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DP IB Psychology: HL Your notes

The Individual & the Group

Contents
Social Identity Theory
Two Key Studies of Social Identity Theory: Tajfel (1972) & Howarth (2002)
Social Cognitive Theory
Two Key Studies of Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura (1961) & Dijkstra & DeVries (2001)
Stereotypes: Formation of Stereotypes
Stereotypes: E ects of Stereotyping
Two Key Studies of Stereotypes : Hamilton & Gi ord (1976) & Spencer et al. (1999)

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Social Identity Theory

Your notes
Social Identity theory
What is social identity theory?
Social identity theory (SIT) refers to the identity an individual forms of themselves based on their
group memberships
An individual9s social identity is a combination of the various di erent ingroups to which they belong
e.g. family, college, psychology class, rugby team etc.
An individual is likely to have a range of di erent social identities based on each speci c group to
which they belong - e.g. within a family group an individual can have the social identity of
mother/daughter/sister/aunt/cousin/niece
An individual may choose their ingroups (joining a drama club, supporting a football team) but there are
many ingroups over which an individual has no control - e.g. nationality, given sex at birth, ethnicity, age
group
Groups to which an individual does not belong are known as outgroups
Negative attitudes towards outgroups can lead to prejudice and discrimination

What are the processes of social identity theory?

Social categorisation is the process by which people arrange others into groups according to speci c
group characteristics e.g. Millennials, Boomers, Americans, Italians, punks, hippies etc.
Social categorisation can be a starting point by which stereotypes form e.g.
Americans are all loud, burger-eating patriots; Boomers are smug and self-satis ed; hippies are all
lazy, unwashed layabouts
Social categorisation occurs as an easy way of understanding others as it requires little cognitive
energy
Social comparison is the process by which an individual or group compares themselves either
favourably (downward comparison) or unfavourably (upward comparison) to other groups
An example of downward comparison would be a businessperson looking down on someone who
is unemployed; upward comparison would be a businessperson looking up to someone who is a
highly successful entrepreneur billionaire
Social comparison can lead to individuals and groups feeling either superior or inferior to outgroups,
depending on which group is being considered at the time

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e.g. sta at a school which gets the best exam results in one town will feel superior to all of the
other schools in the town but inferior to the highest-achieving schools in the country
Homogeneity of the outgroup and positive distinctiveness of the ingroup (also known as ingroup Your notes
favouritism) are processes by which the ingroup appears as a collection of distinct, varied individuals
whereas the outgroup is viewed as a 8mass9 of identical, indistinct members with no individuality
Favouring the ingroup can mean that the outgroup is easier to dismiss and, more worryingly, to
demonise e.g. Jewish people in pre-war Germany were reduced to a set of unpleasant, negative
characteristics by anti-semitic propaganda to the extent that they simply became 8them9 as opposed
to 8us9 (i.e. the German people)

Rooting for your team is an example of ingroup favouritism.

Which research studies investigate social identity theory?
Tajfel et al. (1971) 3 being randomly assigned to a group is enough to produce ingroup favouritism
Howarth (2002) 3 social identity can be negatively a ected by the prejudicial attitudes
Tajfel et al. (1971) and Howarth (2002) are available as separate Key Studies – just navigate the Individual &
the Group section of this topic to nd them (Two Key Studies of Social Identity Theory)

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

Although SIT may be a basis whereby stereotypes are formed it is advisable NOT to use it to answer Your notes
questions on the formation or e ect of stereotypes
Questions on stereotypes are looking for you to use theories of stereotyping rather than SIT,
although you could cite SIT as a factor in stereotype formation/e ect in a longer ERQ. Just don9t be
tempted to use it as the focus of your whole response on stereotypes

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Two Key Studies of Social Identity Theory: Tajfel (1972) & Howarth
(2002) Your notes

Key Study: Tajfel (1972)

Aim: To investigate the minimal groups paradigm and how it is relevant to social identity theory (SIT)
Participants: 48 males aged 14−15 from the same state school in Bristol, UK. The boys were randomly
allocated to 3 groups consisting of 16 boys per group
Procedure:
The boys were randomly assigned to a group by the researchers
The boys had been shown slides of paintings by the artists Klee and Kandinsky and were asked to state
which artist they preferred
They were then told that their preference for one of these two artists would form the basis of the group
they would be assigned to (in actual fact this did not happen 3 the boys simply thought that this had
happened, thereby creating minimal groups)
The boys were not told which of the other boys were members of their group and there was no face-
to-face contact with other group members once they had made their choice
The boys were then shown, individually, to a cubicle and asked to conduct the following task:
assign money (virtual, not real) to members of either the boy9s ingroup (based on the preference for the
artist previously stated) or outgroup (preference for the other artist)
The boys did not know the identity of each boy, only a code number which identi ed whether they
were ingroup or outgroup
The trials were set up in a randomised design by the researchers and tested the boys on a range of
measures including whether they would opt for maximum joint pro t, maximum ingroup pro t,
maximum di erence between ingroup and outgroup
Results: The boys tended to favour the ingroup members, choosing to go for a higher reward and to
penalise the outgroup i.e. they went for the choice which maximised the biggest pro t/loss di erence
between the ingroup and the outgroup, often at the expense of possible maximum joint pro t
This was based solely on the mere idea of the other group rather than on any actual interaction between
ingroup and outgroup members, even when the di erence between the groups was minimal i.e. not based
on any shared group characteristics but on the (illusion) that the other boys in the group also preferred the
same artist
Conclusion: Ingroup favouritism can be manipulated via the minimal groups paradigm in which
participants use social categorisation to make decisions i.e. simply knowing that another (rival) group
exists is enough to suggest the idea of 8us9 and 8them9

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Evaluation of Tajfel et al. (1971)

Strengths Your notes
This was a lab experiment which uses a standardised procedure and quantitative data which should
ensure reliability
The fact that the boys did not meet or even see the ingroup and outgroup members adds validity to
the procedure as it eliminates possible sources of bias from the decision as to how to award money i.e.
physical appearance and personality factors cannot have in uenced the decisions made in the task
Weaknesses
There was no jeopardy involved in the task: assigning virtual money to faceless strangers does not
re ect real-life situations therefore the study lacks ecological validity
The boys may have succumbed to response bias i.e. rewarding their ingroup because they felt that this
is what the researchers wanted them to do
Key terms:
Minimal groups paradigm
Ingroup
Outgroup

Key Study: Howarth (2002)

Aim: To investigate the ways in which prejudice and discrimination a ect social identity
Participants: 44 teenagers aged 12−16 years old from Brixton from an ethnically diverse demographic. 5
head teachers of Brixton secondary schools. Brixton is an area in South London which has been associated
with crime, violence and social disadvantage
Procedure: 8 focus group interviews were run by the researcher with an average of 5 participants per
session. The researcher began by introducing a topic e.g. 8Tell me about your life in Brixton and how you
think other people might feel about Brixton9 and then the participants discussed the topic together with
the researcher recording the session.
Interviews with the head teachers were conducted so that the researcher could gain some insight into
school students from Brixton and their cultural backgrounds
Results: The researcher collected qualitative data under three main headings as follows:
Constructing Social Identities through Representations: the teenagers reported that other people
are often shocked, negative or fearful when they nd out where the participants are from e.g.
references to weapons, drug use etc. The participants felt that the media played a signi cant role in
stereotyping and stigmatising them and that this could be seen in the body language of non-Brixton

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residents e.g. a white woman holding on tight to her handbag when two black Brixton teenagers were
walking towards her
The Psychological Violence of Stigmatising Representations: the participants reported that they see Your notes
themselves through the eyes of strangers i.e. as violent, deviant, aggressive and that this has a massive
impact on their self-identity and self-esteem with some participants reporting feelings of great
shame and con ict about coming from Brixton. Some of the participants have attempted to eradicate
any traces of their Brixton identity, psychologically and metaphorically removing themselves from the
area. Some participants experienced anger and depression and some succumbed to a self-ful lling
prophecy - i.e. 8they expect me to be hostile, so I9ll be hostile9
Social Relationships and Institutional Cultures in Empowerment: family and school played a key role
in the lives of the Brixton teenagers, both to help the young people to build self-esteem and a positive
identity. The head teachers reported however, that not all parents are positive role models in this
context. Some parents actively block a school9s e orts to integrate the students and to enable their
children to become con dent and well-rounded individuals, mainly due to some misguided attitudes
towards child-rearing. The participants all felt that children can help their parents to shed prejudiced
attitudes and to gain a better insight into and understanding of the community in which they live
Conclusion: Social identity can be hugely a ected by the prejudiced attitudes of individuals and of society
as a whole

Evaluation of Howarth (2002)

Strengths
Qualitative data is rich and insightful which gives it great explanatory power
Using focus groups allows for a relaxed atmosphere in which the participants are less likely to be
guarded or arti cial about what they say
Weaknesses
The analysis of qualitative data is time-consuming and may be prone to researcher bias as the
researcher has collected the data themselves so they may only look for themes within the data which
con rm their initial beliefs and ideas
Focus group interviews may not be representative of the full range of views within the group as they
can tend to be dominated by the more con dent members of the group, leaving the more reserved,
shy members feeling that they are not able to express their feelings and attitudes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Do not be tempted to use SIT studies to answer a question on STEREOTYPES. There are speci c
theories of the formation/e ect of stereotypes and while SIT can be seen as part of stereotype
formation/e ect it is a separate topic. You could bring SIT into an essay (22−mark) question on

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stereotypes by citing how it works to categorise people into broad social groups but you should not
make SIT the focus of any answer on the formation/e ects of stereotypes
Your notes

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Social Cognitive Theory

Your notes
Social Cognitive Theory
What is social cognitive theory?
Social cognitive theory (SCT) was developed by Bandura (1986) as a broader explanation of social
learning theory (SLT: learning which takes place in a social context)
SLT is based on observational learning which can be broken down into its constituent parts of:
Attention-Retention
Reproduction-Motivation i.e. ARRM
Attention = noticing the behaviour;
Retention = remembering the behaviour;
Reproduction = imitating the behaviour;
Motivation = the desire to repeat the behaviour
SLT states that observational learning is dependent on the behaviour of key role models in a child9s life,
particularly parents but also other signi cant people such as teachers, older siblings, celebrities
SCT builds on SLT by including cognition as a key component of behaviour which makes it more
sophisticated than SLT as it acknowledges that individuals can exert some control over their actions
A key component of SCT is self-e cacy which is based on the idea that an individual has autonomy
over their actions and that a person9s destiny is not wholly dependent on their environment i.e. I have
the power to control what happens to me and how I feel about the world
A key concept of SCT is reciprocal determinism, which states that interactions between the individual
(their natural talents, skills and personality), their social environment and the behaviour itself work
together holistically to determine behavioural outcomes
An example of reciprocal determinism would be that of a keen violinist: the social environment
must be in place (access to violin lessons and a skilled teacher) for the desired behavioural
outcome (to be a world-renowned violinist) to be realised but this is also only possible with self-
e cacy (the belief that, with practice, the outcome can be achieved)
SCT also involves the role of vicarious reinforcement - i.e. as with the above example, a child watches a
talented violinist playing on TV and hears the audience applaud and is motivated to achieve this
outcome for themselves

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Your notes

A model of reciprocal determinism.

Which research studies investigate social cognitive theory?
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) 3 observational learning in children is demonstrated via the imitation of
adult role models
Dijkstra & DeVries (2001) 3 self-e cacy is a key factor in quitting smoking
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) and Dijkstra & DeVries are available as separate Key Studies – just navigate the
Individual & the Group section of this topic to nd them (Two Key Studies of Social Cognitive Theory)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you don9t get confused between SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY and SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY. Students often get 0 marks in an exam by confusing one theory for another 3 the two
theories are completely separate and are NOT interchangeable!

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Worked Example
EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTION (ERQ) - 22 marks Your notes
To what extent can social cognitive theory explain behaviour? [22]
This question requires you to present arguments that demonstrate the extent to which SCT is a
viable and valid explanation for behaviour. Here is an exemplar paragraph:
SCT can only explain individual behaviour to a certain extent, and it may be limited to explaining
behaviour in individualistic cultures more than in collectivist cultures. Concepts such as self-
e cacy are more important in individualistic societies as personal self-e cacy is essential for
success regardless of whether it is achieved individually, or as a member of a group working towards
group success. It could be argued that for a group to be successful (in collectivist cultures) then at
least some of the group must show self-e cacy simply in order to ensure that tasks are completed,
and group goals achieved. This variable is very di cult to measure though so the extent to which
SCT operates on a global scale is unclear.

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Two Key Studies of Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura (1961) &

Dijkstra & DeVries (2001) Your notes

Key Study: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)

Aim: To investigate observational learning in children when confronted with an aggressive adult role
model
Participants: 72 children (mean age = 4 years, 36 males and 36 females) who attended Stanford University
day nursery in California, USA. The children had been rated as to their level of aggression by nursery sta to
produce a matched pairs design to ensure that there were equal numbers of same-level aggressive
children across in each condition
Procedure: The procedure consisted of three distinct phases:
Phase 1: each child was taken to an experimental room where they observed either an aggressive or a
non-aggressive adult or no adult at all (see conditions below). Each session lasted around 10 minutes.
The aggressive condition involved the model performing distinctive aggressive behaviours towards a
Bobo doll (a large doll that swings on a weighted base) repeated 3 times (this was done to measure
direct imitation) e.g. punching, kicking etc.
Phase 2: the child was then taken to a room full of attractive toys. They were then told that the toys
were meant for another child and that they had to leave the room
Phase 3: The child was then taken to a third room lled with aggressive and non‐aggressive toys,
including a Bobo doll where they were left to play for 20 minutes while the researchers observed them
from behind a one-way mirror. Speci c examples of physical and verbal aggression were measured
by the observers (direct imitation plus generalised non-imitative aggressive behaviour)
There were 3 conditions to the experiment:
. Aggressive model 3 the model behaved aggressively towards the Bobo doll
. Non‐aggressive model 3 the model behaved in a non-aggressive way
. Control group - no model was present
There was an equal number of times in which a same sex model or opposite sex model was observed per
condition
Results: Children in the aggressive condition produced more directly imitative acts of aggression towards
the Bobo doll e.g. punching, kicking, hitting it with a toy hammer.
This imitation was not seen in the non-aggressive or control conditions.
There was more same-sex imitation of aggressive behaviour and boys overall showed more physical
aggression than girls

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Conclusion: Aggression can be the result of observational learning experienced in one setting and carried
over to a di erent setting
Your notes
Evaluation of Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)
Strengths
The use of a matched pairs design controlled for the potential confounding variable of individual
di erences in aggression
The ndings of this study highlighted the importance of children9s TV viewing being restricted to
content suitable for their age as it was thought that watching violence on TV might encourage further
imitative violence in real-life situations
Weaknesses
Children observe violent, aggressive behaviour in natural settings, often involving adults they know well
which makes this procedure lack ecological validity
There are ethical considerations which were not adhered to when this study was conducted 3
particularly protection of participants from harm 3 which means that the procedure could not be
replicated today
Key terms:
Observational learning
Role models
Matched pairs design

Key Study: Dijkstra & DeVries (2001)

Aim: To investigate self-e cacy (a key component of SCT) as a factor in quitting smoking
Participants: 1546 smokers from the Netherlands
Procedure: The researchers conducted a eld experiment using participants who wanted to quit smoking.
The participants were randomly allocated to one of the following conditions:
Condition 1: Outcome information 3 the participants were given information as to the negative and
harmful outcomes of smoking e.g. shorter life expectancy; unpleasant diseases; tooth decay etc.
Condition 2: Self-e cacy enhancing information 3 the participants were given information pertaining
to self-e cacy alone and how to incorporate it into their lives e.g. believing that they could give up,
strategies for successfully quitting smoking
Condition 3: Both outcome information and self-e cacy information 3 the participants were given
the information from condition 1 and from condition 2

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Condition 4: Control condition 3 the participants were given no information at all

Results:
Your notes
The participants reported back to the researchers after 12 weeks, telling them how many days 8clean9
they had had in the past 7 days (i.e. how many days in the past week that they had not smoked) and also
if they had attempted to quit smoking over the past 12 weeks
The highest number of participants who had been 8clean9 for 7 days came from Condition 2, the self-
e cacy-enhancing information (8.5)
Condition 2 also had the highest number of smokers who had attempted to quit in the last 12 weeks
(27.3). Of the two other groups (not including the control condition) the lowest number of 7 days 8clean9
came from the outcome information condition (4.8) and the lowest number of attempts to quit came
from the outcome information and self-e cacy condition combined group (24.6)
Conclusion: Self-e cacy may be a key factor in helping people to quit smoking: simply warning people of
the dangers of smoking does not appear to be as e ective

Evaluation of Dijkstra & DeVries (2001)

Strengths
Using a large sample within a eld experiment means that this study has good ecological validity
The ndings of this study could be used to inform health campaigns which aim to help people quit
smoking
Weaknesses
Using self-reported data means that the results may not be valid as participants could have lied about
their smoking which is a type of social desirability bias
As there was no follow-up study it is unclear whether the participants in Condition 2 went on to be
more successful at quitting smoking than in the other groups
Key terms:
Self-e cacy
Field experiment
Social desirability bias

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When you are answering a question on Social Cognitive Theory in the exam it is important to use key
terminology in your response e.g. reciprocal determinism, self-e cacy, vicarious reinforcement, as
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this gives authority to your written responses

Your notes

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Stereotypes: Formation of Stereotypes

Your notes
Stereotypes: Formation of Stereotypes
What is a stereotype?
A stereotype comprises a set of characteristics, traits, behaviours and attitudes attributed to social
and cultural groups based on broad, often biased information about that group
Our social world is very complex and contains a huge amount of information; one way of avoiding
information overload is to use stereotypes to understand the world and those living in it because they
save energy and can easily be applied to people (an example of people as cognitive misers)
The main drawback of categorising people into broad groups is that stereotyping can lead to
associations between groups and characteristics that are often negative and may give rise to
prejudice and discrimination
One theory of how stereotypes form is Illusory Correlation (which can also be studied as part of the
Cognitive Approach – Reliability of Cognitive Processes)
What is Illusory Correlation?
Illusory Correlation (IC) is a cognitive bias which occurs when people assume that there is a
relationship between two variables when in fact this relationship does not exist or is based on
stereotypical assumptions which lack tangible evidence
Some examples of everyday ICs are:
Blondes have more fun (the IC is the linking of hair colour and enjoyment of life);
Italians are highly excitable (the IC involves generalising a speci c behaviour to a whole nation);
A gambler who believes that wearing their 8lucky shirt9 will help them to win at the roulette table (the
IC is the belief that arbitrary factors such as clothing choice can have any in uence over the
outcome at a gambling game)
All ICs are not necessarily negative or harmful e.g. My right knee is aching which means that rain is on
the way, but some ICs can be at the root of bigoted behaviour such as racism, sexism, homophobia
etc.
One explanation for the development of ICs is the cognitive miser explanation: the world is a complex,
busy place and we are bombarded on a daily basis with a multitude of messages and information so
using ICs to understand the world means that less cognitive energy needs to be expended than if one
were to fully focus on the subtle and varied explanations for speci c behaviours/types of people
ICs are directly relevant to stereotype formation as they highlight the ways in which social
categorisation can lead to individuals being labelled with set and predetermined behaviours

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according to xed (and untested) ideas about one of the groups to which they belong

Your notes

Would Italian people be happy with this stereotype?

Which research studies investigate formation of stereotypes?
Hamilton & Gi ord (1976) 3 illusory correlation favours the majority rather than the minority in terms of
group size
Hamilton & Gi ord (1976) is available as a separate Key Study – just navigate the Individual & the Group
section of this topic to nd it (Two Key Studies of Stereotypes). This study can also be found as part of the
Cognitive Approach topic Cognitive Biases which you can nd as a separate Revision Note on this site

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you choose the CORRECT theory of stereotypes in the exam: there are two topics in
Stereotypes: Formation of Stereotypes and E ect of Stereotyping. If you use the wrong theory and
study to answer the question then you will get 0 marks

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Your notes
Worked Example
SHORT ANSWER QUESTION (SAQ) - 9 marks
Explain one theory of the formation of stereotypes. [9]
This question requires you to go into some detail, providing explanation of the theory. Here is an
exemplar paragraph:
Illusory correlations may contribute to ethnic stereotypes. Members of the majority group can 8hide9
their negative behaviours but members of minority group are already noticeable due to their
8di erence9 so any negative behaviour on their part will be noticed 3 and commented on. A good
example of this is the media: if a minority individual commits a shooting, the ethnicity of the criminal
is mentioned; if it is a person from the ethnic majority group, then their ethnicity isn9t commented
upon. In this way, the theory of illusory correlation provides a valid explanation for the formation of
stereotypes.

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Stereotypes: E ects of Stereotyping

Your notes
Stereotypes: E ects of Stereotyping
What is a stereotype?
A stereotype comprises a set of characteristics, traits, behaviours and attitudes attributed to social
and cultural groups based on broad, often biased information about that group
Our social world is very complex and contains a huge amount of information; one way of avoiding
information overload is to use stereotypes to understand the world and those living in it because they
save energy and can easily be applied to people (an example of people as cognitive misers)
The main drawback of categorising people into broad groups is that stereotyping can lead to
associations between groups and characteristics that are often negative and may give rise to
prejudice and discrimination
One theory of how stereotypes form is Illusory Correlation (which can also be studied as part of the
Cognitive Approach – Reliability of Cognitive Processes)
What is Stereotype Threat?
Stereotype Threat (ST) occurs when an individual9s performance on a task is impaired when they feel
that pre-existing stereotypes will be used to judge them on their performance
ST may arise in an example such as the following: a woman is parallel-parking her car and is aware that a
group of men are nearby 3 she is aware that women are stereotyped for bad parking so even if she is
good at parking this may trigger ST and she then parks her car badly
ST is not the same as actively being stereotyped by others it is when the individual knows that the
stereotype already exists and feels that others are already judging them on this basis 3 even if this is not
true (i.e. in the above example the group of men may have been completely unaware of the woman
parking her car)
ST is a kind of self-ful lling prophecy i.e. People look down on me because of my accent, they think
I9m stupid so I9m not even going to bother applying for that job, I won9t get it
ST can be negative even when it appears to be positive e.g. overweight people are so jolly;
Asian students do so well at school;
Women are so caring because these stereotypes still limit variety and individual di erences
within a social group i.e. what if I9m a woman who is uncaring?
What if I9m an Asian student who hates school and fails their classes?

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Your notes

Seemingly positive stereotypes are still part of stereotype threat.

Which research studies investigate the e ects of stereotyping?
Spencer et al. (1999) 3 stereotype threat may trigger gender di erences in Maths
Spencer et al. (1999) is available as a separate Key Study – just navigate the Individual & the Group section
of this topic to nd it (Two Key Studies of Stereotypes)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you choose the CORRECT theory of stereotypes in the exam: there are two topics in
Stereotypes: Formation of Stereotypes and E ect of Stereotyping. If you use the wrong theory and
study to answer the question then you will get 0 marks

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Worked Example
EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTION (ERQ) - 22 marks Your notes
Discuss the e ects of stereotyping. [22]
This question requires you to o er a balanced argument, using examples to support and also
challenge theories and studies. Here is an exemplar paragraph:
The theory of stereotype threat can be vague; it is based on the idea that people usually use
super cial criteria to form stereotypes and then once an individual knows that a stereotype exists
this can a ect their performance on a task. While this theory is at least anecdotally apparent i.e. we
can see evidence of it in real life, it is rather unformed and vague in itself. This makes stereotype
threat di cult to test, measure and quantifyThe theory seems to some extent to be based on
common sense: we a ect and are a ected by other people9s attitudes towards us and there are
numerous examples of stereotyping out there, particularly in some media outlets e.g. tabloid
newspaper and social media. Stereotype threat, however, remains unscienti c as measuring it
involves an array of variables which are highly subjective and open to interpretation.

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Two Key Studies of Stereotypes : Hamilton & Gi ord (1976) &

Spencer et al. (1999) Your notes

Key Study: Formation of Stereotypes: Illusory

Correlation: Hamilton & Gi ord (1976)
Aim: To investigate illusory correlation based on group size as a key factor in the formation of stereotypes
Participants: 40 undergraduate students from a university in New York state, USA (20 males; 20 females)
Procedure:
The participants were presented with two hypothetical groups i.e. these were not real groups
consisting of real people with given characteristics
The participants were told that Group A consisted of 26 members and that Group B consisted of 13
members
The participants then read a series of statements which each described a particular behaviour
performed by either a member of A or B e.g. John, a member of A, visited a friend in hospital
The behaviours described in the statements were classi ed as either desirable or undesirable
Both A and B were assigned more positive than negative behaviours at a ratio of 9:4 (positive to
negative) and two thirds of the statements overall were attributed to members of A
Thus, members of A were presented as performing more behaviours overall than B and positive
behaviours were more frequent from both groups than negative behaviours
The participants were then asked to provide ratings for the following measures:
. Given a list of 20 attributes, assign each to either group A or B
. Given a particular example of a behaviour, say whether this behaviour was performed by a member of A
or B
. Estimate how many negative behaviours can be attributed to either A or B
Results: The mean scores showed that participants attributed more desirable social behaviours (6.7) to
members of Group A than to members of Group B (6.0); undesirable social behaviours were attributed
more to Group B (5.6) than to Group A (4.4).
Conclusion: The results suggest that illusory correlation may be based on group size: the smaller group, B,
appears more distinctive than the larger group A so that any undesirable behaviours are linked more often
to the minority group, B, than to the majority group A. This has implications in terms of how minority groups
are viewed by society.

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Evaluation of Hamilton & Gi ord (1976)

Strengths Your notes
The study generated quantitative data, which is easy to compare and analyse, making the results
reliable
The ndings could be used to inform awareness-raising as a means to reduce prejudice and increase
tolerance of minority groups
Weaknesses
The procedure does not fully re ect how people respond in real-life situations where they are exposed
to minority groups which reduces ecological validity
The small sample size reduces the statistical power of the data which means that the results lack
robustness
Key terms:
Illusory correlation
Minority
Majority

Key Study: E ects of Stereotyping: Stereotype

Threat: Spencer et al. (1999)
Aim: To investigate the idea that stereotype threat will impair Maths performance in women.
Participants:
56 undergraduate students from the University of Michigan (28 female; 28 male)
All the participants were required to have completed at least one semester of calculus (a very di cult,
challenging form of Maths) and to have received a grade of 88B99 or better
They also were required to have scored above the 85th percentile in Maths for their year group (i.e.
they were all of equal ability in Maths)
Procedure: Participants were tested in male and female groups of three to six. They were told, 88We are
developing some new tests that we are evaluating across a large group of University of Michigan students.
Today you will be taking a math test.99
There were 2 conditions of the Independent Variable:
. In the relevance condition participants were told that the test had shown gender di erences in the
past4this was done deliberately to trigger stereotype threat in the female participants as Maths is

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thought to be something that women underperform in compared to men

. In the irrelevance condition (no stereotype threat triggered), participants were told that the test had
never shown gender di erences in the past Your notes
Results:
In the rst condition (relevance i.e. sensitive to gender di erences), women signi cantly
underperformed in relation to equally quali ed men
In the irrelevance condition (i.e. no mention of gender di erences a ecting performance) the
performance in the Maths test was about equal
Conclusion: These ndings provide strong evidence that women9s underperformance on the Maths test
results from stereotype threat, rather than from sex-linked ability di erences that are detectable only on
advanced mathematical material. In other words, women are just as good at Maths as men 3 but only when
a supposed stereotype is not presented to them i.e. when a stereotype is not triggered

Evaluation of Spencer et al. (1999)

Strengths
Using participants who were matched in terms of their Maths ability helps to eliminate individual
di erences between genders and thus increases the validity of the ndings
The female participants in the relevance condition were not speci cally told that women tended to
under-perform in the test, only that gender di erences had been been found in the past which further
increases the study9s validity
Weaknesses
Performance on the Maths test could have been due to the participants succumbing to demand
characteristics e.g. by trying too hard, not hard enough, feeling nervous so the results may not be due
to stereotype threat alone
The results of the study could be used maliciously by those who wish to further promote stereotypes
e.g. politically-motivated or sexist individuals/institutions who could point to the study9s ndings and
claim that they 8prove9 that women are not as able as men academically
Key terms:
Stereotype threat
Relevance
Irrelevance

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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When you are writing about stereotypes, resist any urge to become overly personal/emotional by
getting bogged down in an argument as to the 8wrongness9 of stereotyping others. Yes,
stereotyping can lead to prejudice, unfairness and discrimination but the exam paper is not the time Your notes
or place to vent your feelings 3 save that for the debating room or around the dinner table!

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