Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics

UNIT 1
Silicon crystals are the most common

ESSENTIALS
semiconducting materials used in
modern electronics. The block of

OF SEMICONDUCTOR
silicon shown above hides within it so
much of good semiconductor physics
about which you will learn in this unit.

PHYSICS
Source of picture:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor

Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Charge Carrier Transport: Diffusion
Expected Learning Outcomes Concentration Gradient Driven Current Flow
1.2 Understanding Semiconductors Diffusion Current Densities and Total Current
Bonding in Semiconductors Density
Concept of Hole 1.6 Summary
1.3 Energy Band Model 1.7 Terminal Questions
1.4 Transport of Charge Carriers: Drift 1.8 Solutions and Answers
Drift Currents and Drift Velocities
High Field Conduction in Semiconductors

STUDY GUIDE
You have learnt about semiconductors in your school physics courses. You know about p-type and
n-type semiconductors. In Experiment 9 of the core laboratory course BPHCL-134, you have learnt the
basic concepts about semiconductors, in brief. You have also obtained the I-V characteristics of a p-n
junction diode experimentally, and interpreted them. So, you know the concepts of Secs. 1.2.1 and 1.2.2.
We will be dealing with many basic concepts related to semiconductors, which may be new for you. We
will refer to Blocks 1 and 3 of the course BPHCT-133 entitled Electricity and Magnetism, especially,
Units 12 and 8, while discussing the concepts of drift velocity, drift current, electric field and electric
potential in a semiconductor. You may like to revise these concepts before studying Sec. 1.4. We expect
you to study all sections thoroughly and note your difficulties to ask your Counsellor. Solve all SAQs and
Terminal Questions given in the unit. It will help you learn these concepts better.

“In science one tries to tell people, in such a way as to be

understood by everyone, something that no one ever knew P A M Dirac
before.”

7
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
1.1 INTRODUCTION
We begin the study of the physics of semiconductor devices by revising the
basic concepts related to semiconductor physics. You know what
semiconductors are from your school physics courses: These are materials
having resistivity lower than insulators but higher than conductors. You may
recall that conductors, for example, metals like aluminium, iron, silver and
gold, conduct electric current readily and have low resistivity. And insulators,
for example, materials like wood, paper and plastic, are poor conductors of
electric current as these have high resistivity.

You may ask: Why is it important to learn about the physics of

semiconductors? It is because these materials are used in all of electronics
that forms the backbone of modern life: Electronic communication systems,
computer and internet hardware, solar cells, laser diodes, counters, detectors,
and so on. You will learn about a few of these devices in this block and the
course. So, it is essential that you learn the concepts explained in this unit.

In Sec. 1.2, we quickly revise the basic concepts related to semiconductors

that you know from school physics. We begin the unit by recalling the
concepts of bonding in semiconductors, and explain what intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors are (Sec. 1.2.1). You will also revisit the concept of
hole in Sec. 1.2.2. In Sec.1.3, we discuss the energy band model of
semiconductors, in brief.

In Sec. 1.4, we discuss transport of charge carriers in semiconductors due to

drift. You are familiar with the concept of drift velocity of electrons in metals
from Unit 12 of the course BPHCT-133. You will learn about the drift velocities
and drift currents of electrons and holes in semiconductors in low and high
electric fields, which help us explain the I-V characteristics of semiconductors.
The operation of semiconductor devices in both these regions gives rise to
interesting applications, which you will learn in Unit 2. There is another
interesting way in which charge carriers move in semiconductors: through
diffusion of electrons and ‘holes’ leading to diffusion currents, which also
impact the operation of semiconductor devices. You will learn about this kind
of charge carrier transport in Sec. 1.5.

In the next unit, you will learn about the first of these devices, namely, the p-n
junction diode as also many other useful junction diodes such as the Zener
diode, LED, solar cell and photodiode.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ describe bonding in semiconductors and explain the concepts of intrinsic

and extrinsic semiconductors on its basis;

❖ explain the concept of holes as charge carriers in semiconductors;

❖ discuss the concepts of energy bands and band gap in semiconductors;

8
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
❖ explain the transport of charge carriers due to drift for low and high
electric fields applied to semiconducting materials;

❖ deduce the expressions for conductivity, resistivity and drift currents in

semiconductors for low electric fields;

❖ draw the I-V characteristics of semiconductors and explain their main

features like saturation and breakdown;

❖ explain the transport of charge carriers due to diffusion, and write the
expressions for diffusion current densities in semiconductors; and

❖ solve simple numerical problems on calculating conductivity, resistivity,

drift and diffusion current densities/currents in semiconductors.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING SEMICONDUCTORS

You have studied the basic physics of semiconductors in your school physics
courses. You may like to recall what a semiconductor is. You know that
semiconductors are materials that have resistivity values between the
resistivity of conductors ( 10−7  m) and insulators ( 1012 − 1024  m).

You have learnt some basic physics of semiconductors in Experiment 9 of the

core Laboratory course entitled Electricity and Magnetism: Laboratory
(BPHCL-134). You know that there are two types of semiconductors: Intrinsic
and extrinsic, and extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: p-type and
n-type. You have also learnt about covalent bond model to explain why some
materials behave as semiconductors. In this section, we will revise these basic
concepts about semiconductors and the concept of hole.

Let us first learn: What kind of structure do these materials have that gives
rise to this range of resistivity/conductivity and other features? An
understanding of bonding in semiconductors answers such questions in a
simple way.

1.2.1 Bonding in Semiconductors

You know that a pure semiconductor is said to be an intrinsic
semiconductor. Examples of the most commonly used intrinsic
semiconductors are crystalline silicon and germanium. In recent years, many
more intrinsic semiconductors such as compound semiconductors,
amorphous semiconductors and semiconducting polymers have been
developed. Doping is a process
of adding small
However, the most commonly used semiconducting materials are the quantities of another
elements silicon, germanium and the compound gallium arsenide. You also element, called
impurity, in a
know that the resistivity of intrinsic semiconductors is high. Therefore, they are
pure/intrinsic
of little use in electronics. semiconductor in
order to increase its
However, as you know, the resistivity of semiconductors can be decreased (or
conductivity.
their conductivity increased) if impurities of appropriate elements are added to
them in small quantities. This process is called doping. Such doped
semiconductors are termed extrinsic semiconductors. 9
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
For example, if silicon and germanium are doped with a suitable pentavalent
atom like phosphorus, antimony or arsenic, their resistivity decreases and
conductivity increases by many orders. Thus, these become suitable for many
uses in electronic circuits. Using the concept of covalent bonds, let us briefly
explain how this is made possible.

Silicon (Si) (atomic number 14) has four valence electrons. The bonding
structure of intrinsic silicon is shown in Fig. 1.1. Note from the figure that each
silicon atom is sharing one valence electron each with four neighbouring
atoms. This kind of sharing of electrons is called covalent bonding. This is
what provides stability to silicon atoms in a crystal. This is true for germanium
Germanium (Ge) as well.
(atomic number 32)
too has four valence
electrons. So, its
structure is the same
as that of silicon. Four
valence electrons in
each atom of Ge are
shared by four
neighbouring atoms
as shown for silicon in
Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon semiconductor.

When silicon (or germanium) is doped with a pentavalent impurity (that has
five valence electrons), four valence electrons of the impurity form a covalent
bond with four neighbouring silicon or germanium atoms. The fifth valence
electron is not a part of the bond and is free to move in the crystal (see
Fig. 1.2).

Thus, when a pentavalent impurity is added to a silicon or germanium crystal,

it develops excess free electrons and is said to be an n-type semiconductor.
Such an impurity which results in excess free electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor is known as a donor impurity. Some examples of donor
impurities are: Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and antimony (Sb).

Excess free
electron

Donor
impurity

Fig. 1.2: Structure of an n-type semiconductor doped with phosphorus.

10
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
When silicon (or germanium) is doped with a trivalent impurity (that has three
valence electrons), the three valence electrons of the impurity atoms form
covalent bonds with three neighbouring silicon (or germanium) atoms. Thus,
one deficiency (of an electron) is created per impurity atom doped in the
silicon (or germanium) crystal (see Fig. 1.3). This deficiency (of an electron) is
termed a hole (shown by a small unshaded, unfilled circle in Fig. 1.3).

Absence of
electron, i.e.,
hole

Acceptor
impurity

Fig. 1.3: Structure of a p-type semiconductor doped with boron.

Effectively, holes too act as charge carriers in semiconductors as you will learn
in the next section. So, when a trivalent impurity is added to a silicon or
germanium crystal, it develops deficiencies of electrons (called holes) and is
said to be a p-type semiconductor. Such an impurity is known as an
acceptor impurity. Boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga) and indium (In)
are some examples of acceptor impurities.

Let us now revise the concept of hole.

1.2.2 Concept of Hole

In Sec. 1.2.1, you have learnt about the hole, which is a deficiency or the
absence (of an electron) in the covalent bond when the semiconductor is
doped with a trivalent impurity.

Even in an intrinsic semiconductor, at room temperature, some of the covalent

bonds in its atoms are broken because of the thermal energy supplied to
them. Thus, electrons are free to move in the semiconductor crystal lattice.
The absence of electrons in the covalent bonds creates holes (see
Fig. 1.3). We say that electron-hole pairs are created. The holes also serve
as charge carriers in the semiconductor. Let us explain how.

You have just learnt that there can be an absence of an electron in a covalent
You can watch a video at
bond (due to breaking of the bond at thermal energies in an intrinsic the following link for
semiconductor or due to doping in a p-type semiconductor). When a covalent visualising the concepts
bond is incomplete, that is, a hole exists, it is easy for an electron in a of Secs. 1.2.1 and 1.2.2:
neighbouring atom to leave its covalent bond and fill the hole. This leaves a
https://www.youtube.com/
hole in the bond that the electron leaves. So, effectively, the hole moves in a watch?v=hE5erfDMXKc
direction opposite to that of the electron to a new position.
11
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
This new position of the hole may be filled by an electron from another
covalent bond. So, the hole will move again in a direction opposite to the
motion of the electron.

Thus, the motion of an electron from one covalent bond to another in a

semiconductor implies the motion of a hole in the opposite direction. In effect,
we have a situation in which there is movement of holes in a direction
opposite to electron motion. This results in a mechanism for the conduction of
electric current in a semiconductor, which does not involve free electrons.

So, we say that, in a semiconductor, the hole acts effectively as a positive

charge with magnitude equal to the magnitude of the charge of the
electron. The holes are not actual physical particles but they do behave as
physical entities which possess an effective mass and positive charge; their
movement constitutes a flow of current. In sum, current flow in
semiconductors results from the movement of two types of charge carriers:
electrons and holes. This is a major difference between semiconductors and
metals, which have only free electrons as charge carriers.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the numbers of holes and electrons are equal.

Every time an electron leaves a covalent bond, an electron-hole pair is
created. Every time an electron moves into a hole and completes a bond, we
say that the electron-hole pair recombines or that the hole disappears due to
electron-hole recombination. This is a continuous process at room
temperature as new electron-hole pairs are created due to thermal energies.
At the same time, other electron-hole pairs disappear due to recombination.
Therefore, the electron concentration n (number of electrons per unit volume)
and the hole concentration p (number of holes per unit volume) are equal in
an intrinsic semiconductor. So, we have:

n = p = ni (1.1)

where ni is called the intrinsic carrier concentration.

This is a brief revision of the very basic concepts of covalent bonding in

intrinsic semiconductors, extrinsic n-type and p-type semiconductors, and
holes in a semiconductor. You may like to solve an SAQ based on them.

SAQ 1 - Bonding in semiconductors

a) What majority charge carriers are created when pentavalent and trivalent
impurities are doped in an intrinsic semiconductor? What is the value of
the charge that each of these charge carriers carries?

b) What is the intrinsic charge concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor, if

the hole concentration in it is 2.5 1019 m−3?

c) Is the hole a physical particle like the electron? Explain.

Now, we explain the energy band model of intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors, in brief. It will help you understand the physics of
semiconductor devices, which you will study later in this block.
12
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
1.3 ENERGY BAND MODEL
Let us first explain the energy band model for intrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors

In your school physics and the fifth semester physics elective BPHET 141
entitled “Elements of Modern Physics”, you have learnt the quantum
mechanical concept of energy level of various systems. You know that
electrons in an atom occupy different discrete energy levels (see Fig. 1.4a).

Now, a semiconductor is made up of hundreds of thousands of atoms. As

atoms in the semiconductor come closer (the inter-atomic spacing decreases),
the energy levels of each atom split up, and tightly packed bands called
energy bands are formed (see Fig. 1.4). For example, the energy levels of
electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor are continuous bands of energy
levels as shown in Fig. 1.4c rather than the single lines of Fig. 1.4a.

(c) (b) (a)

Energy levels

d0 d d Inter-atomic spacing
Fig. 1.4: Schematic diagram showing formation of energy bands in an intrinsic
semiconductor; a) discrete atomic levels of an electron; b) aggregates of
energy bands are formed as the inter-atomic spacing decreases (d  d  );
c) for d 0  d, continuous energy bands are formed.

For the purposes of studying this course, it is enough for you to know that
there are two types of energy bands in semiconductors: Valence Band and
Conduction Band as shown in Figs. 1.5a and b.

Electron
Conduction band

Band gap Hole

(E g )

Valence band

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5: Energy bands for an intrinsic semiconductor. a) At absolute zero (T = 0 K);
b) at (T  0 K).

Notice from Figs. 1.5a and b that there is an energy gap between the valence
band and the conduction band; it is known as the band gap. It represents a 13
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
range of energies and no electrons occupy energy levels in the band gap.
Table 1.1: Band gaps
It is a characteristic of a semiconducting material and is different for different
for a few
semiconducting materials.
semiconducting
materials The values of band gaps (Eg ) for some semiconducting materials are given in
Semiconducting Eg Table 1.1 in the margin (read the margin remark also).
material
(eV)
Electrons can move into the conduction band from the valence band on
Si 1.12
receiving external energy. When compared with insulators, the band gap
Ge 0.67
in semiconductors is smaller. So, electrons in the valence band can move
GaAs 1.42
readily into the conduction band on receiving energy equal to or more than the
CdTe 1.44
band gap.
CdZnTe 1.6
At absolute zero temperature, all valence electrons occupy the energy levels
The valence and in the valence band (Fig. 1.5a). So, the valence band is full and the
conduction bands conduction band is empty at T = 0 K, and the semiconductor behaves like an
overlap in conductors.
insulator. At room temperature, a few electrons acquire enough energy (more
In insulators, the band
gap is far more than than the band gap) to move into the conduction band leaving behind holes
that in semiconductors. in the valence band (Fig. 1.5b). So, the current in a semiconductor at room
It is typically about temperature consists of free electrons moving in the conduction band and
15 eV. holes in the valence band. You should always remember that

Valence band is the energy band involving the energy levels of valence
electrons of atoms in the semiconductor. It is the highest energy band
occupied by charge carriers in a semiconductor.

Conduction band is the lowest unoccupied band. The conduction band

is made up of high energy levels.

The conduction band and valence band are separated by a band gap.

We need to increase the number of electrons in the conduction band and

holes in the valence bands to increase the conductivity of a semiconductor.
This is done by doping the intrinsic semiconductors as you have learnt in
Sec. 1.2.1. Let us understand the energy band model of both n-type and
Conduction band p-type extrinsic semiconductors.

n-type extrinsic semiconductors

Ed
Eg Fig. 1.6 shows the energy band diagram for an n-type semiconductor. Recall
Donor atom
from Sec. 1.2.1 that an n-type extrinsic semiconductor is doped by a
pentavalent impurity. Now, four valence electrons of the donor impurity atom
Valence band form covalent bonds with the atoms in the intrinsic semiconductor. So, they
occupy energy levels in the valence band.
Fig. 1.6: Energy band However, the fifth electron of the donor impurity is loosely bound to the donor
diagram for an n-type atom. So, it needs very small thermal energy to become free and available for
extrinsic
conduction. We depict this situation in the energy band diagram by
semiconductor
introducing, in the band gap, an allowed energy level called the donor
showing the donor
energy level Ed . energy level (Ed ) very near the conduction band.
14
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
At absolute zero temperature, the donor electrons remain bound to the donor
impurity, that is, they remain in the donor level (Ed ). The conduction band is,
therefore, empty at T = 0 K . As temperature increases, even at low
temperatures, donor electrons move to the conduction band since Ed  Eg .
Thus, conduction electrons become available for current flow in an
n-type extrinsic semiconductor at low thermal energies (0.01 eV for Ge and
0.05 eV for Si).

p-type extrinsic semiconductors

Fig. 1.7 shows the energy band diagram for a p-type semiconductor. You
know from Sec. 1.2.1 that a p-type extrinsic semiconductor is obtained by
doping an intrinsic semiconductor with a trivalent impurity. The three valence
electrons of the acceptor impurity atom form covalent bonds with the atoms in
the intrinsic semiconductor; but a vacancy or hole is created in one covalent
Conduction band
bond that remains incomplete.

The holes can now be assumed to be loosely bound to the acceptor atom
and even at very low thermal energies, they become available for Eg Acceptor atom
conduction. We depict this situation in the energy band diagram by Ea
introducing, in the band gap, an allowed energy level called the
acceptor energy level (Ea ) very near the valence band.
Valence band
At absolute zero temperature, the electrons remain bound to the acceptor
impurity, that is, they remain in the valence band resulting in no movement of Fig. 1.7: Energy band
holes. There is, therefore, no current flow at T = 0 K . diagram for a p-type
extrinsic
Note that Ea  Eg . Therefore, even at low temperatures or low thermal
semiconductor
energies (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si), electrons in the valence band showing the acceptor
move to the acceptor energy level leaving behind holes in the valence band energy level Ea .
for conduction.

So far, you have learnt that the doping of intrinsic semiconductor enhances
the number of majority charge carriers: electrons in n-type semiconductors
and holes in p-type semiconductors. The holes are minority charge carriers
in an n-type semiconductor while the electrons are minority charge
carriers in a p-type semiconductor.

For the time being, we will consider current flow due to only majority charge
carriers in doped semiconductors. You should now solve SAQ 2 to find out
whether you have understood the energy band model.

SAQ 2 - Energy band model

a) Will the band gap in insulators be more or less than that in

semiconductors?

b) Draw schematic energy band diagrams of an intrinsic Ge semiconductor,

an n-type Si semiconductor and a p-type GaAs semiconductor at
T = 0 K . Take Ea for GaAs to be 100 meV.

15
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
We can explain an important feature of semiconductors on the basis of these
models: the temperature dependence of resistivity/conductivity. Let us do that
before we move to the next section.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

What happens in a semiconductor when its temperature is increased? You

have learnt in Secs. 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 that when the temperature of a
semiconductor is increased, the covalent bonds in it are broken and a large
number of free electrons become available for conduction. Or in the energy
band model, a large number of electrons acquire sufficient energy to move
from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus, many more electrons are
free to move within the semiconductor material. This increase in the carrier
concentration in the semiconductor leads to a decrease in its resistivity or
Resistivity

an increase in its conductivity as its temperature is increased (Fig. 1.8).

You can say that the collisions of these electrons should increase resistivity as
in metals (read the margin remark). But the carrier concentration in
Temperature
semiconductors grows exponentially with temperature, and the effect of
Fig. 1.8: The resistivity
collisions can be neglected for a wide range of temperatures. Collisions
of a semiconductor
become important at very high temperatures. Thus, we say that
decreases with
temperature for a wide semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient for a wide
range of temperatures. range of temperatures.
The graph here shows
typical variation for Let us briefly list the important differences between metals and
intrinsic semiconductors based on the discussion so far. These are as follows:
semiconductors.
◼ In metals, free electrons are the only charge carriers whereas in
semiconductors, there are two types of charge carriers: electrons and
You know that the holes.
resistivity of a
conductor increases ◼ The resistivity of semiconductors is much higher, and their conductivity
when its temperature is much lower than that of metals.
increased. This is
because free electrons ◼ The temperature dependence of electrical resistivity of metals and
in the conductor acquire semiconductors shows an opposite variation from each other. While the
greater thermal resistivity of metals increases with an increase in their temperature, that of
energies and collide the semiconductors decreases.
continuously with each
other. Also, the positive ◼ Doping a semiconductor with appropriate impurities increases its
ions in the metal start conductivity and decreases its resistivity. However, addition of impurity in
vibrating about their a metal increases its resistivity.
positions due to the
thermal energy. This You should remember that increasing the conductivity by doping makes
causes more collisions semiconductors the best materials to fabricate a variety of devices. The
of electrons with these characteristics and applications of semiconductor devices can be controlled
ions. These factors give by doping them appropriately. You will study about some of these devices in
rise to greater
the remaining units of this block and the course.
resistance to the flow of
current in the
conductor, and a
So far, you have learnt how semiconductors are different from metals and
corresponding increase insulators. You have learnt about intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,
in its resistivity. covalent bonding in semiconductors and the energy band model. These
concepts help us explain many features of semiconductor behaviour.
16
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
The next question we ask is: How do charge carriers move inside a
semiconductor? What are the mechanisms of charge carrier transport in a
semiconductor? What factors affect transport of charges (electrons and holes)
in a semiconductor? It is important to understand the mechanisms for
transport of charges to understand the working of semiconductor devices and
their applications. The transport of charge carriers in a semiconductor
takes place due to the following three processes:

a) Temperature gradient;

b) Drift due to externally applied electric field; and

c) Diffusion due to the concentration gradient.

We will not consider the first process here since most semiconductor
devices operate at constant temperature. Therefore, charge transport due
to temperature gradient is not relevant to our discussion. In the next two
sections, we consider the two mechanisms of charge carrier transport in a
semiconductor: Drift and diffusion.

1.4 TRANSPORT OF CHARGE CARRIERS: DRIFT

Do you recall the concepts of drift current and drift velocity of electrons in
metals that you have learnt in Sec. 12.2 of Unit 12 of the second semester
course entitled Electricity and Magnetism (BPHCT-133)? You can revise that
section to understand this section better. We repeat them here, in brief.

You know that electrons move randomly in conductors resulting in zero

average velocity. But when a voltage or external electric field is applied to a
conductor, free electrons in it acquire a small velocity, in the direction opposite
to the electric field. The net flow of electrons in one direction in the conductor
in the presence of an electric field is called drift. The electrons’ velocity is
called the drift velocity and the resulting current, the drift current. The drift
velocity of electrons is the average velocity attained by them, in a
conducting material due to an external electric field applied to it. And it is
in a direction opposite to the externally applied electric field.

We will use these concepts and basic definitions to study drift currents and
drift velocities in semiconductors keeping in mind that there are two types of
charges in a semiconductor: electrons and holes.

1.4.1 Drift Currents and Drift Velocities

Recall the relation
Let us obtain the expression of the drift current for semiconductors. In between the applied
Sec. 1.2.1, you have learnt that the majority charge carriers in n-type and voltage (potential
p-type extrinsic semiconductors are electrons and holes, respectively. Let us difference) and the
now see how majority charge carriers are transported in a semiconductor electric field from
Unit 4 of BPHCT-133
when an external electric field is applied on it.
whence, in this case:
Suppose that a voltage V is applied across a block of semiconductor of area E = V/L
of cross-section A and length L (see Fig. 1.9 and read the margin remark).

17
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Under the influence of the electric field, electrons drift in one direction and
holes in the opposite direction. Remember that electrons are negatively
charged and holes constitute positive charges. The convention is to indicate
current flow in the direction opposite to that of electron flow. Hence, the
direction of current flow indicates the direction of hole flow. The result is that
the current due to electrons (I e ) and holes (I h ) flows in the same direction.
This current is called the drift current.
Semiconductor block of area A

+ −
Hole Electron
L
Ie
V
Ih

Fig. 1.9: Drift of charge carriers in a semiconductor due to externally applied

electric field.

Recall Eq. (12.21) of Unit 12, BPHCT-133 for current density J in a metal:

J = qnvd and Id = qnvd A, (1.2a)

where q is the charge, n, the charge carrier concentration (charge per unit
volume), v d , the drift velocity of electrons in metal. The drift current Id written
in Eq. (1.2a) is simply the product of the current density and area (A) of
cross-section of the conductor.
We use the same equations keeping in mind that now there are two charge
carriers in semiconductors, electrons and holes. Let the drift velocities of
electrons and holes in the semiconductor be v de and v dh , respectively. Let
their concentrations be n and p, respectively. So, the drift current due to
Recall from Eqs. (8.20 electrons and holes in a semiconductor and the corresponding current density
and 8.21) of Unit 8 of are:
BPHCT-133 that the V
relation between the I (drift) = = JA = q(n v de + p v dh ) A (1.2b)
R
potential difference
and the electric field is J (drift) = q(n v de + p v dh ) E =  E (1.2c)
given as:
dV where E is the external electric field and , the electrical conductivity as you
E =−
dx know from Eq. (12.22) of BPHCT-133. So, the drift current density is
for one-dimensional proportional to the applied electric field or the electric potential gradient
electric fields and (read the margin remark). From Eq. (1.2b), we get the expression for
  electrical conductivity of the semiconductor as:
E = − V ,
q(n v de + p v dh )  nv p v dh 
for three-dimensional = = q  de +  (1.2d)
dV E  E E 
fields where and
dx

 V are the electric You know from Eq. (12.20) of BPHCT-133 that the drift velocity is proportional
potential gradients. to the applied electric field. So, for semiconductors we can write:

v de  E and v dh  E
18
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
The constant of proportionality is known as the mobility of the charge carrier
And we have:

v de = de E (1.3a)

and v dh = dh E (1.3b)

v de
whence de = (1.4a)
E
v dh
and dh = (1.4b)
E
where de and dh are called the drift mobility of the electrons and the
drift mobility of the holes, respectively. Thus, by definition, the charge
carrier mobility is drift velocity per unit electric field. Then we can write
Eq. (1.2d) as:

 = q (n de + p dh ) (1.5a)

The resistivity of the semiconductor is given by:

1
= = [q (n de + p dh )]−1 (1.5b)


In terms of mobility, the drift current density for electrons and holes are,
respectively, given by:

Je (drift) = q n de E (1.6a)

J h (drift) = q p dh E (1.6b)

and the total drift current density in a semiconductor is given by:

J (drift) = Je (drift) + J h (drift) = (q n de + q p dh ) E (1.7)

Let us now consider an example for calculating the conductivity/resistivity of

semiconductors.

XAMPLE 1.1 : CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Calculate the conductivity and resistivity of intrinsic silicon at 300 K. If an
acceptor impurity is added to the extent of 1 part in 109 silicon atoms,
calculate its conductivity and resistivity. It is given that at 300 K, the
intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon is 1.5 1016 m−3 and electron and
hole drift mobilities are 0.13 m2 V −1 s −1 and 0.05 m2 V −1s −1, respectively.
The number of silicon atoms per unit volume is given as 5.0 1028 m−3 .

SOLUTION ◼ We use Eqs. (1.1, 1.5a and b) for these calculations.

For calculating the conductivity and resistivity of intrinsic silicon, we use

ni = n = p from Eq. (1.1) in Eqs. (1.5a and b).
19
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices

So, we get:

 = q ni ( de + dh ) = [1.6 10−19  1.5 1016  (0.13 + 0.05)]  −1 m−1

or  = 4.3 10−4  −1 m−1 and  = 1/[4.3 10−4  −1 m−1] = 2.3 103  m

When an acceptor impurity is added to the extent of 1 part in 109 silicon

atoms, then there are N A = 5.0 1028 m−3 / 109 = 5.0 1019 m−3 acceptor
atoms and the hole concentration is p = 5.0 1019 m−3
The electron concentration is

n = ni2 / N A = [(1.5 1016 )2 / 5.0 1019 ] m−3 = 4.5 1012 m−3

So, n << p and we can neglect the terms containing n in Eqs. (1.5a and b):

 = q p dh = [1.6 10−19  5.0 1019  ( 0.05)]  −1 m−1 = 0.4  −1 m−1

and  = 1/[0.4  −1 m−1] = 2.5  m

Note that adding 1 acceptor atom in 109 silicon atoms has increased
silicon’s conductivity by about 1000 times and decreased its resistivity by
the same magnitude.

SAQ 3 - Conductivity and resistivity of a semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor has charge carrier concentration of 3.5  1016 m−3 .

Calculate its conductivity and resistivity if the drift mobilities of electrons and
holes are 0.30 m2 V −1 s −1 and 0.15 m2 V −1s −1 , respectively.

The results that we have obtained so far hold for relatively low applied electric
fields. We now ask: What happens when the external electric field applied
to the semiconductor is high? It is important for you to understand the
answer as it is relevant for understanding the physics of semiconductor
devices, their characteristics and applications.

1.4.2 High Field Conduction in Semiconductors

As the external electric field increases, the average energy of the charge
carriers increases. At sufficiently high electric fields, a number of physical
phenomena occur, such as saturation of drift velocity, breakdown due to
impact ionization, that is, generation of electron-hole pairs, band-to-band
tunnelling, etc. These phenomena have important implications for the design
and operation of semiconductor devices. We discuss the basic physics of the
first two phenomena here as the rest are beyond the scope of this course.

These are:

1. Saturation of drift velocity; and

2. Breakdown.

20 We explain both these phenomena briefly.

Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
1. Saturation of drift velocity

You have learnt in this section that charge carrier mobility is a constant but
this is so only at low electric fields and for small drift velocities. At low
electric fields, drift velocity varies linearly with the electric field as given
by Eqs. (1.3a and b). Do remember always that this linear relationship holds
only for low electric fields.

As the electric field is increased, the drift velocity departs from the linear
relationship. When a very high electric field is applied to a semiconductor,
the drift velocity becomes high, and approaches the thermal velocity of free
electrons, which is of the order of 105 ms −1 or 100 km per second at room
temperatures. (Compare it with the speed of the fastest fighter aircraft so far,
which is about 1 km per second!) At such high drift velocities, Eqs. (1.3a and
b) do not hold.

For such high electric fields, the charge carrier mobility is no longer
constant. It becomes dependent on the electric field and decreases due
to various scattering mechanisms in the semiconductor. These
mechanisms cause the carrier drift velocity to saturate with increasing electric
field. (The details of these mechanisms are taught in higher level courses.)

So, at high electric fields, the charge carrier mobilities and drift velocities
are not constant. Mobility of charge carriers decreases, and drift velocity
attains a maximum value called the saturation velocity (v sat ). Fig. 1.10
shows a typical variation of drift velocity with electric field for a semiconductor.

v = E

v sat

Fig. 1.10: Typical graph of drift velocity versus electric field in a semiconductor.

Note in Fig. 1.10 that initially (for low electric fields), the drift velocity varies
linearly with the electric field. As electric field increases, the drift velocity does
not vary linearly with it. At high electric fields, the curve flattens, i.e., the drift
velocity attains saturation.

Both electrons and holes exhibit similar behaviour though their saturation
velocities are different. Due to the saturation of drift velocity, drift current
becomes independent of the voltage, i.e., the applied electric field. This
happens at typical electric fields in excess of 106 V m −1 .

The concept of saturation of drift velocity at high electric fields is very

important in understanding the I-V characteristics of semiconductor devices,
and, therefore, in their design and operation.
21
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
2. Breakdown

When the external electric field is very high and is increased above a certain
critical value, it frees electrons from the atoms/molecules of the
semiconductor, creating electron-hole pairs. These free electrons are
accelerated by the electric field and gain enough energy to ionize other atoms
through collisions. This process is called impact ionization. The electrons
freed in this process collide with more atoms and ionise them creating more
free electrons, and so on. Thus, more and more free electrons are generated
in such collisions and cause further impact ionization.

So, when high electric field is applied to a semiconductor, electrons and holes
are created in large numbers and carrier multiplication takes place
continuously in it. This results in a sudden large increase in the current in
the semiconductor. This sudden increase of current with voltage above a
certain critical voltage is called breakdown. The critical voltage at which
breakdown occurs is called the breakdown voltage.

Fig. 1.11 shows a schematic representation of the variation of current density

with applied electric field in the ohmic (linear), saturation and breakdown
regions. Note the features of the curve shown in the figure. At low electric
fields, the variation is linear, i.e., ohmic. So, the straight line OA lies in the
ohmic region.

J
Saturation C
region
Breakdown
region
A B
Ohmic
region

O E

Fig. 1.11: Typical graph of current density versus electric field in a semiconductor.

At higher electric fields, the drift velocity is saturated and we get the saturation
region from A to B. In both ohmic and saturation regions, the carrier
concentration is constant. The variation in current density is only due to the
variation of drift velocity with electric field. As the applied electric field attains a
value higher than a critical value, the number of charge carriers increases
rapidly and there is a sudden increase in the current density from B to C in the
breakdown region.

An understanding of the phenomenon of breakdown is important in the

operation of semiconductor devices like the junction diodes and transistors,
and their applications in voltage regulation, power amplification, etc. You will
learn about this in the forthcoming units.

We will next discuss the second mechanism of charge transport in a

semiconductor. But you should check if you have learnt the concepts of this
section well enough. Solve SAQ 4.
22
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics

SAQ 4 - High field conduction in semiconductors

a) State, giving reasons, whether the following statements are true or false:
i) Drift velocity is independent of applied electric field for all its values.
ii) Breakdown can occur even at low electric fields.

b) The electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor is 5.0 1019 m−3 .

Calculate the drift velocity and drift current density for electrons for an
applied electric field of 1.0 mV m−1 given that de = 0.20 m2V −1s−1.

Let us now revise the main ideas of this section.

CARRIER TRANSPORT IN SEMICONDUCTORS: DRIFT

◼ Drift of charge carriers in a semiconductor occurs due to an electric
potential gradient (or an external electric field) across the
semiconductor.
◼ Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is given by:
q(n v de + p v dh )  nv p v dh 
= = q  de +  (1.2d)
E  E E 

 = q (n de + p dh ) (1.5a)

The resistivity of the semiconductor is given by:

1
= = [q (n de + p dh )]−1 (1.5b)

◼ The drift current density is proportional to the applied electric field:

dV
J (drift)  E,
dx
or J (drift) = Je (drift) + J h (drift) = (q n de + q p dh ) E (1.7)

or J (drift) =  E

For high electric fields, two important phenomena occur in

semiconductors, namely, saturation of drift velocity and breakdown.
Saturation occurs when the drift velocities acquire large values, carrier
mobilities decrease and drift currents due to electrons or holes become
independent of the applied voltage. Breakdown occurs when the
number of charge carriers becomes large due to ionization by high
electric field and impact ionization. Then the drift current shows sudden
increase with voltage.

Before you begin studying the next section, you should remember that
Fig. 1.11 also represents the I-V characteristics of an intrinsic semiconductor.
If you replace the current density by the current (I = JA) and electric field by
the voltage applied (E = V / L) you will obtain a similar curve with an initial
23
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
linear (ohmic) region, followed by saturation region and breakdown regions.
You may like to check if you have grasped this idea. Try SAQ 5.

SAQ 5 - I-V characteristics of a semiconductor

Draw the I-V characteristics of an intrinsic semiconductor showing the linear,

saturation and breakdown regions.

1.5 CHARGE CARRIER TRANSPORT:

DIFFUSION
In addition to drift, charge transport in semiconductors takes place due to
another mechanism called diffusion. You have learnt in Sec. 1.4.1 that drift of
charge carriers occurs when an electric field is applied. The transport of
charge carriers (holes and/or electrons) also takes place due to non-uniform
concentration of electrons and holes in a semiconductor.

The region in which a greater number of charge carriers is present is called

higher concentration region and the region in which a smaller number of
charge carriers is present is called lower concentration region. The change
in the concentration of the carrier particles in the material creates a
concentration gradient in it. Let us learn more about how current flows in a
semiconductor due to a concentration gradient.

1.5.1 Concentration Gradient Driven Current Flow

A concentration gradient is set up in a semiconductor when the concentration
This diffusion process of charges in one region in it is more than in other regions. Due to this
is analogous to that gradient, an electric field is produced in the semiconductor. As a result, the
which occurs in gases. charge carriers move from regions of high concentrations to regions of low
For example, what
concentrations.
happens when you
spray perfume or a The process, by which charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a semiconductor
deodorant in a corner
move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
of a room? After a
while, don’t you smell
is called diffusion (see Fig. 1.12 and read the margin remark).
it in other parts of the
Diffusion of electrons
room? This is because
of the diffusion of
these particles in the
room.

High electron Low electron Uniform electron concentration

concentration concentration
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.12: Diffusion of electrons in an n-type semiconductor.

The flow of charge carriers due to diffusion results in a diffusion current in

the semiconductor. Diffusion process occurs in a semiconductor that is

24
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
non-uniformly doped. For example, consider an n-type semiconductor that is
non-uniformly doped as shown in Fig. 1.12a.

Note that due to non-uniform doping, more electrons are present in the left
region of the n-type semiconductor initially than in the right region (Fig. 1.12a).
The electrons in the left region diffuse to the right region, until a uniform
concentration of electrons is reached (Fig. 1.12b). The diffusion of holes
occurs in the same way in p-type semiconductors.

Thus, current flows in the semiconductor due to diffusion of electrons and

holes driven by the concentration gradient in the semiconductor. This current
is called the diffusion current.

Remember that no external electric field across the semiconductor is required

for diffusion current to flow in it. This is because diffusion takes place due to
the difference in concentration of the carrier particles and not the
concentrations themselves.

The total current in the semiconductor is the sum of the drift current and the
diffusion current. To find the total current in a semiconductor, we have to know
the expression for the diffusion current or diffusion current density. Let us do
that now.

1.5.2 Diffusion Current Densities and Total Current

Density

The diffusion current density is directly proportional to the

concentration gradient. Recall that concentration gradient is the difference in
concentration of electrons or holes in a given area. So, if the concentration
gradient is high, then the diffusion current density is also high. Similarly, if the
concentration gradient is low, then the diffusion current density is also low.
Therefore, we can write the diffusion current densities for n-type and p-type
semiconductors, respectively, as:

dn
Je (diffusion)  (1.8a)
dx

dp
Jh (diffusion)  (1.8b)
dx

where Je (diffusion) is the diffusion current density due to electrons, and

J h (diffusion), the diffusion current density due to holes. Replacing the
proportionality sign with a constant of proportionality, we get:

dn
J e (diffusion) = + q Dn (1.9a)
dx

dp
and Jh (diffusion) = − q Dp (1.9b)
dx

where Dn and Dp are the constants of proportionality known as the diffusion

coefficients of electrons and holes, respectively. Note that the negative
25
sign in Eq. (1.9b) appears because the concentration gradient for holes is in
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
the negative x-direction, opposite to that of electrons, which we have taken in
the positive x-direction. The diffusion coefficients give us a measure of the
ease of diffusion of charge carriers. These are related to the mobility of charge
carriers through the Einstein relation:

D k BT
= (1.10a)
 q

For semiconductors:
Dn k BT Dp
= = (1.10b)
n q p

The total diffusion current density in a semiconductor is the sum of diffusion

current densities of electrons and holes:
dn dp
J (diffusion) = Je (diffusion) + Jh (diffusion) = ( +q Dn − q Dp )E (1.11)
dx dx

The total current density due to electrons and holes is the sum of their
respective drift and diffusion current densities:

J = Je + J h (1.12a)

dn
where Je = Je (drift) + Je (diffusion) = qnn E + q Dn (1.12b)
dx

dp
and J h = J h (drift) + J h (diffusion) = qp pE − q Dp (1.12c)
dx
You may like to work out SAQ 6 based on the concepts of Sec. 1.5.

SAQ 6 - Diffusion current in semiconductors

Calculate the diffusion coefficient for electrons in a semiconductor at 300 K if
the mobility of electrons is n = 0.20m2 V −1s−1 . What would be the diffusion
coefficient for holes in this semiconductor at 300 K if hole mobility
was  p = 0.10m2 V −1s−1?

With this discussion on diffusion current densities and diffusion currents in

semiconductors, we end this unit. Let us now summarise what you have learnt
in this unit.

1.6 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Intrinsic and ◼ Semiconductors are materials

extrinsic
• with conductivity much less than that of conductors and more than
semiconductors
that of insulators; and with resistivity much more than that of
conductors but less than that of insulators.
26
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics

• whose electrical resistivity decreases with an increase in temperature.

• with two types of charge carriers: electrons and holes.
◼ Holes are created due to the absence of electrons in covalent bonds in the
semiconducting material and constitute an effective positive charge.
◼ Intrinsic semiconductors do not contain impurities and the intrinsic carrier
concentration ni is equal to electron and hole concentrations (n and p,
respectively) in them:
ni = n = p

◼ Doping a semiconductor with appropriate impurities increases its

conductivity and decreases its resistivity, and such semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors. A semiconductor doped with
pentavalent impurities has excess electrons as charge carriers and is
called n-type extrinsic semiconductor. A semiconductor doped with
trivalent impurities has excess holes as charge carriers and is called
p-type extrinsic semiconductor.

Energy band ◼ According to the energy band model of the semiconductor, there are two
model types of energy bands in semiconductors: Valence Band and Conduction
Band separated by the band gap (E g ).

• In conductors, the valence and the conduction bands overlap and in

insulators, the band gap is much larger than that of semiconductors.

• In n-type semiconductors, donor energy levels (Ed ) are created near

the conduction band. Thus, electrons require much less energy to move
to the conduction band and therefore, electrons are the majority charge
carriers in n-type semiconductors.

• In p-type semiconductors, acceptor energy levels (Ea ) are created

near the valence band. Thus, electrons require much less energy to
move to the acceptor energy levels, creating holes in the valence band
for conduction. Therefore, holes are the majority charge carriers in
p-type semiconductors.

Transport of charge ◼ The transport of charge carriers in a semiconductor takes place due to
carriers the following processes:

• Temperature gradient;
• Drift due to externally applied electric field; and
• Diffusion due to the concentration gradient.

Drift ◼ Drift of charge carriers in a semiconductor occurs when an electric field is

applied to it, that is, due to an electric potential gradient across it.

• The drift current density is proportional to the applied electric field:

dV
J (drift)  E,
dx
27
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices

and is related to conductivity as:

J (drift) = q(n v de + p v dh ) E =  E

q(n v de + p v dh )  nv p v dh 
• Conductivity  = = q  de + 
E  E E 

• Also, since v de = de E and v dh = dh E,

conductivity  = q (n de + p dh )

1
resistivity  = = [q (n de + p dh )]−1


• In terms of mobility, the drift current density for electrons and holes are,
respectively, given by:

Je (drift) = q n de E

J h (drift) = q p dh E

and the total drift current density in a semiconductor is given by:

J (drift) = Je (drift) + J h (drift) = (q n de + q p dh ) E

• For high electric fields, two important phenomena occur in

semiconductors, namely, saturation of drift velocity and breakdown.
Saturation occurs when the drift velocities acquire large values, carrier
mobilities decrease and drift currents due to electrons or holes
becomes independent of applied voltage. Breakdown occurs when the
number of charge carriers becomes large due to ionization by high
electric field and impact ionization. Then the drift current shows sudden
increase with voltage.

Diffusion ◼ Diffusion current flows in a semiconductor due to diffusion of electrons

and holes caused by the concentration gradient in it due to non-uniform
doping.
• The diffusion current density is proportional to the concentration
gradient:

dn dp
J (diffusion)  ,
dx dx

dn
and Je (diffusion) = + q Dn
dx

dp
Jh (diffusion) = − q Dp
dx

The total diffusion current in a semiconductor is:

J (diffusion) = Je (diffusion) + J h (diffusion)

28
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics

Total current ◼ The total current density due to electrons and holes, respectively, is the
density sum of their respective drift and diffusion current densities, which are as
follows:
dn
Je = qnnE + q Dn
dx
dp
and Jh = qp pE − q Dp
dx
The total current density due to electrons and holes is given by:

J = Je + J h

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. List four factors that affect the conductivity of semiconductors.

2. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:

a) In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons ………….the

number of holes.

b) The majority charge carriers are ………..in n-type extrinsic

semiconductors and …………..in p-type extrinsic semiconductors.

c) In p-type semiconductors, the electron concentration is ………….than

the hole concentration.

d) In n-type semiconductors, the electron concentration is ………….than

the hole concentration.

e) At room temperatures, conduction occurs in the ……….. band in the

n-type extrinsic semiconductors in and in the ……………..band in
p-type extrinsic semiconductors.

f) The …………. and ……………..energy levels exist, in the energy band

diagrams of n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors,
respectively.

3. The intrinsic carrier concentration in a semiconductor is ni = 2.21019 m−3

at a given temperature. Calculate its conductivity given that the electron
and hole mobilities are 0.35 m2 V −1 s −1 and 0.15 m2 V −1 s −1, respectively.

4. The intrinsic carrier concentration of a semiconductor is 2.0 1016 m−3 . If

the mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.24 m2 V −1 s −1 and
0.06 m2 V −1 s −1, respectively, calculate its resistivity.

5. The intrinsic carrier concentration in a semiconductor is 3.0 1019 m−3 . It

is doped with a pentavalent impurity and the density of donor atoms is
5.0 1023 atoms m−3 . The electron and hole mobilities are
29
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
2 −1 −1 2 −1 −1
0.45 m V s and 0.25 m V s , respectively. Calculate its
conductivity before and after the donor impurity is added.

6. Calculate the resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor piece of length

1.0 cm, width 1.0 cm and thickness 1.0 cm at 300 K. It is given that the
intrinsic carrier concentration at 300 K is 3.5 1016 m−3 and the mobilities
of electrons and hole are 0.40 m2 V −1 s−1 and
0.18 m2 V −1 s−1, respectively.

7. Distinguish between ohmic, saturation and breakdown regions of the

I-V characteristics of a semiconductor.

8. Electrons are injected at room temperature into one end of a

semiconductor of length 2.25 m. It is observed that the electrons take
one-hundredth of a second to reach the opposite end of the semiconductor
when the sample is subjected to a voltage of 0.5 V. What are the electron
drift velocity and electron mobility for this semiconductor?

9. At 300 K, the diffusion constants for electrons and holes in a

semiconductor are Dn = 5.5 10−3 m2s−1 and
Dp = 5.0 10 −4 m2s −1, respectively. What are the mobilities of the electrons
and holes at 300 K?

10. The electron concentration in a semiconductor is given by

n ( x ) = 2.0 1016 exp (−100x )m−3

where x is measured in mm. It is given that the electron diffusion

coefficient is Dn = 6.4 10−3 m2s−1 . Determine the electron diffusion
current density as a function of x.

1.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) Electrons are created when pentavalent impurities are doped in an
intrinsic semiconductor. Holes are created when trivalent impurities are
doped in an intrinsic semiconductor. The charge on electron is
− 1.6 10−19 C and that on hole is 1.6 10−19 C .

b) In an intrinsic semiconductor, the intrinsic charge concentration is equal

to the hole concentration [see Eq. (1.1)]. So, it is 2.5 1019 m−3 .

c) The hole is not a physical particle like the electron. But it may be
regarded as a physical entity that behaves like a positively charged
carrier in a semiconductor since it moves opposite to the electron in it.

2. a) The band gap in insulators is more than that in a semiconductor.

b) Schematic diagrams (not to scale) are shown in Figs. 1.13a to c. For

intrinsic Ge semiconductor, Eg = 0.67 eV (Table 1.1). For n-type Si
30
Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
semiconductor, Eg = 1.12 eV and the donor level Ed lies near the
conduction band. For p-type GaAs semiconductor, Eg = 1.42 eV and the
acceptor level Ea lies near the valence band.

Conduction band
Conduction band
Conduction band
Ed Acceptor atom
Eg = 1.42 eV
Eg = 1.12 eV
Eg = 0.67 eV Donor atom
Ea

Valence band Valence band Valence band

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.13: Energy bands for a) an intrinsic Ge semiconductor; b) n-type Si semiconductor;
c) p-type GaAs semiconductor at T = 0 K .

3. We use Eqs. (1.1, 1.5a and b). For an intrinsic semiconductor, we get from
Eq. (1.1) that n = p = ni = 3.5  1016 m−3 . From Eq. (1.5a), the conductivity
of the semiconductor is:

 = [1.6 10−19  3.5 1016  (0.30 + 0.15)] −1 m−1 = 2.5 10−3 −1 m−1

and from Eq. (1.5b), the resistivity is:  = 1/[2.5  10−3 −1 m−1] = 400  m

4. a) i) It is false. This is because only at a high applied electric field, the

drift velocity attains saturation and is independent of it. At low
electric field, drift velocity varies linearly with it.
ii) It is false. Breakdown cannot occur at low electric fields as
electrons do not acquire enough energy to break free of the
covalent bonds.
b) We use Eqs. (1.3a and 1.5a) to calculate the drift velocity and drift
current density for electrons given that n = 5.0 1019 m−3,
E = 1.0 mV m−1 and de = 0.20 m2V −1s−1. Substituting the values of
mobility and electric field in Eq. (1.3a and 1.5a), we get:

v de = de E = 0.20 1.0 10−3 ms −1 = 2.0 10−4 ms −1

e = qn de = 1.6  10 −19  5.0  1019  0.2 = 1.6  −1m−1

5. The I-V characteristic curve for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown in

Fig. 1.14: I

BC: Breakdown
AB: Saturation
A
B

OA: Linear

O V
Fig. 1.14: The I-V characteristic curve for an intrinsic semiconductor. 31
Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
6. We use Eq. (1.10b) for calculating the diffusion coefficient for electrons with
T = 300K and n = 0.20 m2V −1s−1 . Therefore,

k T 1.38  10−23  300 2 −1

Dn = n B = 0.20  m s = 5.2  10−3 m2s−1
−19
q 1.6  10

We use Eq. (1.10b) and substitute the value of hole mobility to calculate the
diffusion coefficient for holes in the semiconductor:

k T 1.38 10−23  300 2 −1

Dp =  p B = 0.10  m s = 2.6 10−3 m2s−1
−19
q 1.6 10

Terminal Questions
1. The number of free charge carriers and their concentration, applied electric
field, temperature and doping by impurities affect conductivity of a
semiconductor.

2. a) Equals; b) Electrons, holes; c) Less; d) Greater; e) Conduction band,

valence band; f) Donor, acceptor.

3. We use Eq. (1.5a) with ni = 2.21019 m−3, de = 0.35m2 V −1 s−1 and
dh = 0.15m2 V −1 s−1 . For an intrinsic semiconductor we put n = p = ni in
Eq. (1.5a) and get:
 = q ni ( de + dh ) = 1.6 10−19  2.2 1019  (0.35 + 0.15) −1 m−1

= 1.76  −1 m−1  1.8  −1 m−1

4. We use Eq. (1.5b) with ni = 2.0 1016 m−3 , de = 0.24m2 V −1 s−1 and
dh = 0.06m2 V −1 s−1 . For an intrinsic semiconductor we put n = p = ni in
Eq. (1.5b) and get:

1 1
=
q ni ( de + dh )
=
(1.610 −19
 2.0 1016  (0.24 + 0.06) ) m =1042 m
5. We follow Example 1.1 and use Eq. (1.5a) with ni = 3.0 1019 m−3 ,
de = 0.45 m2 V −1 s−1 and dh = 0.25 m2 V −1 s−1. Before the donor
impurity is added, the semiconductor is intrinsic and therefore, we put
n = p = ni in Eq. (1.5a). So, we get:

 = q ni ( de + dh ) = 1.6 10−19  3.0 1019  (0.45 + 0.25) −1 m−1

= 3.4 −1 m−1

After the donor impurity is added, the conductivity will be due to electrons,
and electron concentration is equal to the number of donor atoms per unit
volume. Therefore, we substitute n = 5.0 1023 m−3 in
 = q n de and get:

 = 1.6 10−19  5.0 1023  0.45  −1 m−1 = 3.6 104  −1 m−1

32
 Unit 1 Essentials of Semiconductor Physics
Notice the tremendous increase in conductivity on the addition of impurity.

6. We first calculate the resistivity using Eq. (1.5b) with ni = 3.5 1016 m−3,
de = 0.40 m2 V −1 s−1 and dh = 0.18 m2 V −1 s−1 . For an intrinsic
semiconductor we put n = p = ni in Eq. (1.5b) and get:

=
1
q ni ( de + dh )
(
= 1.6  10−19  3.5  1016  (0.40 + 0.18) )
−1
 m = 308  m

You know from your school physics that resistance is related to resistivity
L
as: R = , where L is the length of the semiconductor and A, its area of
A
cross-section. We substitute L = 1.0 cm = 1.0 10−2 m and
A = 1cm2 = 1.0 10−4 m and get:

L 308  1.0  10−2

R = =  = 3.08  104 
−4
A 1.0  10

Note that we have converted the unit of cm into metres everywhere.

7. The ohmic region of the I-V characteristics of a semiconductor shows a

linear dependence of current on the applied voltage. In the saturation
region, the current is constant for the voltage applied. The current rises
rapidly in the breakdown region with voltage.

8. Since electrons take t = 10−2 s to travel a length of 2.25 m or

L = 2.25  10−6 m, their average drift velocity is:

L 2.25 10−6
v de = = ms −1 = 2.25 10− 4 ms −1
t −2
10

v
From Eq. (1.3a), we have: v de = deE or de = de
E

We are given the applied voltage and E is the electric field. It is related to
V
the voltage by E = and therefore,
L
v v L 2.25 10−4  2.25  10−6
de = de = de = = 1.0 10−3 m2 V −1 s−1
−6
E V 0.5 10
9. We use Eq. (1.10b) for calculating the mobility of electrons with
T = 300K and Dn = 5.5 10−3 m2s−1. Therefore,

 q  1.6 10−19
n = Dn   = 5.5 10−3  m2s−1
− 23
 B 
k T 1.38 10  300

= 0.21 m2 V −1 s−1

For hole mobility in the semiconductor, we use Eq. (1.10b) and get:
 q  1.6 10−19
 p = Dp   = 5.0 10− 4  m2s−1
− 23
 B 
k T 1.38 10  300

= 1.9 10−2 m2 V −1 s−1 33

Block 1 Physics of Semiconductor Devices
10. From Eq. (1.9a), the electron diffusion current density is:

dn
J e (diffusion) = + q Dn
dx

Since the electron concentration is given by

n ( x ) = 2.0 1016 exp (−100x )m−3


dn
= 2.0 1016
d
exp (−100x ) = 2.0 1016 (−100)exp (− 100x )
dx dx

= − 2.0 1018 m−4 exp (−100x )

Therefore,

Je (diffusion) = −1.6 10−19  6.4 10−3  2.0 1018 exp (− 100x )

or J e (diffusion) = −2.1 10 −3 exp( −100x ) C m−2 s −1

34