals. India’s move to
diversify its trade relations and reduce trade dependence on traditional markets
comes through initiatives to expand its trade footprint through cooperation with
emerging economies in Africa and Latin America. With an eye to the future,
India has crucial questions to answer about how to navigate the fast-changing
global trade landscape. Protectionism is on the rise and digital trade and emerging
technologies are presenting challenges, India needs to adopt innovative and
forward looking strategies.
India must strengthen its domestic manufacturing base, invest in
infrastructure and to enhance the competitiveness of its export to take maximum
advantage of the trade agreements. At the same time, there are also opportunities
for economic growth and global leadership in India’s focus on digital, services
trade sector, most notably IT and e-commerce specific ones. Overall, this
concludes that negotiating trade agreements for India is a dynamic, multiple
layered process in which the country’s dynamic economic and strategic interests
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NOTES selective use of regional and bilateral agreements to engage internationally while
actively attempting to reconcile its national development agenda with a role in
a global economy. Challenges like tariff liberalisation, subsidies and IPRs are
formidable but India’s pragmatic and strategic approach of their trade policies
guarantees their alignment with the overall foreign policy objective. India’s trade
negotiations are shaped by the lessons learned from its experiences, including
its decision to withdraw from the RCEP and its advocacy at the WTO, and the
importance of resilience, adaptability and a clear eyed focus on national interests.
India is well positioned for ultimately taking on an increasingly important role
in the global trade order by making steady progress in tackling these challenges
and taking advantage of these opportunities.

5.3.2 Security Negotiations

India’s assertiveness at global security negotiations has been driven by its

simultaneous striving to advance and to protect its national interests as well as
to facilitate global peace and stability. This has been India’s position in global
disarmament and arms control, based on a position of maintaining impartiality
to the non-aligned nation, and at the same time meeting our security needs. India
had taken up the banner of nuclear disarmament during the post-independence
years and had championed for a world with no nuclear weapons through platforms
like the United Nations. Nevertheless, the changing international security milieu
and the evolving regional security problems have led India to adopt a practical
outlook blending idealism with pragmatism.
One of India’s main positions in its security negotiations has been on
global disarmament and arms control treaties. India has consistently called for
comprehensive and non-discriminatory frameworks that place equal obligations
on all states. India has supported the principles of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT), but it has not signed the treaty because it believes the treaty is
inequitable, it recognises only five nuclear-armed states while barring others.
The focus is how India represents its demand for a just and asymmetric global
order in which it maintains its strategic autonomy. Similarly, India’s stance
on the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) reflects its nuanced
Self-Instructional position. It may be said to be supportive of the overarching aims of preventing
128 Material nuclear proliferation and testing but has not signed the treaty because it fears

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the treaty's discriminatory provisions and the absence of a commitment from NOTES
key nuclear powers.
In 2016, India’s successful accession to the Missile Technology Control
Regime (MTCR) was a major security negotiation milestone. Access to advanced
missile and space technologies was facilitated by the MTCR membership not
only recognising India’s responsible behaviour as a nuclear power, but also
opening up opportunities for future advancement in the Indian ballistic missile
programme. India leads in this achievement as it is able to engage in constructive
negotiations which bring global frameworks into line with its strategic interests.
Moreover, India’s membership of other export control regimes, like the Wassenaar
Arrangement and the Australia Group, indicate its desire to keep its hands clean
but to conform with international norms and retain a sovereign defence posture.
India’s security negotiations are also closely linked to dealing with
the issues of the day like cross border terrorism, cybersecurity and defence
collaboration. India continues to remain concerned about cross border terrorism,
especially regarding its relations with Pakistan. India has repeatedly mobilised
multilateral forums including the United Nations to campaign for worldwide
response to terrorism and use platforms like the Comprehensive Convention
on International Terrorism (CCIT). But India’s efforts nevertheless, have been
constrained by issues like disparate global priorities and the politicisation of
terrorism. However, India has used bilateral and multilateral interactions to
tackle this urgent threat.
Another important space in which India's security negotiations are central,
is cyber security. The growing digitalisation of global economies and rising risk
of cyber-attacks has prompted India to participate in international dialogues on
norms and rules for the cyberspace. It shows its contribution to the synergic dialog
and to the global cooperation on cybersecurity issues participating in forums such
as the United Nations Group of Governmental Expertise (UNGGE) and the Open-
Ended Working Group (OEWG). By the need for capacity building, the transfer of
technology and equitable access to cybersecurity tools for developing countries,
India has stressed on keeping digitally safe and socially inclusive. India’s defence
collaborations also show how India is adapting its negotiating strategies. India has
been trying to forge strategic partnerships with the United States, Russia, France
Self-Instructional
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NOTES of co-development and co-production are often guiding these collaborations,

which seek to strengthen domestic defence manufacturing under the Make in
India initiative. For example, India’s activity in joint military exercise and defence
dialogue with partner countries indicate a gesture of involvement in regional
and global security. India has been able to negotiate on Security issues based on
its shared concerns in the Indo-Pacific region because of platforms such as the
Quad (India, the US, Japan and Australia).
India has achieved a lot, but it still has a lot of challenges in its security
negotiations. The road to normalisation and normal trade will be hampered by
geopolitical complexities of South Asia in general and the deterred relations
with the two major neighbours Pakistan and China are real obstacles. The
increasing militarisation of cyberspace, and the absence of an all-comprehensive
global framework of cybersecurity, are other factors that present additional
challenges. India is therefore caught between making peace with global norms
and maintaining its strategic distance, something which becomes particularly
important about India’s non-signatory status to multilateral treaties such as the
NPT and the CTBT.
Finally, India’s security negotiations are found to be a combination of
principled advocacy and pragmatic decision making. India's strategies while
remaining committed to tradition, have reinvented themselves to respond to
emerging challenges, and to protect its national interest. India has been and
will primarily remain a player in shaping the global security by mediating on
multilateral platforms, making strategic defence partnerships and combating
modern security threats. With a growing global footprint now on its plate, India
will have to continue to fully and firmly stand by its principles while working
to forge a secure and more inclusive world order.

5.3.3 Climate Change Diplomacy

Climate change diplomacy has emerged as an essential part of India's foreign

policy offering a balance between development and sustainable environmentalism.
India is a rapidly developing economy with huge energy demands and plays
an important role in global climate negotiations. Involved in this section is
Self-Instructional how the country’s commitments to international conventions match up with
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climate responsibilities, how it has negotiated this development with a climate NOTES
responsibility harmonising strategy and how it leads the effort to tackle climate
challenges in global climate forums like the Group of 77 (G77) and BASIC
(Brazil, South Africa, India, and China).

India’s UNFCCC and Paris Agreement Commitments

India is a party to the UNFCCC and has been keen to develop climate policy at
the global level. In 2015, India submitted its Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs) which describe its intended policy actions to ensure that its future GHG
emissions are below level and are in line with sustainable development. India’s
NDCs include:
• Reduction in Emission Intensity: India has committed to achieving the
emissions intensity of its GDP 33–35% below 2005 levels by 2030.
• Renewable Energy Expansion: The country hopes to reach 40 percent
of its installed electricity capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.
• Forest Carbon Sink: India promised to establish an additional carbon sink
of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent by 2030 through afforestation
and reforestation.
By putting these commitments out into the open, India has confirmed its
dual focus between economic growth and environmental responsibility. Under
this ambit India has initiated initiatives such as the Internation Solar Alliance
(ISA), in partnership with France, to promote international cooperation in the
deployment of renewable energy.
• Negotiation Tactics: Development Needs and Climate Responsibilities:
India’s position as a leading emitter and a developing country, both
contributes to its unique role in shaping climate diplomacy. India has
a huge population over 1.4 billion people and has a rapidly growing
economy and faces huge developmental challenges, for example, poverty
alleviation, infrastructure expansion and energy security. A carefully crafted
negotiation strategy has been needed to balance these needs with global
climate responsibilities.
• Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): India
has always pushed the principle of equity and CBDR in climate negotiations. Self-Instructional
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NOTES This allowed for the principle of developing countries historically

responsible for the bulk of emissions should contribute a proportionally
greater amount to curbing climate change. India says developing countries
like itself need equal access to resources and technology to achieve a low
carbon economy without jeopardising development objectives.
• Focus on Climate Justice: What India emphasises is the idea of climate
justice, which essentially means the disproportionate impact of climate
change on peoples of vulnerable coming from developing countries. By
making climate change a moral and ethical issue, India has won the support
of other developing countries.
• Technology Transfer and Financial Support: India has been a staunch
proponent of more funds and technology transfer from developed
economies to help developing countries honour their climate obligations.
It includes pushing for the $100 billion a year climate finance pledge made
by developed countries under the Paris Agreement to be fulfilled.
• Leadership in Renewable Energy: India uses its domestic success in
renewable energy to leverage its ability to negotiate its commitment to
sustainable development. India’s proactive moves consist of programs
such as the National Solar Mission and the equally ambitious 500 stares
of renewable energy by 2030.

Role in Global Climate Forums: G77 and BASIC

• Group of 77 (G77): India has been a leading voice in the G77, a coalition
of 134 developing countries, in calling out the concerns and priorities
of the Global South in climate talks. Developed countries are asked to
assume greater historical responsibility for emissions and to provide greater
support to developing countries, according to the G77. This has been used
by India to promote the cause of equitable climate policies consistent with
the developmental aspirations of member states.
• BASIC Coalition: The BASIC group consists of India along with Brazil,
South Africa and China, that represents the interests of the emerging
economies in the climate negotiations. BASIC countries argue for equity,
Self-Instructional
CBDR, and financial and technological support from developed countries.
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economies to obtain fair outcomes in international climate agreements, NOTES

and India’s engagement with BASIC reflects that.
• Global Advocacy and Leadership: India has also stepped up to global
climate initiatives beyond these coalitions. India’s ability to mobilise
international cooperation for renewable energy deployment is evidenced in
the International Solar Alliance (ISA). Additionally, India made significant
contributions to the sustainable development and climate resilience
discourse in COP meetings.

Challenges and Opportunities

India’s challenges in climate diplomacy are that India is resisted by developed
countries on issues related to equity and financial support. However, domestic
challenges coal dependence and slow progress with afforestation limit the
country’s capacity to meet its NDC targets. Although such challenges abound
India’s proactive position in clean energy, technological advancement and global
advocacy provide many avenues to increase the extent to which India can play
a leading role in the climate arena.
Unlike other countries where it seems that climate change diplomacy
overshadowed the country’s foreign policy or blurred the boundaries between
climate change, economics, environment, and technology, India’s climate change
diplomacy conveys a pragmatic, balanced approach to global environmental
governance. India has ascended to the forefront of devising international climate
policies by considering its development needs in consonance with its climate
responsibilities. It is fully committed to addressing climate change under the
UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, pursues negotiation strategies seeking equity
and justice, participates actively in the forums of G77 and BASIC, and insists
on sharing its vision of sustainable and inclusive global progress.

5.4 INDIA’S ENGAGEMENTS IN MULTILATERAL

FORUMS: BRICS

Participation of India in multilateral forums such as BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India,

China and South Africa) perhaps explains India’s inclination to carving out a Self-Instructional
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NOTES multipolar world order. BRICS was founded in 2006 and reflected with South
Africa’s inclusion in 2010, and has become a platform for emerging economies
to work together on issues of global governance, economic development and
political coordination. BRICS offers India an opportunity to push for reforms
in the UN and World Bank and to promote South-South cooperation and tie up
with other major developing nations. India has actively engaged with global
challenges like climate change, counter terrorism and sustainable development,
while playing to the national interests of the grouping.

5.4.1 India’s Role in BRICS

India majors in the BRICS grouping (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South
Africa) to play the ball. Its growing economic clout, strategic vision, and pledging
to be part of the multilateralism’s trillions change the agenda and outcomes of
this influential bloc. For many years now, BRICS has been a way for the world's
major emerging economies to communicate and cooperate to solve global issues
as well as to promote sustainable development. BRICS has clearly provided India
an opportunity to drive forward the economic collaboration and technological
advancements and also with regard to institutional reform.

Leadership Initiatives in Key Areas: Technology, Economy, and

Development
BRICS have always been India’s champions of initiatives related to economic
cooperation, technological innovation, and sustainable development. India
has also actively participated in fostering intra-BRICS trade and investment
in view of the importance of economics stability and growth. India’s efforts at
facilitating trade barriers reduction, promotion of investment flows, and economic
interdependence among member states have led to the initiatives such as the
BRICS Trade and Investment Cooperation Framework. In the technological
domain, India has been a strong proponent of using digital technology to fill
the developmental gap. Under the helm of this initiative it has spearheaded the
launching of initiatives in driving digital connectivity, cybersecurity and the
use of emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and blockchain. India’s
proposal for the creation of a BRICS Innovation Network is a pledge to build a
Self-Instructional
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states, and that helps the bloc collectively tackle challenges presented by the NOTES
Fourth Industrial Revolution.
India has assumed a leading role in bringing about alignment of BRICS’
priorities with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the
realm of sustainable development. BRICS appears to be responding in kind with
the country’s enthusiastic support for the International Solar Alliance’s (ISA’s)
initiatives to encourage energy from renewable sources which are in alignment
with the country’s national agenda of green and sustainable growth. It is India’s
leadership in promoting equitable access to energy resources and climate finance
that has determined BRICS’ position on global environmental issues.

Participation in the BRICS Bank (New Development Bank)

Setting up of the New Development Bank (NDB) is certainly one of the most
powerful contributions of BRICS to the global financial landscape. The NDB
was conceptualised and operationalised by India and was formally launched in
2014. The NDB is meant to close the infrastructure and sustainable development
financing gaps of BRICS countries and other developing economies, and to reduce
their reliance on traditional Western dominated financial institutions such as the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
India has been both financial and strategic contributor to the NDB. India,
as a founding member, has made a substantial contribution to the NDB’s capital
base and has done so with confidence in the NDB’s mission. In addition, India’s
strategic priorities have dictated the focus areas of the bank, including renewable
energy, urban development and transportation infrastructure. NDB funding has
made itself indispensable in several projects in India ranging from renewable
energy initiatives to smart city developments, and India and the bank are only
seen to have complementary interests.
India too has played a key role in promoting expansion and outreach on
the NDB to other developing countries. Through its advocacy for inclusive
governance structures and equal decision-making processes in the NDB, India
has made sure that the bank remained a credible, efficient means for financing
the financial needs of emerging economies. Besides that, India emphasises
on sustainable and innovative financing, which has led the NDB to embrace
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NOTES green financing practices and thereby take its lead in financing the sustainable
development.

India’s Contribution to BRICS Agendas on Global Governance

India has played a leading role in pushing BRICS to become a vehicle for pushing
for reforms in global governance. BRICS is a key objective of challenging the
hegemony of traditional Western powers in international institutions which
strives to create a more equitable and allowing ‘more equitable and more
inclusive global order’. India’s leadership in this has been based on inclusivity,
fairness and multilateralism. Within BRICS, one of India’s main goals has been
to bring about reforms in the UN system, especially the Security Council. As
would be a long-standing proponent of a seat on the Security Council, India has
used the BRICS forum to push for the inclusion of expanding the membership
of the council to better reflect 21st century geopolitical realities. India’s efforts
have resonated with the BRICS members who are together pushing for a more
democratic and representative UN.
BRICS has also been shaped by India in its positions on major global
issues like trade, climate change and counter terrorism. India has stressed the
importance of a rules based multilateral trading system based on the interests
of developing countries on trade. India has used BRICS to call for greater
transparency and fairness in global trade negotiations, in particular at the World
Trade Organisation (WTO).
India has been at the forefront in fighting climate change by aligning
BRICS’ strategies to the Paris Agreement. India has been advocating for
greater climate finance and technology transfer from developed to developing
countries as a way to help BRICS continue to be a united voice in global climate
negotiations. India’s utterance for sustainable development and renewable energy
has helped India justify its rhetorical answer to the environmental challenges in
the BRICS framework. India has made its presence felt in the counter terrorism
field among BRICS. India, a country that has been fighting against terrorism
has always demanded more international cooperation to fight the menace. With
BRICS, India has been advocating for full approach to dealing with counter
terrorism, be it in share of the intelligence and in strengthening of the legal
Self-Instructional framework to discourage the financing of terrorism. Under India’s leadership,
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that proactive stance on this critical issue also comes through in the BRICS NOTES
Counter Terrorism Strategy.
As the BRICS member, India proves itself as a supporter of a multipolar
world order and a solver of development problems of the developing economies.
India has made a huge contribution to the group’s achievements through
leadership initiatives in key areas of economic collaboration, technological
innovation and sustainable development. As an activist of BRICS and active
participation in the New Development Bank and attempts to mould the agenda
of BRICS in world governance, India’s strategic vision and will is to inject a
fairer and inclusive international order. There lies no doubt in India’s proactive
engagement in BRICS. It will remain important and facilitate the group’s role
and relevance in succeeding. India, leveraging its strengths and building on its
successes is well placed to lead BRICS into its future trajectory and to make its
contribution to the larger global objectives of peace, stability and development.

5.4.2 Key Challenges

India participates in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) to
stake claim for being a leading player in the global governance. The forum has
presented India with an opportunity to work with other emerging economies on
like subjects, including reforming global governance and promoting sustainable
development. However, the forum’s engagements involve its own challenges.
The causes of these challenges are internal dynamics among the member states,
external perceptions of BRICS’ relevance and the problem of the balance between
bilateral and multilateral priorities. To make the most of the potential benefits
of its BRICS association, India must overcome these hurdles, while protecting
its national interests.

1. Internal Dynamics: Diverging Interests amongst BRICS Members

BRICS has got to be India's biggest headache and that would be managing
the internal dynamics of the grouping, the diverging interests and priorities
between its members. BRICS is a coalition of major emerging economies, and
the member states are often at odds on geopolitical and economic agendas. The
differences can make the forum less effective and make it difficult for India to Self-Instructional
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NOTES • India-China Rivalry: The most visible manifestation of internal problems

is the strained India-China relationship. The two nations are partners in
BRICS but have long standing border disputes, economic competition,
and different visions for regional and global order. The two nations have
been on the wrong side of trust in incidents such as the Doklam standoff
(2017) and the Galwan Valley clashes (2020). While BRICS meetings
offer a forum for dialogue, the bilateral frictions between India and China
always loom as a shadow over the governing agenda of the grouping. A
careful balancing act of maintaining a cooperative relationship with China
within BRICS while also addressing India’s security concerns is exactly
what it is for India.
• Economic Disparities: BRICS members also face economic disparities
among them. China’s economy is much larger than the other members.
India, Brazil, South Africa and Russia have their own economic challenges.
For example, Brazil and South Africa have fallen on their face economically
and politically, and Russia's economy has been dictated by sanctions and
energy exports. They can result in divergent priorities and it becomes
hard to reach agreement on core economic projects such as the BRICS
Development Bank (New Development Bank) and trade cooperation.
• Differs Efforts of Political Systems and Governance Models: Internal
dynamics become further confused by the diversity of the member states’
political systems and governance models. India’s democratic framework
is very different from the authoritarian governance models of China and
Russia, and from the political structures of Brazil and South Africa. They
can impact upon the way such a person views problems, for example,
regarding human rights, trade policies, and multilateral cooperation to name
a few, and add to the difficulties faced when trying to formulate unified
positions to global issues.

2. External Skepticism about BRICS' Relevance

BRICS has been externally skeptical of its relevance and effectiveness in
reshaping the global governance. The grouping has failed to transform from a
conceptual framework into a cohesive and influential coalition, critics say, despite
Self-Instructional its early promise. The challenge for India is that this skepticism poses a challenge
138 Material
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• Perception of Ineffectiveness: The main problem with BRICS is that it has NOTES
not produced any staple goods in the centres it was created for; developing
the reform of International institutions and resolving the global economic
imbalances. The grouping’s aims are impressive, but the initiatives, such
as the New Development Bank and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement
have achieved little of what they set out to do. BRICS’ ability to influence
global decision making forums are also weakened by this perception of
ineffectiveness.
• Global Geopolitical Shifts: BRICS relevance is also challenged by the
changing geopolitical landscape. By virtue of its rise, other multilateral
platforms such as the G20, the quad (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue), the
regional groupings, etc., have overlapping agendas thus diluting BRICS’
uniqueness. Furthermore, BRICS has been hard pressed to present a
united front in an increasingly polarised international politics due to the
growing competition between the United States and China. Navigating
these geopolitical shifts while ensuring that BRICS is a viable platform
for India’s interest advancement is a big diplomatic challenge.
• Western Criticism: Western nations have often seen BRICS as a challenge
to the Western dominated global order, which is based on the United
States and its allies. Such perception can add to the resistance of BRICS'
initiatives in the global forums and also make it difficult for India to utilise
the platform to promote reforms in such institutions such as the United
Nations and the World Bank. The engagement of India with BRICS must
be managed carefully so that it doesn’t affect its relations with Western
partners.
• Managing between Bilateral and Multilateral Priorities: Another
challenge for India is to balance its bilateral relationships with the BRICS
members and its commitments with the multilateral mechanism. India’s
foreign policy and economic interests in each one of the member states
of BRICS are unique and reconciling these bilateral priorities with the
collective interests of BRICS demands cautious navigation.
• India-Russia Relations: India’s foreign policy has been underpinned by its
long standing strategic partnership with Russia. But Russia’s drift towards Self-Instructional
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NOTES Organisation (SCO) makes it difficult for India to continue to balance

ties with Moscow and differences with Beijing. Further complicating the
workings of the BRICS framework is that Western sanctions on Russia
have also affected India’s trade and defence ties with the country.
• India–Brazil and India–South Africa Relations: India’s relations
with Brazil and South Africa are based on common interests as leading
democracies of the Global South. But political instability and economic
problems in both countries have prevented the extent of bilateral cooperation.
In BRICS, India has to walk this tightrope, working to strengthen ties with
these partners to boost the grouping’s collective voice on issues such as
climate change, sustainable development and trade reforms.

Bilateral vs. Multilateral

India’s engagement with BRICS usually overlaps with India’s interactions with
other multilateral groups including G20, SCO, and the Quad. The task is complex:
maintaining these engagements while maintaining coherence with its foreign
policy objectives. For example, India’s growing alignment with the Quad, which
has sometimes been cast as a counterweight to China could introduce tensions in
BRICS where China dominates. India’s quest to shore up its ties with Western
countries must be checked against its responsibilities as a BRICS partner in
advancing a multipolar world order. To address these challenges and maximise
the benefits of its engagements with BRICS, India must adopt a pragmatic and
nuanced approach.
• Strengthening Internal Cohesion: India should also try to bring greater
cohesion into BRICS by finding common ground on issues like sustainable
development, climate action and counter terrorism. More collaboration in
these areas can reduce the impact of the frictions between the two sides
in trade and diplomacy while cementing the grouping’s role.
• Promoting Economic Initiatives: India can help in reviving BRICS’
economic agenda by supporting ideas that respond to the developmental
requirements of all the member states. The New Development Bank
and intra-BRICS trade and investment can be strengthened to raise the
credibility and impact of the grouping.
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• Engaging with External Partners: India must handle external views NOTES
of BRICS, leading it to draw attention to its constructive and inclusive
platform role. India can strike the right balance between its commitments
to BRICS and its nations vis-à-vis Western nations and the rest of the
multilateral forums because of proactive engagement with the same.
• Leveraging Multilateral Diplomacy: It is time for India to use its
diplomatic skill set to help the BRICS members bridge the differences and
be a strong front on global issues. It also includes using its leadership in
other forums, such as the G20, to supplement its work in BRICS.
BRICS engagements for India are both opportunities and challenges. The
forum allows India to project itself, not just in the deep end of the geopolitical
pool, but also in discussions on global governance and affords an opportunity
to collaborate with other emerging economies, but internal dynamics, external
scepticism, and the obligation to strike a balance between bilateral and multilateral
priorities stand in the way. Given that, India can solve these challenges in
a strategic and inclusive way and has the ability to incorporate meaningful
participation of BRICS in its agenda of making a multipolar world order and
protect its own national interests.

5.4.3 Successes and Impacts

India’s deep engagement in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa)
has had wide ranging effects in all spheres. A forum of emerging economies,
BRICS has facilitated member nations to work together on economic, political
and developmental issues, and to act collectively to solve global problems. India's
contributions to and benefits from BRICS can be categorised under three primary
areas: to economic cooperation and trade facilitation, to strengthen South-South
cooperation and to contribute to alternative global governance frameworks.

The Economic Cooperation and Trade Facilitation

One huge success of BRICS has been economic collaboration, and one of the
pillars that have been one of the brilliant successes of BRICS is that India is a
vital part in promoting trade, investment, and financial integration. The New
Development Bank (NDB) formulated in 2014 is a defining step of BRICS Self-Instructional
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NOTES economic cooperation. The NDB is headquartered in Shanghai, conceived to

provide funds for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in member
countries and other emerging economies. The bank has been a beneficiary as
well as a contributor for India, using its financial resources for the critical
infrastructure initiatives.
Moreover, BRICS nations have collaborated in minimising reliance
on classical Western financial arrangements, such as the Contingent Reserve
Arrangement (CRA) that supplies deficit financing assistance to members under
balance of payments conditions. Such initiatives also are consistent with the
broad thrust of India’s BRICS agenda to reduce financial vulnerabilities and
promote economic stability.
But marked progress has been made on trade facilitation among BRICS
members. The bloc has been trying to harmonise trade policies and eliminate
barriers to intra-BRICS trade. Over the years, India’s exports to BRICS countries
have risen substantially, which include pharmaceuticals, textiles and information
technology services. Meanwhile, India’s manufacturing and industrial sectors
have also benefited from simultaneous import growth from BRICS countries
including raw material and machinery imports.
And as for BRICS, India stressed the significance of digital transformation
and innovation on the economic agenda. The BRICS Innovation Network and the
BRICS Start-Up Forum are intended to stimulate technology and entrepreneurship
collaboration. These platforms helps India’s tech ecosystem to interact with global
innovators for better digital innovation in the country.

Strengthening South Cooperation

India’s participation in BRICS has helped the concept of South cooperation,
an approach for cooperation between developing countries to tackle common
problems and mutual strengths to take flight. BRICS has become a platform for
equitable dialogue and collective problem solving by championing issues of the
Global South.
Knowledge sharing in agriculture, public health and education is an
important part of this cooperation. Projects like BRICS Vaccine Research and
Self-Instructional
Development Centre plays a big role in natural health crises like the COVID-19
142 Material pandemic, where India has worked with Brazil, Russia and South Africa towards

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a common target. India’s contribution to building the health security of BRICS NOTES
nations has been through sharing of expertise in pharmaceutical production and
public health strategies. Other areas of focus of South cooperation in BRICS
are agriculture and food security. Collaborative research and policy dialogue
have enabled India to pierce agricultural productivity, sustainable practice and
food security. Such efforts are shown by the BRICS Agricultural Research
Platform which facilitates exchange of expertise and finds innovative solutions
to agricultural problems for member states. India’s advocacy for inclusive
development also has been heard in the BRICS agenda. By its efforts, the bloc
has been working to tackle problems like poverty alleviation, gender equality
and sustainable development. India’s Jan Dhan Yojana (financial inclusion) and
Ayushman Bharat (healthcare) programs are models for policy initiatives around
the Global South, and provide opportunities for mutual learning and capacity
building.

In Contribution to Alternative Global Governance Frameworks

Included in this is BRICS’s critical role in pushing back against the undue
influence and dominance of traditional Western derived global governance
institutions that champion a more exclusionary and unrepresentative model of
international order. In all of these efforts, India has led, asking for change in
the body such as United Nations Security Council (UNSC), the World Trade
Organisation (WTO), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
India’s efforts to push for UNSC reforms through BRICS is part of its larger
aspiration to be seated at the global high table through a permanent seat. Not
merely using the collective voice of BRICS, India has advanced the importance
to make the Security Council representative of the contemporary global reality
interest of developing nations in particular.
In particular, the initiative of new institutions, example, the New
Development Bank reflects BRICS’ intention to provide global governance with
an alternative form. The bank’s priorities have been shaped by India so that its
operations reflect the development needs of member countries and the Global
South.
As a group of countries in trade and economic governance, BRICS has
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NOTES protecting developing countries’ concerns. India has been involved in these
discussions emphasising the obstacles facing agricultural subsidies, intellectual
property rights and access to markets.
BRICS has also moved the agenda of global peace and security beyond
institutional reforms. Counter terrorism, cyber security and non-proliferation are
among the topics India contributes to BRICS summits. For example, the BRICS
Counter Terrorism Strategy approved in 2020 depicts India’s vow to stamp out
all forms and manifestations of terrorism. BRICS address to such critical issues
together, helps the member nations of the group to increase their credibility and
influence in the global environment.

BRICS Engagement and its Broader Impacts for India

India’s participation in BRICS has deepened its bilateral solidarity with other
member nations, developing strategic partnership and developing mutual trust.
For instance, India’s BRICS partnerships with Brazil and South Africa have
added to the IBSA Dialogue Forum, another trilateral grouping for promoting
South-South cooperation. BRICS also provides India an opportunity to interact
constructively with two of its most important geopolitical partners: Russia and
China. Differences between China and BRICS, notably on borders, but also trade
and climate change, are opportunities for dialogue and cooperation, no matter
how big the differences.
BRICS has also helped India’s global stature in the way that once it has
become a leader in BRICS that counts for a lot and it’s a player in shaping
of international norms, development of international norms and international
policies. By linking its domestic priorities with BRICS initiatives India has
shown that it can make a fundamental contribution to global development and
governance. Engagement of India in BRICS has brought tangible benefits for
India in economic, political and social dimensions. Its contribution to adding
strength to economic cooperation, fostering South-South solidarity, and promoting
alternative governance paradigms is apparent in the New Development Bank, the
BRICS Vaccine R&D Canter and the Counter-Terrorism Strategy. Challenges
remain, a challenging playing field in the midst of geopolitical complications
in the bloc, but India’s role in BRICS reflects its involvement in producing a
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its strategic interests by using the platform to the best of its ability while also NOTES
helping to realise the aspirations of the Global South.

5.4.4 Future Prospects

India’s work with BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) is
part of a strategic agenda to engage with major emerging economies in order to
establish common ground and effect a change in global governance structures.
India’s engagement within the BRICS context will undergo a flux, between
opportunities and constraints, as the geopolitical and economic landscape
continues to depart from its state. This lesson explores three key dimensions
of India’s future prospects within BRICS: to enhance its leadership; to address
geopolitical and economic challenges; and to strengthen partnership to advance
global influence.

India’s Leadership within BRICS

BRICS is a group of countries that are important for shaping the agenda and
making the group relevant in the changing global order and India’s leadership
in the group is important for that. India has always been one of the founding
members and has always pressed for the principles of inclusivity, equality,
and multipolarity. To enhance its leadership, India can focus on the following:
Championing Institutional Reforms, India can also help persuade the world to
get global institutions like the United Nations, the IMF, and the World Bank to
reform themselves. As India's leadership in BRICS gives it the opportunity to
advocate for more representation of the emerging economies, it can present itself
as a voice of the Global South.
Promoting Sustainable Development, India is uniquely well positioned
to serve as a leader of renewable energy, zero carbon emission solutions such
as climate change mitigation, and sustainable agriculture, given its strong
commitment to sustainability. By using its success in renewable energy,
particularly the International Solar Alliance (ISA), India can help BRICS to
collectively act on green technologies. Digital and Technological Innovation,
BRICS has great opportunity in digital transformation with India’s advancements
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NOTES cybersecurity and fintech solutions. Advancing Peace and Security, India’s
rising global standing as a responsible power makes it ideally placed to drive
discussions within BRICS on fighting terrorism, addressing regional conflicts
and promoting peacekeeping initiatives. Active discussion steering and prompt
suggestion of new solutions can help India to further strengthen its position
among the BRICS countries.

Geopolitical and Economic Challenges

Some of the problems regarding problems of different national interests,
geopolitical tensions and economic disparities of member states can be observed
in the BRICS grouping. In India’s ability to engage with these challenges will
lie the success of BRICS and its own strategic objectives.
• Managing India-China Relations: BRICS unity is severely challenged
by the strained relationship between India and China. Friction between the
two countries is due to territorial disputes, and in various strategic interests.
India to deal with this has to adopt a pragmatic approach; it has to focus
on areas where both the countries could be able to gain something which
could be the trade, climate change and counter terrorism and realise the
fact that it needs to safeguard its national interest.
• Economic Disparities: While the economic profiles of BRICS nations
are vastly different, China’s economy is by far the largest in the group.
India can fill this gap by creating economic cooperation that serves the
interests of all members. Such initiatives of trade facilitation, investment
in infrastructure plus promotion of intra BRICS trade in local currencies
will be helpful to the accord of a more balanced economy.
• Geopolitical Shifts: Presenting challenges to BRICS coherence is the
evolving global order, a rising tide of new alliances and the reshuffling
of ordinary power. However, the priorities may shift: should a country
prioritise its interests or those of a multi-focused alliance (like BRIC or
SCO)? BRICS must be relevant and cohesive, so India must align its goals
with broader multilateral frameworks, while navigating these shifts.
• Global Economic Instability: The COVID-19 pandemic and its disruption
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economy. Resilient supply chains, economic recovery and mitigating the NOTES
impacts of future global crises can be built as an India led effort in BRICS.
India can help in enhancing the thrust of BRICS as a unified and an
effective multilateral mechanism as we address these challenges through dialog,
collaboration and strategic interventions.

Building Relationships with BRICS to Further Global Reach

BRICS offers India a special platform to engage with the world’s major emerging
economies, and to build and strengthen partnerships. Using these partnerships,
India will be able to exercise some control over the shape of international order.
• Deepening Economic Cooperation: Global influence can be a catalyst
for BRICS nations to collaborate more economically. Bilateral and
multilateral trade, joint investment in infrastructure projects and innovation
and entrepreneurship within the grouping are some of the ways India can
work towards.
• Expanding People-to-People Ties: The strengthened mutual understanding
and cooperation between BRICS can be achieved through cultural,
academic and technological exchanges among them. In promoting such
exchanges, India’s rich cultural heritage, combined with its technological
expertise can be very powerful.
• Collaboration on Global Issues: Collaboration on pressing global
challenges like climate change, public health and food security are what
BRICS brings to the table for India. Such joint initiatives in these areas
will improve the group’s leadership in the world and will show their ability
to confront serious problems.
• Enhancing BRICS Institutions: The avenues held by institutions like the
New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement
(CRA), come with the aim of financial and economic integration. It is our
hope that India, as a member state of these institutions, will urge them to
take on the bigger canvas and wider reach and that such institutions begin
to consider the development needs of other member states and the broader
Global South.
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NOTES • Engaging with Regional and Global Partners: The influence of BRICS
goes beyond its members who can engage separately with the other regional
and global partners. India can also help to build BRICS’ reach and impact
by working with organisations such as the African Union, ASEAN and
Latin American groups.
India can extend its BRICS by espousing stronger partnership and
capitalising on BRICS potential by embedding it with global influence and
common objective. An opportunity for India to lead within BRICS, address
geopolitical and economic challenges and strengthen partnership to further
global influence, is India’s prospects within BRICS. India can play the lead role
within BRICS by championing institutional and reform, promoting sustainable
development and increasing economic and cultural cooperation. Geopolitical
tensions, economic disparities, and interfacing with the global cohorts will be
necessary to maintain the group’s meaning and prospective in the progressing
glob alignment. An active participation in BRICS by India promises to build
a more equitable and multipolar world by way of proactive engagement with
strategic initiatives.

5.5 SUMMARY

India’s foreign policy acts in a highly complex global environment and hopes
to effectively negotiate ways out of it with adept negotiation strategies and
meaningful engagement with its multilateral forums, dealing with various
challenges. This lesson examined two critical dimensions: India’s strategic
styles and strategies in major global issues and its role in BRICS multilateralism.
Here we examined India’s approach to negotiating trade agreements, security
cooperation, and climate change diplomacy. The country has a pragmatic and
flexible negotiating style and balances its developmental needs with global
expectation. Locally generated industries are protected, and economic progress
is promoted in trade negotiations. Security negotiation focuses on protecting
sovereignty and fighting new threats, especially in the Indo Pacific region.

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India stands for equitable solutions on climate change, based on the principle NOTES
of common but differentiated responsibilities, and for sustainable development.
The lesson on India’s engagements within BRICS, a major multilateral
forum of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, lesson on BRICS
agenda is shaped by India, which focuses on economic cooperation, development
financing and global governance reforms. Despite these challenges, geopolitical
tensions, divergent national priorities and scepticism over the forum’s
effectiveness remain. All of these hurdles notwithstanding, BRICS has helped
India strengthen global standing, made case for South-South cooperation, and
advocate for reform in international institutions. This lesson concluded with a
discussion of the impacts and successes of India’s involvement in and the future
prospects for India’s role in BRICS.
Through dissection of these themes, this lesson shows how India's foreign
policy objectives have to be advanced through adaptive strategies and multilateral
diplomacy in an evolving global environment.

5.6 GLOSSARY

• Climate Change Diplomacy: Efforts by nations to negotiate and cooperate

on global initiatives to mitigate and adapt to climate change, often under
frameworks like the UNFCCC.
• Security Negotiations: Diplomatic dialogues and agreements aimed at
addressing military, political, or economic threats to ensure national and
regional stability.
• Strategic Partnerships: Bilateral or multilateral agreements between
nations to advance common goals in areas like defence, economy, or
technology.
• Trade Agreements: Formal arrangements between two or more countries
to govern trade relations, aimed at reducing barriers and enhancing
economic exchanges.

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NOTES
5.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the significance of India's negotiating styles in shaping its

international relations.
2. Analyse the role of India’s defence partnerships in enhancing its global
security stature.
3. How has BRICS served as a platform for India to assert its influence in
global governance?
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of India’s multilateral engagements in addressing
its global challenges.
5. What are the major obstacles to achieving consensus within BRICS on
critical global issues?

5.8 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Mehta, S. P., & Chatterjee, B. (2015). India in the International Trading

System. In David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan & S. Raghavan (eds.), The
Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy, pp. 636-649. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
• Sharma, M. S., & Bhogal, P. (2022). India and Global Trade Governance:
A Saga of Missed Opportunities. In Harsh V Pant (ed.), India and Global
Governance: A Rising Power and Its Discontents, pp. 109-134. New York:
Routledge.
• Narang, V. (2016). India’s Nuclear Weapon Policy. In Sumit Ganguly (ed.),
Engaging the World-India’s Foreign Policy Since 1947, pp. 448-467. New
Delhi: OUP.
• Biswas, A. (2022). India’s Rise in the Global Nuclear Governance
Architecture: Principles, Exceptions, and Contradictions. In Harsh V Pant
(ed.), India and Global Governance: A Rising Power and Its Discontents,
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pp. 17-27. New York: Routledge.
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• Dubash, K. N., & Rajamani, L. (2015). Multilateral Diplomacy on Climate NOTES

Change. In David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan, & S. Raghavan (eds.) The
Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy, pp. 663-677. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
• Sengupta, S. (2013). Defending ‘Differentiation’: India’s Foreign Policy
on Climate Change from Rio to Copenhagen. In Kanti P. Bajpai & Harsh
V Pant (eds.), India’s Foreign Policy: A Reader, pp. 389-411.New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
• Narlikar, A. (2021). India’s Foreign Economic Policy Under Modi:
Negotiations and Narratives in the WTO and Beyond. International Politics,
59(1), pp. 148-166.
• Em Karnad, B. (2021, October 28). Nuclear-wise, India is Seriously
Handicapped (by Govt!). https://bharatkarnad.com/2021/10/28/nuclear-
wise-india-is-seriously-handicapped-by-govt/.
• Rajagopalan, R. (2005). India's Nuclear Doctrine and the Nuclear Danger.
New Delhi: Penguin Books India, pp. 67-88.
• Sinha, U.K. (2020). Rebalancing Foreign Policy and Non-traditional
Security Issues. In Arvind Gupta & Anil Wadhwa (eds.), India’s Foreign
Policy: Surviving in a Turbulent World, pp. 115-130. New Delhi: Sage
Publications. Bedded Liberalism. International Studies Review, doi:
10.1111/misr.12155.
• Nachiappan, K. (2019). Agenda-setting from Behind: India and the
Framework Convention on Climate Change. India Review, 18(5), pp.
552-567.
• Negi, A. (2014). India and the Climate Change Regime. In Amitabh
Mattoo & Happymon Jacob (eds.), India and the International System:
Theory, Policy and Structure, pp. 287-307. New Delhi: Australia-India
Institute Series in Foreign Policy and International Relations and Manohar
Publications.
• Raghunandan, D. (2013). Rethinking India’s Climate Policy and the Global
Negotiations. Oxfam India. https://www.oxfamindia.org/sites/default/files/
Raghu%27s%20paper.pdf. Self-Instructional
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NOTES • Sharma, R. K. (2022). BRICS in India’s Vision for Global Governance. In

Harsh V Pant (ed.), India and Global Governance: A Rising Power and
Its Discontents, pp. 135-145. New York: Routledge.
• Sakhuja, V. (2014). BRICS: The Oceanic Connections. Institute of Peace
and Conflict Studies, available at http://www.ipcs.org/comm_select.
php?articleNo=4594.

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Unit-V : India as an Emerging Power

Lesson-6 A. India in the Changing International Order

B. Soft Power Diplomacy
A. India in the Changing International Order B. Soft Power Diplomacy

LESSON-6 NOTES

A. INDIA IN THE CHANGING

INTERNATIONAL ORDER
B. SOFT POWER DIPLOMACY
Shaitan Singh
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Objectives
6.3 India in the Changing International Order
6.3.1 India’s Position in the Changing Global Landscape
6.3.2 Economic Power and Global Trade Dynamics
6.3.3 Strategic and Security Dimensions
6.3.4 Challenges in the Global Order
6.4 Soft Power Diplomacy
6.4.1 India’s Soft Power Assets
6.4.2 Institutional and Diplomatic Mechanisms
6.4.3 India’s Soft Power in Global Relations
6.4.4 Challenges to India’s Soft Power Diplomacy
6.5 Summary
6.6 Glossary
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions
6.8 References/Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The international order encompasses the rules, norms, institutions and power
dynamics among states and other global actors that control the relations among
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NOTES states and other global actors. Towards political, economic, and strategic factors
this system shaped by the power and influence distribution internationally.
The international order is not fixed, rather orchestrated, and because of which
the global balance of power depends on it as an important component. The
international order has always been fluid. In the mid-20th century, the world was
bipolar defined by the Cold War era, when both USA and the Soviet Union was
at ideological and strategic rival. In this period we saw the emergence of key
institutions, the United Nation and the Bretton Woods system, to stabilise the
global system under the East-West constraints.
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the world was not bipolar; the
unipolar situation was brought on with the United States as the most important
country in the world. American hegemony helped frame the world stage, and
the juncture was during this age of warfare, globalisation of the economy and
spread of liberal democratic values. The global order has been changing in recent
decades toward a multipolar world, as new powers such as China, India and Brazil
and the return of Russia, are gaining their place in the world order. It is a way
of a more dispersed power structure of which the leading role of the emerging
economies and of regional powers has to be admitted to determine global norms
and policies. Economic interdependence, technological innovation, and many of
the massive challenges facing humans on a sequential basis in the 21st century,
from climate change to cybersecurity, have created a global dynamic that is
increasingly fragmented, yet incredibly interdependent. It is in this context that
India acquires its increasing role as an emerging power. An India that is a nation
with a rich history, robust economic growth, strategic influence and unique soft
power assets is engaging with the changing international order, the aspirations
and challenges of India. In this lesson, we look at India's changing place in the
global system, from the economic, to the strategic, to the diplomatic. Moreover,
it also examines India’s resort to soft power diplomacy, a key component of its
foreign policy, as an instrument of its global influence in an era of reconfigured
power equations.

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NOTES
6.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

• Examine the strategic and security dimensions of India’s engagement in
the global order
• Analyse India’s institutional and diplomatic efforts to enhance its global
influence through soft power
• Explain the concept of soft power and identify India’s key soft power assets
• Discuss the limitations and obstacles in leveraging soft power to achieve
India’s foreign policy objectives

6.3 INDIA IN THE CHANGING INTERNATIONAL

ORDER

More generally, however, international order is the product of a set of rules,

norms, institutions and power dynamics that shape state and global interaction.
It establishes the political, economic and strategic landscape, telling nations how
to act towards each other. In a process where its relevance is rising, learning,
and adapting to the international order is critical for India to assert its influence,
and achieve its foreign policy objectives. The international order, both has a
role of preserving the global stability and cooperation, conflict management and
distributing the power and interests of major actors.
The global order has been historically changing from one phase to another.
For much of the Cold War era, it was bipolarity, one of the United States and the
Soviet Union, as rival superpowers. This division provided little room for the
world’s emerging power, India, to make a big impact on global affairs. With the
collapse of Soviet Union in 1991, the world entered into unipolar one dominated
by United States extending its clout in areas of politics, economy and security.
Yet in the past few decades the international order has become multipolar, where
there are many powerful powers such as China, India and the European Union as
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NOTES and challenges to India, both to make its claim in global power as well as to
manage mutually important complex relations with current and rising powers.
India’s engagement with these changes forms part of what is unfolding as the
international order transforms and is indicative of India’s desire to become an
important player in global governance, in strategic decision making.

6.3.1 India’s Position in the Changing Global Landscape

Since the end of the Cold War, an environment of global transformations has
marked the contours of power and influence of nations. In the meanwhile, India
has become a leading international player where these changes have generated
both opportunities and challenges. India’s economic liberalisation, strategic
partnerships and active participation in governance of this changing global order
have a bearing on India’s position in this global order.

Post-Cold War Transformations: 1991 Role of Economic Liberalisation

As for domestic and foreign policy, the road it has taken reflects a critical turning
point in India’s history following the end of the Cold War. An acute balance of
payments crisis in 1991 propelled India on its path of economic liberalisation in
1991 and its subsequent orchestration. Market oriented reform marked a departure
from the earlier model of state control of mixed economy. Reforms were as such
dismantling trade barriers and encouraging foreign direct investments (FDI) as
well as making India’s economy an integral part of the global markets. When
India's economic liberalisation was pushed, it helped move India out of poverty
in that sector and increased its global respectability. India went from being a
relatively insular economy to one of the world’s fastest growing economies over
the next three decades. India’s rise resulted in this economic ascension, which
was the basis for India's upward increase in global connections and its impetus in
international negotiations. India’s large consumer market and high GDP growth
rate have contributed to its status as a partner for trade and investment and to its
leadership status in sectors such as information technology and pharmaceuticals.
In addition, economic liberalisation has given India greater opportunity
to have an effect on the formulation of the world's economic policy. India’s
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representation in the groupings that thrive and grow the international economy, NOTES
forms the basis of India’s role in pushing the interests of the developing nations.

Alignments and Strategic Partnerships

Post Cold War, India’s foreign policy began a pragmatic shift, with great focus
on strategic alliance and partnerships that will boost India’s global ambit. Having
departed from the rigid non-alignment policy of the Cold War, India has been
actively engaging with large powers and regional groupings on issues that they
share and work towards interests. India’s entry into the Quadrilateral Security
Dialogue (QUAD), comprising India, the US, Japan, and Australia has been
one of the most important developments. The partnership underscores India’s
push to create a free, open and rules-based Indo-Pacific, and to counter China’s
growing clout. India’s multi-faceted approach to global challenges has led to
the QUAD expanding its focus to technology, infrastructure development and
climate change. It is equally so with India’s involvement with BRICS (Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa) exhibiting a desire for multipolarity in the
global governance. It is a platform for India to work with emerging economies
on trade, development as well as international institution reforming. Despite its
differences with China, India has continued to exploit BRICS as a vehicle for
more equitable global decision making and to increase its global stature. India’s
participation in the G20, grouping of the world’s largest economies is also an
indication of how it is rising. India has consistently advocated for a sustainable
development, fair trade and common solutions to global issues including climate
change and wealth and poverty inequality. It was able to show its ability to lead
on the most critical global issues during its presidency of the G20 in 2023, there
it showed its ability to lead on the most critical global issues.

India’s Role in Global Governance

India’s expansion into the global governance system, and in fact its economy, is
also reflected in the country’s vigorous engagement in the transformation and
democratisation of current structures to better fit the context of the 21st century.
India has long argued in the United Nations (UN) for the Security Council to
be reformed so it better reflects the shape of today’s world. India is one of the
largest donors to UN peacekeeping missions and has been one of the most
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NOTES seats on the Security Council because of its size and standing on the world stage
when it comes to contributions to peace and security throughout the world. As
a leading developing country, India has consistently championed developing
country interests in the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It has pushed for fair
trade practices, resisting those developed nations pressures as for instance, for
intellectual property rights and subsidies for domestic agricultural. India’s success
in pushing the WTO trade talks has made sure fair and inclusive governance of the
global trading system remain at the core. It is also India's proactive engagement
in the global health governance. As a result of its Vaccine Maitri initiative, India
became a leading global health player during the COVID-19 pandemic. India
has proven its capacity to contribute to global health security beyond its own
frontiers by supplying vaccines to over 100 countries. Given that the World
Health Organisation (WHO) is such an active player in WHO, its role in taking
on global health is clear.

Challenges and Opportunities

India’s role in the changing global environment is both marked by great
achievements and challenges. China is a complex dilemma in terms of competition
both regionally and globally. India, a key player in multilateral platforms like
BRICS, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) despite finding
strategic space with China, must resolve the tensions between them on the Indo-
Pacific and border disputes.
India’s ambitions for prominent role in global governance are also restrained
by entrenched powers, notably those in creating changes in the UN Security
Council. Domestic challenges stemming from economic inequality, including
the need for sustainable development, speaking also to its global engagement.
However, India has a demographic dividend, technological capabilities and the
willingness to take lead in multilateralism. Its ambition for a leading power in the
multipolar world order shows itself being active in the formation of international
strategic partnerships and in reform of the international institutions. India’s role
in the changing global environment is determined by whether India can use its
economic growth, strategic alignments and participation in global governance to
its advantage to increase its weight in geopolitics. With the evolving international
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the developed and developing countries, lead in trying to solve global problems NOTES
and more importantly, a major proponent of fair decision making.

6.3.2 Economic Power and Global Trade Dynamics

The story of 21st century has been India's emergence as an economic powerhouse.
With transformational polices in supporting a powerful economic growth
trajectory, integration into the world trade network, the country has played a
critical role in the global economy. India’s trade, innovation and technology
contributions are a reflection of its rising influence and its strategic trade
policies are a reflection of its efforts to balance domestic priorities with global
competitiveness.

India’s Economic Growth Trajectory

Since 1991, India has gone from a primarily agrarian economy to one of the
world’s largest and fastest growing economies. A new growth era was brought
in with liberalisation policies (i.e. deregulation, privatisation and globalisation).
The reforms paves the way for foreign direct investment (FDI) first, trade barriers
lowered down and incorporate India in the global world economy. And yet for
many decades now India’s GDP growth rate has been outpacing many other
developed and developing nations, and as measured by nominal GDP, it is the
fifth largest economy in the world and the third largest by purchasing power
parity (PPP). India’s large and youthful population, expanding middle class and
varied industrial base are key drivers of India’s economic growth. The country
has industrialised, digitalised, and provided good infrastructure towards its
competitiveness in global markets. Such government push towards initiatives
like 'Make in India', 'Atmanirbhar Bharat' (Self-Reliant India) to boost domestic
manufacturing and minimise the dependence on the imports, which will further
strengthen India’s resilience to shocks in the economy.
Information technology (IT) and business process outsourcing (BPO) have
built India's service sector up to become a global leader. Today companies like
Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Wipro, and Infosys are important names in the
global IT for business. They offer cutting edge solutions to business spread over
the globe. India’s GDP would not have grown at this rate without this sector’s Self-Instructional
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NOTES robust growth that has not only created millions of jobs but also cemented India
as being a hub of innovation and technology.

Trade Policies as well as Global Integration

India’s trade policy is based on a pragmatic treaty of industrial protection and
promoting economic development. The country has been cheerleading free
trade agreements (FTAs) and regional trade alliances over the years but always
negotiating terms carefully to ensure local producers. India’s trade agreements
with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea and sundry others have provided new markets
to Indian goods and services as well as having forged closer economic ties
with key partners. India, however, has been cautious about joining broader
multilateral trade arrangements at the same time. It decided to withdraw from
the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) because of worries
of how it would hurt domestic industries, especially agriculture and small-scale
manufacturing. The fact that trade policy is to make sure it matches national
interests and economic sustainability underlines India’s eagerness. India's strong
participation in global economic forums like the World Trade Organisation (WTO)
and the G20 shows that it holds a stake in innovation and to channelling the
energy of a diverse and global community toward solving problems, pushing ideas
forward, and creating value for your customers. India is a vociferous supporter
for fair trade, equitable market access and the preserving of intellectual property
rights for developing nations.

Contributions to Global Trade

The increasing contribution of India in international exports and imports has
certainly been a feature of India’s integration into the global trade network. The
country is a major exporter of textiles, pharmaceuticals, software services and
agricultural products. Its large and well-equipped pharmaceutical industry that
is often called the world’s ‘pharmacy, in much the same way as Brazil is known
for its automotive industry, has been key in providing affordable medicines
and vaccines to countries everywhere. India showed its global health security
contribution through a vaccine diplomacy venture called Vaccine Maitri in the
midst of the COVID-19 pandemic.
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India’s trade strategy has also been based on the information technology NOTES
sector. Indian companies have consistently been playing a major role in providing
IT solutions to global corporations, and software exports have been growing
consistently. Digital services and the progress in artificial intelligence (AI),
blockchain and fintech have made India a leading country in the global knowledge
economy, by exporting digital services.
India's trade profile, however, is based on agricultural exports, rice, spices
and tea. Government has made efforts to promote the agricultural exports through
market diversification initiatives and export subsidies. But the sector is challenged
by fluctuating global prices and non-tariff barriers from importing countries.
This also matches global priorities in India’s growing focus on renewable
energy and sustainability. India’s stake in solving climate change through
innovation and international partnerships is manifest in the concept of the
International Solar Alliance (ISA), an organisation that mobilises investment
and cooperation in solar energy projects all over the world.

Innovation and Technology: Catalysts for Trade Dynamics

India’s economic and trade policies are now driven by innovation and technology.
Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan have been achievements of Indian Space Research
Organisation which has displayed its capability on the global stage and India’s
space exploration has been moving ahead in line with that capability. However,
these achievements have provided international avenues for collaboration in
space technology and project a design of satellites.
India’s startups have made a name for themselves in the technology sector.
Often called the 'Silicon Valley of India,' Bengaluru has seen enormous investment
from global venture capital companies into the innovation space. The Indian
gods have not only taken the sloganeering ride in the local markets but also went
global and transformed up the standard along with Flipkart, Paytm and BYJU’s.
Digital India has enabled a robust ecosystem for technology enabled
governance and services in India. The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a
game changer digital payment platform, which has set benchmarks of financial
inclusion and digital transactions worldwide. These innovations suggest that
India can lead in technological solutions addressing complex global challenges. Self-Instructional
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NOTES Way Forward and Challenges

India has achieved much in its economic power and trade potential but is still
shy of a full exploitation of its economic power and trade potential. Despite all
this, ease of doing business is still hampered by infrastructure gaps, bureaucratic
hurdles and regulatory inefficiencies. However, on trade unbalance in particular
with China, we have to do strategies to diversify our import sources and to
improve our export competitiveness.
It may be also necessary to address domestic inequality and skills gap to
address distribution of benefits of growth and trade in India. Education, healthcare
investment, and research and development (R&D) are key for long term growth
and competitiveness of the national marketplace.

6.3.3 Strategic and Security Dimensions

Over the years India has evolved from being a strategic and security dimension
to be a regional power and an emerging global player. Military modernisation,
strategic autonomy, nuclear capabilities, and maritime security take centre stage
as the country’s interests are protected in a fast changing global environment. In
line with its broader aims for maintaining peace and stability, in the Indo-Pacific
region, these efforts also feed into them.

India’s Military Modernisation and Strategic Autonomy

India’s strategic posture includes a cornerstone of military modernisation. India's
defence capability has been upgraded to a significant extent as one of the largest
standing armed forces in the world weaponising in terms of conventional and
unconventional threats. The modernisation efforts are across all three branches of
the military, Army, Navy and Air Force, and include acquiring the latest weaponry,
upgrading existing platforms, and improving cyber and space warfare capabilities.
The 'Make in India' initiative has been India's effort to progressively make
indigenous investment in defense production and reducing dependency on foreign
imports, so as to increase indigenous production. India’s growing self-reliance in
defense technology is reflected in defense programs such as the Light Combat
Aircraft (LCA) Tejas, Arjun Main Battle Tank and BrahMos supersonic cruise
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missile. However, at the same time countries like Russia, the United States, NOTES
France and Israel have made it possible for India to get its hands on some of the
world’s best systems, including the Rafale fighter jets, S-400 missile defence
system and Predator drones.
One of India’s core underpinnings of foreign and security policy is strategic
autonomy. Strategic autonomy rooted in its historical policy of non-alignment is
India's independence of decision making, with no obligations to any alliance. In
the modern day, this functionalist approach has taken India on the path to balance,
to maintain relationships with major powers including the United States, Russia
and China for India. For instance, India has strengthened its defense relationship
with the US through COMCASA and BECA and remained close on the matter
of military relations with Russia.

Non-Proliferation Policies and Nuclear Power Status

India has a strategic and security framework with a critical component, its nuclear
program. India has a policy of credible minimum deterrence since the time it
conducted its first nuclear test in 1974. Such an approach is necessary for India
to not fall in an arms race without sufficient nuclear capabilities that will deter
adversaries.
But India’s nuclear doctrine is based on the principle of 'No First Use'
(NFU) and is based on civilian control over nuclear weapons. The principles
reflect India’s commitment to responsible nuclear behaviour. Because India is
non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), it has struggled to
be regarded as a nuclear armed state. It has, however, reinforced its legitimacy
in the global nuclear order in good part by adhering to strictures of its non-
proliferation measures and signing agreements such as the Civil Nuclear
Agreement with the United States.
India too has been an advocate of global nuclear disarmament and wanted
a comprehensive approach to the reduction of risks from nuclear weapons. It is
actively involved in NSG as well as efforts to join this regime and, in its own
words, to ‘further integrate’ into the global non-proliferation regime. Despite
herculean efforts to get an NSG membership due to opposition from China, India
keeps its emphasis on the non-proliferation and nuclear security.
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NOTES Maritime Security and Indo-Pacific Strategies Engagement

With its geographical location as well as dependence on the routes of sea for
trade and energy supply, Maritime security has come to occupy a core place in
India’s strategic framework. India’s maritime interest is secured because it has
over 7,500 kilometres of coastline, an access to key maritime chokepoints like
the Strait of Malacca, which are flanks of the country.
Act East is the Indian vision of a free, open and inclusive Indo Pacific
region based on this vision. This strategy is one of partnerships with regional and
global powers to address common problems, that there is piracy, terrorism and
illegal fishing. The role played by India in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
(QUAD) with United States, Japan and Australia beautifully demonstrates
India’s commitment to crafting stability and ensuring their international norms
in the Indo Pacific. The QUAD has since consolidated into a major maritime
partnership platform in the areas of joint naval exercises, disaster response
and technology sharing. Maritime strategy of India is cantered on its naval
modernisation. Initiatives of the Indian Navy to provide its blue water capabilities,
to project power beyond the Indian Ocean area. It includes induction of the
advanced warships submarines and aircraft carriers such as INS Vikrant along
with indigenous naval platforms. Meanwhile, India also runs regularly held
drills like Malabar with partners to improve interoperability and tackle maritime
pressures that are emerging. Not only does military participation by India in
maritime security have a wider application, but economic and environmental
factors are also taken into account. It has been a strong proponent of the idea of
all participating in regional cooperation as espoused by the Indian Ocean Rim
Association (IORA) and renewable energy in coastal regions as espoused by the
International Solar Alliance (ISA). This is India’s holistic approach to maritime
security, balancing traditional and non-traditional threats.

Challenges and Opportunities

There are challenges in India’s strategic and security dimensions. Continuing
security threats are posed by geopolitics with neighbours, especially China and
Pakistan. The standoff on eastern Ladakh border with China is evidence of the
need for robust defence preparedness against border disputes. Furthermore, the
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Initiative (BRI) and construction of dual use facilities in countries such as Sri NOTES
Lanka and Pakistan among others warrants the proactivity on India’s maritime
strategy. India also need to avoid balancing strategic autonomy with deepening
partnerships. India has grown closer to the United States and its friends, but
it must continue to make independent decisions on matters of divergence of
interests. While these challenges exist, India’s strategic and security priorities
offer great opportunity. All that is a function of its ambition as a responsible,
capable global power, its military modernisation, its nuclear capabilities, and its
maritime strategies. Taking advantage of its geographic advantages, technological
advancements and its diplomatic partnerships, India for example, increase the
strategic and security dimensions of India's maturity and responsibility. Using
military modernisation, strategic autonomy, responsible nuclear practices and
proactive maritime engagement, India is carving out its security landscape for the
complexities of 21st century. But just as important as these efforts in strengthening
India's national security is to further regional and global stability. Its role as a
stabilising force in the Indo-Pacific and as a first in global security governance.

6.3.4 Challenges in the Global Order

The emergence of India as a global player raises the question of deal with the
complexities of international system. Since the beginning of the order, India has
faced difficulties to balance the world order and to deal with pressing global issues
as well as limitations with its power projection capabilities. They frame India’s
ways of foreign policy making and India’s participation in global governance.

The Crucial Issue of Relationship with Major Powers

India is facing one of the most pressing challenges: managing its relationships
with the United States, China and Russia. These same three nations are key
players on the global politics and their interaction matters to the extent of the
international order. For India it is in the interest of its national interests, and for
its global ambitions, that it keeps its relations with each of those three countries
balanced and productive.
• India and the United States: India's relationship with the United States
has grown in recent years defence, technology, trade, and so on. Both Self-Instructional
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NOTES and in countering China. Yet, this is not a growing partnership, and it must
be overseen by India’s strategic autonomy. India cares about the U.S.
support, but with a healthy dose of caution about it becoming too dependent
particularly in the defence and security sphere. There are challenges too in
trade disputes and in views on bilateral issues such as intellectual property
or climate finance.
• India and China: Being in competition with China and being often at
conflict, India’s relationship with China is one of the most complicated
bilateral relationship in Asia. The territorial disputes, like the continuing
stalemate in Ladakh, and increasing extent of Chinese involvement in
South Asia and in the Indian Ocean through its Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI) come to further complicate things. However, China remains India’s
largest trading partner and that creates a difficult act between economic
interdependence and strategic rivalry.
• India and Russia: India’s foreign policy has long been built on its
relationship with Russia, especially in defence. But Russia’s closeness
with China and its frayed relations with the United States make it harder
for India to balance these relationships. For years, India has sought to tread
a middle path, Neutrality in hostilities such as the Russia-Ukraine war
while still engaging Russia in areas like energy and military cooperation.
But global polarisation is making it more and more difficult for this non-
alignment strategy.
India must exercise its diplomatic dexterity by keeping its strategic
autonomy, while at the same time using partnerships, to meet its security and
economic needs.

Tackling Global Issues

But India’s ability to step up to handle pressing global challenges is another test
for their leadership in an international order. Climate change, terrorism and health
crises require joint solutions but each one presents its own problems for India.
• Climate Change: India is one of the world’s largest greenhouse gas
emitters, and is under international pressure to reduce its carbon footprint.
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heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Under the Paris Agreement, India NOTES
has pledged to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2070 and move to
renewable energy. While funding, technology transfer and equitable climate
finance are still major hurdles.
• Terrorism: India has been a victim of cross border terrorism for long
especially from Pakistan. It has actively advocated global cooperation
against terrorism through paperwork like United Nations and the Financial
Action Task Force (FATF). Yet these efforts have not addressed terrorism
because of geopolitical considerations and different priorities of major
powers. The lack of a universal definition of terrorism coupled with the
politicisation of terrorism is a major source of the ineffectiveness of global
counter terrorism efforts.
• Health Crises: The COVID 19 pandemic inadvertently raised the
vulnerability of global health system and pointed to the need for a
coordinated response. Its vaccine diplomacy saved more than 100 countries
from vaccine scarcity and played a major role in global health. Domestic
challenges in healthcare infrastructure and access, however, highlight the
need for India to build its own systems while helping to develop global
health governance. How will India balance its domestic priorities with its
global responsibilities and further pursue international collaboration to
address these issues will decide its capacity to do so.

India’s Power Projection Limitations

Though its power is growing, India is hampered in its ability to project power
abroad. The constrains come from the economic constrains, infrastructural gaps,
and regional challenges.
• Economic Constraints: India is one of the world’s fastest growing
economies, but it is far behind the likes of the United States and China in
terms of GDP, technological capabilities and defence spending. A lack of
resources to invest in global power projection is constrained by economic
inequalities within the country, and by the need to invest in infrastructure
and education.
• Infrastructural Gaps: India's defense infrastructure and its logistical Self-Instructional
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NOTES For example, although India has modernised its army, greater advancement
of naval and air power capability is needed so that it can project influence
in remote areas. India’s own indigenous defence production capacity is
also constrained by limited strategic autonomy.
• Regional Challenges: India’s immediate neighbourhood poses unique
challenges that draw its attention and resources. With Pakistan, Afghanistan
in perpetual tension, and competition with China in South Asia, India
must devote considerable attention to these issues and cannot devote its
full attention to global issues. But China’s growing footprint in India’s
neighbourhood, through investments, and strategic partnerships makes
India’s regional ambitions all the more complicated. While there are these
limits, India is making strides toward being more global. Examples of
opportunities to overcome these challenges of mobility over time include
India’s commitment to do so through initiatives like the International Solar
Alliance, playing leadership roles in multilateral forums such as the G20,
and strategic partnerships.

6.4 SOFT POWER DIPLOMACY

Political scientist Joseph Nye's term, soft power, describes the power of a country
to attract and persuade instead of intimidate or hurt someone via coercion or
force. It’s based on the appeal of a nation's culture, political outlook, and foreign
policy and gets a broader acceptance all over the world. Unlike hard power (i.e.
using military or military might), soft power relies on intangible assets to create
goodwill, to erect partnerships, to accomplish strategic goals. India is a great
diverse country and it also has a wonderful culturally rich country and soft power
is critical tool in foreign policy of this country.

Soft Power Definition and Significance

Soft power is the ability to get other people to want what you want through
attraction and appeal. The expression of it is through cultural exchanges, media,
education, diplomacy and values. The ability for nations to have dual soft
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important, as they can form partnerships, prevent conflicts and mitigate crises NOTES
without force. With the increase in interconnection in the world, public opinion
and global networks have a major role to play and hence they have become
very important complement to the hard power. Soft power is very important for
India as it is a civilisational heritage having democratic principles and dynamic
culture. India manages its soft power assets like Bollywood, yoga, its diaspora,
its rich culinary traditions carrying bridges between it and the rest of the world.
In addition to elevating India’s global reputation, these elements also serve the
country’s strategic goals by creating people to people connections and goodwill.

Joseph Nye’s Concept of Soft Power: Relevance for India

In late 20th century, Joseph Nye introduced the term soft power, which is to say
a nation’s influence does not depend only on its military and economic might.
According to Nye, soft power arises from three primary resources, a country’s
culture, its political values, and its foreign policies.
The idea is particularly relevant for India, which has a lot of soft power
resources. Yoga, Ayurveda and spirituality are all of India’s ancient cultural
traditions and have universal appeal. Drawing from an impressive entertainment
industry, led by Bollywood, Indians embrace its films, values and cultural
associations with audiences all around the world. The Indian diaspora, which
is also the world's largest, plays an important role of its own as informal
ambassadors of India, constantly helping to enhance India’s image as well as
forge relationships between India and its host countries. India’s own democratic
values and its implicit promise not to be intolerant or intolerant of others, it
adds to its soft power as well. India’s political system and peaceful swings are
something the world’s largest democracy looks to as an example. India uses soft
power for diplomatic presence with initiative such as International Day of Yoga,
which India has championed at United Nations. In the contemporary global order,
which is based to a large extent on the perception and trust of stakeholders, India’s
soft power is an essential arm of its foreign policy, without which its attempts
to project its foreign policy products, interests, and actions to the domestic and
global public sphere will be deficient. Through projecting its cultural richness,
democratic values and the legitimising political and constructive global policies,
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NOTES 6.4.1 India’s Soft Power Assets

Deep rooted in India’s rich cultural heritage, vibrant creative arts and commitment
to democratic ideals and pluralism, India’s soft power assets are deep. In many
ways, these assets have helped to form India’s image around the world and
has helped to increase India’s influence on the world stage. India’s soft power
waxes and wanes across the breath work of yoga and Ayurveda to the Bollywood
blockbuster, and from literature to cultural export.

Cultural Heritage and Traditions

India’s cultural heritage is one of its most important soft power assets celebrated
for its diversity, depth and universality. Yoga and Ayurveda, the ancient Indian
philosophy of holistic well-being, have been accepted and appreciated all over
the world. As spearheaded by India, United Nations proclamation of International
Day of Yoga has emphasised the universal appeal of yoga to physical, mental
and spiritual well-being. Like Ayurveda, the natural healing aspect of it has also
been recognised internationally with wellness centres and practitioners promoting
these age old remedies all over the world.
India’s festivals Diwali, Holi, Eid, and Christmas are expressions of its
cultural pluralism and are celebrated across India and beyond the country, by
the Indian diaspora and the global community. Whereas Diwali, the ‘Festival of
Lights’, has become popular in countries like the United States, Canada and the
United Kingdom, cities organise public celebrations to showcase Indian culture
to an international audience. These festivals are cultural ambassadors, helping
to spread cross cultural understanding and appreciation. India also has its share
of soft power, and it comes from other aspects; religious and spiritual too. Major
religions including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism were born in India
and millions of international visitors come to sites such as Bodh Gaya, Amritsar’s
Golden Temple, Varanasi, etc. The Dalai Lama’s residence in Dharamshala just
adds further to India being associated with global peace and spirituality.

Bollywood, Literature and the Creative Arts as Cultural Exports

Bollywood is one of India’s most recognisable symbols of its soft power, and
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Africa, the Middle East, and beyond. Its global fan base is made up of people NOTES
who can't speak the language, but do understand the storytelling, song and dance
sequences, and emotional narratives. In fact, Bollywood stars like Amitabh
Bachchan, Akshay Kumar, etc. have all turned into global icons, making India’s
cultural appeal that much greater.
Apart from Bollywood, India’s regional cinema industries, including Tamil,
Telugu and Malayalam films are also finding the world applauding them. Indian
storytelling has found its feet outside of its boundaries, earning accolades from
international film festivals, and movies like RRR, Baahubali and Pather Panchali
have introduced global audiences to the variety of Indian story telling.
The other important cultural export based in India is Indian literature,
Classical and contemporary. Known writers from India such as Rabindranath
Tagore, first non-European Nobel Laureate in Literature; and contemporary
authors have taken Indian narratives to the world stage. The themes in Tagore's
works focus on a universal human value, whereas modern Indian authors unfold
their themes that include identity, globalisation, and postcolonialism, that speak
to a discerning public internationally.
Indian dance and music forms, of course, including its classical forms like
Bharatanatyam and Hindustani music, contemporary music such as Indian pop
and fusion, as well play a substantial role in the country’s cultural influence.
Promoting Indian culture’s richness and creating people to connect with India,
international events that stage Indian music and dance play a vital role.
India’s cultural export also includes art and craftsmanship. Indian textiles,
jewellery and handicrafts are celebrated all over the world for intricate designs
and craftsmanship. Madhubani paintings, Pashmina shawls, and Banarasi silk
have been loved by all over the world, and have helped India’s cultural soft power.

Democracy and the Plurality of Interpretations

In India promotion of its soft power relies on its democratic values and
commitment to pluralism. India is the world's largest democracy, a model of
governance that accommodates a great deal of language, religion, ethnicity and
culture. India's pluralistic ethos means that it can present itself as a democratic
value and inclusive one in a world increasingly at risk of democratic regression. Self-Instructional
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NOTES The Constitution of India, which professes to be democratic and adheres to

secularism, equality and justice, is its own testament. Its democratic institutions
are strong enough to demonstrate the peaceful transitions of power, and vibrant
electoral processes. Many nations that are struggling to manage their diverse
population while keeping unity, find resonance in India’s ability to do so.
India has also been a strong voice for the voices of the Global South. India
has consistently used platforms such as Non Aligned Movement (NAM) during
Cold War and the more contemporary NAM's interface with global forums such
as, G20 has become the voice of the developing nations. It supports its image as
a nation of equitable global governance.
India’s diaspora is a key element in efforts to extend democratic and
pluralist culture abroad. Given its unique tie to cultural diplomacy, Indian
diasporas in countries such as USA, Canada and Australia both form part of
the cultural ambassadors and continue to uphold Indian values by organising
festivals, cultural events and advocacy that showcase India’s values. Indian
heritage is further enhanced by the fact that prominent Indian news figures hold
roles in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom giving a voice
to the Indian community world-wide. India’s cultural heritage, creative arts and
democratic values are India’s soft power assets and position it uniquely in the
global order. India’s rich traditions and modern cultural exports help to build
bridges that cut across cultures, it uses its experience of positive diplomatic
engagement and mutual understanding to help the world at large. The pluralistic
ethos and democratic ideals make it look even more responsible and inclusive
global player. That so India continues to explore these assets and harness
these strengths will not only give India additional clout but also may help add
meaningfully to a more closely connected and more harmonious world.

6.4.2 Institutional and Diplomatic Mechanisms

Several institutional and diplomatic mechanisms amplify India’s cultural,

political and economic influence across the world, and underpin India’s soft
power diplomacy. A number of dedicated organisations, public diplomacy
initiatives and active role of its diaspora have helped India project its cultural
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do these mechanisms improve India’s global image but also they strengthen NOTES
India’s bilateral and multilateral relationships.

Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)

India’s soft power diplomacy is anchored by the Indian Council for Cultural
Relations (ICCR). ICCR founded in 1950, promotes cultural exchange and
co-operation between India and other nations. The objective of its activities is
to display India’s cultural heritage, art and traditions, and provide avenues for
cross cultural dialogue.
The ICCR also organises a variety of cultural festivals, exhibitions and
performances by Indian artists in the diaspora. These events show the richness
of Indian traditions with classical music and dance, and contemporary art forms.
The ICCR supports people to people connections and cultural appreciation by
sponsoring Indian artists and scholars in host countries.
The scholarship initiative for foreign students is one of ICCR’s flagship
programs. Thousands of students from Asia, Africa, Latin America and other
regions are awarded scholarships to study in India, allowing them to experience
Indian culture and develop long term goodwill. Many of these alumni become
informal ambassadors of Indian culture in their country.
Besides managing Indian cultural centres in different countries, the ICCR
also runs Indian cultural centres in different countries as hubs to promote Indian
culture, language and traditions. Courses in yoga, Indian languages and arts, are
also on offer through centres in cities such as London, Moscow and Beijing,
bringing Indian cultural practices into local communities.

Public Diplomacy Initiatives

India’s public diplomacy now leverages technology, sustainability and inclusivity
to evolve to innovative and impactful initiatives. Examples of India using public
diplomacy to bridge its domestic strengths and their global importance are through
these programs like Digital India and Mission Life.
• Digital India: Digital India is a flagship initiative launched in 2015 to
digitally empower the society. The program has been a hit, and India’s
image and competence around the world really improved by showcasing
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NOTES as a country. A lot of India’s digital infrastructure expertise, such as the

Unified Payments Interface (UPI), Aadhaar (biometric identity system)
and e-governance, is known globally. Sharing these technologies with
countries such as Africa and Asia develop bilateral relations with those
countries, and helps sustain India's image as a global leader in the digital
transformation.
• Mission Life (Lifestyle for Environment): Mission Life proposed by
India at COP26, is about making sustainable lifestyles the norm to fight
climate change. This is one more effort on the part of India to fulfill
its global environmental goals and play its role in a responsible global
ecology. Mission life speaks to the world by advocating for individual and
community level actions to promote minimisation of the environmental
footprint, in accordance with the Indian trend of collective responsibility
for the planet.
The International Day of Yoga, celebrated annually on June 21, is another
part of India’s public diplomacy. This initiative is championed by India in
the United Nations and has turned into a global phenomenon marking India’s
affirmation as a culturally heritage and a nation with strong health and wellness
focus. Such initiatives successfully bridge cultural divide and create the feeling
of shared values.

The Role of Diaspora as Cultural Ambassadors

One of India’s soft power strategies is India’s diaspora, one of the largest in
the world. Now with 32 million Indians spread around the world, the diaspora
functions as a bridge for India with the rest of the world, while also protecting
the culture, the values and economic interests of India.
The diaspora’s contribution is not limited to one domain. Indian
communities organise festivals, exhibitions and performances to celebrate Indian
traditions like Diwali, Holi, and Navratri in cultural terms. For many of these
celebrations, held mostly in public spaces, they offer a diverse audience and
bring Indian culture to the local population. In addition, cultural and educational
institutions educating in Indian languages, classical dance and music are formed
by diaspora organisations to preserve cultural continuity and appreciate it.
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The diaspora is important in India’s soft power, economically. Indian NOTES

professionals in technology, medicine and finance have brought India’s image of
being a source of talent and innovation globally. Indian diaspora is represented
by Sundar Pichai, Satya Nadella, Kamala Harris, it’s a contribution which adds
to the progress of the world.
Members of the diaspora tend to act politically as informal diplomats,
promoting better relations between their host country and India. In the example,
Indian-origin politicians like Rishi Sunak in the United Kingdom and Leo
Varadkar in Ireland hold high office, and India’s global face and presence has
also been strengthened. Additionally, diaspora communities of lobbying for
favourable policies in India, and build a network in the foreign countries.
Initiatives like the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Non-Resident Indians Day),
Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) programme which keep ties with the Indians
abroad alive and well. All these efforts keep the diaspora connected to its roots
and are a good repository for India’s globalisation ambitions.
India has used its soft power strategy which amongst other things has made
India's institutional and diplomatic mechanisms including ICCR, innovative
public diplomacy initiatives, and active role of its diaspora integral to it. These
mechanisms not only help India’s cultural and technological achievements but
also create long lasting relationship with the global community. Using these
assets, India gains incentives, goodwill and a role as a global responsible and
inclusive leader. These mechanisms will be important for India to gain greater
strength in the international order and to respond to common challenges.

6.4.3 India’s Soft Power in Global Relations

India’s soft power has now become an indispensable component of its global
diplomacy both because it allows India to engage with other countries and
communities in world over by projecting shared values, cultural exchanges,
and developmental partnerships. India has used its heritage, democratic ethos
and its global initiatives to increase its influence in South Asia, Africa and the
Global South. India has played its role as a globally responsible and inclusive
leader through its efforts in fostering peace by paying attention to atrocities and
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NOTES Soft Power in South Asia, Africa, and the Global South
Soft power strategy includes a key element of India’s engagement with South
Asia, Africa and the Global South. These regions have been brought closer by
India by stressing historical, cultural and developmental ties.
• South Asia: India’s cultural and historical ties are used to develop goodwill
and to enhance regional relationships in South Asia. Bollywood and Indian
television shows are so popular in neighbouring Countries like, Nepal,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka as cultural bonds are promoted. It also provides
scholarships and capacity building activities that are aimed at attracting
students as well as professionals of the region. India’s vaccine supply, its
disaster relief, especially its infrastructure development assistance also
makes it a dependable partner.
• Africa: The principle of solidarity, mutual respect and developmental
cooperation is the basis of India’s engagement with Africa. This partnership
has a strong historical connection between the two regions, based on
experiences of colonialism and the Non-Aligned Movement. The India
Africa Forum Summit is focused on matters of health, education and
infrastructure development and so it has extended its influence. India’s
technological prowess and its intention to build Africa’s capacity is brought
to the fore by programs such as the Pan African e-Network which offers
telemedicine and e-learning services.
• The Global South: India's championing of a fairer, more sustainable
development world is its leadership ‘in the Global South'. India has
always been a champion of the issues of developing countries in the G20,
BRICS and the United Nations. India's efforts to address the uniqueness
in the problems in the Global South are grounded in initiatives such as
the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and the vaccine diplomacy during
the COVID pandemic. India uses its soft power, gained from its status as
a bridge between developed and developing nations to increase its global
sway.

India’s Contribution to Peace and Development

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India has been using its soft power in a very active way to promote peace and
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capacity building initiatives which reflect India’s global welfare commitment NOTES
are included.
• Disaster Aid and Humanitarian Assistance: India’s swift and effective
disaster relief efforts have helped it to put a shine on its image as a
responsible global actor. India has always been ready to help be it the
aid to Nepal after 2015 earthquake, aid in its food and medicine to Sri
Lanka when it went through economic crisis, or rescue operation in Indian
Ocean area during natural disasters. Operation Rahat in Yemen is another
example of how the Indian Navy can timeously and effectively support
its Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) missions, which
are as close to home as ones involving the Indian Navy.
• Educational and Capacity-Building Programs: India’s developmental
diplomacy has been built around education. India has given thousands of
students and professionals throughout the developing world a leg up on
their futures, through scholarships and training programs. Indian Technical
and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program is such an initiative which
trains people in fields like IT, health care, etc. to develop these skills and
transfer these skills. Besides generous contributions to education in the
country, India also contributes to global affairs through institutions such
as Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable
Development (MGIEP).
• Health Diplomacy: India has stood out as a country with strong make up
in the global health diplomacy. At the same time, it has been supplying
of affordable medicines and vaccines to the developing nations and
including the Vaccine Maitri program during Covid period, it’s confirmed to
strengthen the global health security. India showed that it can tackle global
challenges by vaccinating over 100 countries and providing vaccines.

Initiatives like International Yoga Day Strengthen Global Visibility

Yoga has been a central element in India’s increasing global visibility, and its
cultural heritage. But the key to global healing is that India has been able to unite
the world under one belief for health and wellness and harmony by establishing
International Yoga Day on June 21 and garnering support from 177 member
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NOTES across cultures and continents is all about India’s spiritual and cultural ethos on
the global stage.
More than 190 countries celebrate International Yoga Day every year, and
in iconic locations such as the Eiffel Tower, in Paris, the Sydney Opera House
or Times Square of New York. These celebrations also speak to India’s cultural
legacy and its global leadership in promoting well-being. The initiative helps
India’s image as a promoter of peace, balance and universal connectivity by
associating yoga with India’s national identity.
In addition, India also supports its soft power through other global schemes
such as the Festival of India organised by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations
(ICCR). Exhibitions, performances and cultural exchanges are held during these
festivals in order to provide international audience to engage with Indian culture
and tradition. India’s increased global influence generated through its soft power
diplomacy or its engagement in South Asia, Africa and the Global South and
its developmental initiatives and cultural icons like yoga among others have
reposed trust on it. India takes advantage of its past relations, cultural heritage
and technological knowledge to foster goodwill and promoting shared values.
International Yoga Day is one such initiative of India showcasing how India's
soft power is projecting, bringing global community together with the belief of
harmonious and inclusive principles. With India faced with the global problems
and forging the partnerships, its soft power will continue to be an important
implement to define its status as a responsible and a respectable global leader.

6.4.4 Challenges to India’s Soft Power Diplomacy

The use of soft power has become the definition of India’s foreign policy, which
has resulted in great pay offs in terms of enhancing India’s global influence
and generating goodwill internationally. But India’s soft power diplomacy is
threatened by several challenges. The problem is that these challenges come from
the view of India’s internal problems, competition from other global players like
China, and the challenge of balancing soft power with hard power diplomacy.

Perceptions of India’s Internal Issues

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power diplomacy in the global scheme. While India has rightfully made giant NOTES
strides as the world’s largest democracy, incidents of caste bias and gender
inequality have occasionally muddied India’s international image.
• Human Rights Concerns: Among the criticisms of Brazil was that
it has been guilty of human rights violations regardless of the issue at
stake, from anti-terrorism, to freedom of expression, or the mistreatment
of marginalised communities. These perceptions are particularly bad for
India’s own effort to boast of itself as a champion of democratic values and
human rights on the global horizon. The issues give fodder to the critics
and rival nations who can try to undermine India’s soft power narrative.
• Social Inequalities: Nevertheless, India’s economic growth has not
attended to its problems of poverty, poor access to health care and
education, and gender inequalities. Sometimes their domestic challenges
can blunt India’s image as a model for equitable development. This is
important for India to reconcile its domestic realities with its aspirations
to project the ideals abroad.

Other Soft Power Leaders in Competition

Stiff competition for soft power diplomacy exists as other countries are opening
national narratives and projects that are outpacing India's such as China and the
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) besides Confucius Institutes.
• China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Massive infrastructure projects
connecting over 140 countries into the BRI has made it an important plank of
China’s global reach. For the most part, the initiative utilises economic and
hard power to advance China’s global influence, but it also attempts to mix two
which is Chinese culture and values. China’s investments and aid are viewed
as a source of economic opportunity by many developing countries, and India’s
more modest contributions are overshadowed. China’s state funded media and
its cultural exchanges also serve to amplify its version of itself, making it an
uphill battle for India to compete in regions such as Africa, South East Asia, and
South Asia.
• Western Nations and Global Soft Power: Unsurprisingly, Western nations
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NOTES industries and global media respectively. India’s cultural assets are rich and
diverse, but those cultural assets rarely attain the same level of visibility
and impact that Western cultural exports enjoy.
• Regional Competition: India's projection of soft power within South Asia
is sometimes thwarted by smaller neighbours keen to play a binding role
closer to China or other global powers. China’s ability to establish itself
in Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, often with economic investments,
propaganda and cultural exchanges, is slowly undermining India’s long
traditional role of a leader in the region.

Hard Power versus Soft Power Diplomacy

The right balance between hard power and soft power in India’s foreign policy
is another big challenge for India. Soft power diplomacy understands that using
attraction and persuasion is enough at times, but it usually demands a solid
supporting network of hard power. India’s soft power initiatives are sometimes
constrained by its struggle to align these two dimensions of power.
• Perception of Inconsistencies: India’s hard power gamut a set that includes
military operations, border disputes and economic sanctions can find itself
in opposition with India’s soft power narrative. For instance, if it were to
enter its ongoing military standoff with China in Ladakh, launch airstrikes
in Pakistan, both necessary for national security, it may ironically amass
perceptions of the aggression that it is opposing which can ultimately
undermine its image as a peace proponent and dialogue enhancer.
• Limited Resources for Soft Power Initiatives: However, India’s soft
power investment is significantly lesser compared to China, which devotes
a lot to its cultural diplomacy programs. Indeed, ICCR and the public
diplomacy campaigns have been successful, but on a smaller scale and
with a narrower reach, compared to China’s Confucius Institutes or the
West’s much larger cultural diplomacy networks.
• Tensions with Hard Power Allies: Care should be taken in India’s
dealings with powerful neighbours such as the United States and Russia.
Partnerships with these nations help both India’s strategic position, but
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be perceived that India’s growing defence ties with the US do not go far NOTES
enough in the Global South and give too much to the West.

Addressing the Challenges

To overcome these challenges, India must adopt a comprehensive approach
that addresses domestic perceptions, strengthens its global outreach, and better
integrates hard power with soft power diplomacy:
• Improve Domestic Governance: No less, India can address its internal
issues pertaining to communalism, human rights and social inequalities
and use these to build its global image and inject in its democratic and
pluralistic values.
• Expand Soft Power Investments: By increasing funding to cultural
diplomacy, education and public diplomacy initiatives, India will now be
more able to compete against other global powers. So initiatives to expand
the reach of the ICCR and increase cultural exchange programmes will
enable India’s soft power.
• Leverage Diaspora Networks: India’s diaspora can best lead in upholding
India’s cultural and democratic values in the world. To strengthen India’s
soft power, it can involve these communities and tie with them.
• Integrate Soft and Hard Power: India’s global standing will be enhanced
by a hard power approach that combines hard power to protect national
interests, with soft power building partnerships and trust.

6.5 SUMMARY

The rise of India as an emerging power has manifested in its heightened

complexity in the emergence of an India that would play an emerging role in
global order that is witnessing steady changes. This lesson looks at India’s
place in the new international order and how it has come to rely on soft power
diplomacy as a complementary means to boost its international standing. The
hard and soft power strategies in India’s approach to a multipolar world, both
opportunities and challenges. India has a strategic location; it has dominated in Self-Instructional
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NOTES adaptability is shown in the transition from a non-aligned postcolonial state to

an active participant in global governance. In a world of global multipolarity,
India has chosen to redefine its international role. Its presence in institutions such
as United Nations, G20 and the BRICS indicates that it strives to influence the
world’s decision bringing. Although the realisation of this aspiration is fraught
with problems, including domestic socio-economic disparities and foreign
geopolitical tensions. India needs also to simultaneously maintain its strategic
autonomy and also its relationships with the United States, Russia, and China,
and other major powers.
India is becoming a global power because of economic strength. India’s
trade and investment are rapidly growing with one of the world’s fastest growing
economies, that it leads in the G20 and its participation in regional economic
frameworks speaks to its aspiration to become the world’s economic architect.
While domestic issues such as income inequality, infrastructure deficits, trade
imbalances are daunting, India needs to meet these challenges while leveraging
demographic dividend and technological progress for keeping its economy on
the motion. India has chosen to strengthen its national security architecture in
response to new global threats and protect its interests. The nexus of new defence
relations, maritime security in the Indo-Pacific region, and a modernisation of
the military mirrors its new focus on strategic autonomy. India’s foreign policy
is a combination of traditional partners such as Russia and new partners (United
States) embodies its unclear diplomatic strategy. However, these efforts have
not mattered as grave challenges such as India's border disputes with China and
regional instability in South Asia and as international problems arise.
Access to India’s soft power diplomacy is critical complement to India’s
hard power strategies. India’s soft power assets spend their roots in its rich
cultural heritage, its diversity in traditions as well as in its democratic ideals,
have inspired international adoration in yoga, Bollywood, cuisine, and festivals.
With these cultural elements and with the International Day of Yoga like initiative
that India’s international image has improved. The Indian Council for Cultural
Relations (ICCR) and Public Diplomacy programmes alike facilitate India’s
voice through scholarships, diaspora outreach and developmental assistance
among other things. Nevertheless, limitations of these efforts in terms of resource
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of the same. However, soft power diplomacy of India has several challenges. Its NOTES
influence is diluted by competing narratives from other nations and inconsistency
of policy implementation, as well as by limited cultural promotion and investment.
Domestic issues also such as social unrest and political polarisation can damage
its image. To overcome all these hurdles, India needs to have a coherent strategy
that speaks with one voice, doing a positive narrative alongside correcting internal
weaknesses that undermine the credibility of India. Finally, India’s emergence
as an emerging power is an indication of the country’s aptitude to change and
leverage strengths in its scale in a swiftly transforming planetary purchase order.
India is positioning itself as a key player in shaping the 21st century world, by
combining its economic, strategic and cultural assets. But there are challenges
to its ascent. India must continue to make its economic foundations stronger,
boosting its strategic capabilities and fine tuning its soft power diplomacy to
stay in the game and gain influence in that global arena.

6.6 GLOSSARY

• Challenges to Global Order: Issues such as inequality, geopolitical

rivalries, climate change, and shifting alliances that threaten the stability
and functioning of the international system.
• Changing International Order: Refers to the shifting dynamics of global
power, characterised by the rise of new powers, changing alliances, and
evolving challenges to the traditional international system.
• Diplomatic Mechanisms: Tools and practices employed by a nation to
engage with other countries, foster alliances, and address global challenges
through negotiation and dialogue.
• Global Trade Dynamics: The evolving patterns of trade among countries,
driven by globalisation, regional agreements, technological innovations,
and economic strategies.
• Institutional Mechanisms: Organisations, policies, and frameworks
established to operationalise and promote a country’s diplomatic and soft
power strategies. Self-Instructional
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NOTES
6.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Examine the challenges India faces in becoming a dominant economic

power in the international system.
2. Discuss the role of multilateral organisations in shaping India’s global
strategy.
3. Identify the key elements of India’s soft power and explain how they
contribute to its global image.
4. Suggest strategies to overcome these challenges and enhance India’s soft
power influence globally.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of initiatives like the International Day of Yoga
in promoting India’s soft power.

6.8 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

• Saran, S. (2017). How India Sees the World: Kautilya to the 21st Century.
Juggernaut Books, pp. 258-275.
• Menon, S. (2021). India and Asian Geopolitics: The Past, Present. Penguin
Random House, pp. 1-10, pp. 340-374.
• Rajgopalan, R., & Sahni, V. (2008). India and the Great Powers: Strategic
Imperatives: Normative Necessities. South Asian Survey, 15 (1), pp. 5–32.
• Kukreja, V. (2017). Dynamics of Change and Continuity in India’s Foreign
Policy under Modi’s Regime in Shantesh K Singh (ed.). India’s Foreign
Policy Continuity with Difference Under Modi Government, pp. 1-16. New
Delhi: Manak Publications.
• Raja Mohan, C. (2013). Changing Global Order: India’s Perspective.
In A. Tellis & S. Mirski (Eds.), Crux of Asia: China, India, and the
Emerging Global Order, pp. 53-62. Washington: Carnegie Endowment
for International Peace.
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• Kugiel, P. (2012). India’s Soft Power in South Asia. International Studies, NOTES
49 (3-4), pp. 351-376.
• Paul, T.V. (2014). Indian Soft Power in a Globalizing World. Current
History, 113(762), pp. 157162.
• Mazumdar, A. (2018). India’s Soft Power Diplomacy under the Modi
Administration: Buddhism, Diaspora, and Yoga. Asian Affairs, 49 (3), pp.
468-49.
• Gupta, A.K. (2008). Commentary on India’s Soft Power and Diaspora.
International Journal on World Peace, 25(3), pp. 61-68.
• Sikri, Veena (2020). Strategizing Soft Power Projection. In Arvind Gupta
& Anil Wadhwa (ed.), India’s Foreign Policy: Surviving in a Turbulent
World, pp. 45-61. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
• Pathak, V. (2018). Indian Diaspora: A Strategic Asset for Indian Foreign
Policy in the 21st Century. In Sangit K. Ragi (ed.), Imagining India as a
Global Power: Prospects and Challenges, pp. 223-226. Oxon and New
York: Routledge.
• Malone, D. M., & Raja Mohan, C. and Raghavan, S. (2015). The Oxford
Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy. United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press.
• Ganguly, S. (2016). Engaging the World-Indian Foreign Policy since 1947.
New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Ragi, S. K. (2018). Imagining India as a Global Power: Prospects and
Challenges. New York: Routledge.
• Malone, David M. (2011). Does the Elephant Dance? Contemporary Indian
Foreign Policy, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
• Sikri, R. (2007). Challenge & Strategy in Rethinking India’s Foreign
Policy. Sage Publications. Khilani. S., Mehta, R.K., Mehta, P. B. (eds.).
(2012). Non-Alignment 2.0. https://cprindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/
NonAlignment-2.pdf.
• Dubey, M. (2015). India’s Foreign Policy: Coping with the Changing
World. Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan. Self-Instructional
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NOTES • Ganguly, S. (2019). Indian Foreign Policy: Oxford India Short

Introductions. Oxford University Press.
• Gupta, A. (2018). How India Manages its National Security. Penguin
Random House.
• Cohen, S. (2002). India: Emerging Power. Brookings Institution Press.
Hall, I.(ed.). (2014). The Engagement of India: Strategies and Responses.
Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
• Dutt, V.P. (1984). India’s Foreign Policy. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House.
• Pande, A. (2020). India's Marathon: Reshaping the Post-Pandemic World
Order. Takshashila Institution.
• Pande, A. (2017). From Chanakya to Modi: Evolution of India's Foreign
Policy. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers.

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