GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 4th QUARTER NOTES

1. REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

Reproduction is the act of producing a new 4. Sporulation – Organisms produce spores
individual(s) from at least one parent that develop into new individuals (e.g., fungi,
organism. It comes in two major forms: ferns).
asexual and sexual reproduction.
● Asexual reproduction is when a single
parent produces offspring without the need for
gametes (sperm & egg). The offspring are
genetically identical to the parent
● Sexual reproduction requires two parents
and involves the fusion of gametes (sperm and
5. Vegetative Propagation – New plants grow
egg) to create a genetically unique offspring.
from parts like stems, roots, or leaves (e.g.,
potatoes, onions, strawberries).
Asexual Reproduction Modes (only one
parent, no fusion of gametes)
1. Binary Fission – One cell divides into two
identical cells (e.g., bacteria, amoeba).

Sexual Reproduction Modes (requires two

parents, gamete fusion)
1. Internal Fertilization – Sperm fertilizes the
2. Budding – A small growth (bud) develops egg inside the female’s body (e.g., humans,
on the parent and eventually detaches (e.g., birds, mammals).
Hydra, yeast).
2. External Fertilization – Gametes meet
outside the body, usually in water (e.g., fish,
amphibians).
3. Self-Fertilization – Some organisms have
both male and female reproductive organs and
can fertilize themselves (e.g., some plants,
earthworms).
3. Fragmentation – An organism breaks into ● Cross-Fertilization – Requires two different
fragments, each growing into a new individual individuals to exchange gametes (e.g., most
(e.g., starfish, planaria). animals and many plants).
-Hand Pollination - Humans manually
transfer pollen from one flower to
another to ensure fertilization (ex. Giant
pumpkins)
 STEPS IN DOUBLE FERTILIZATION:
1. Pollination - Pollen lands on the stigma and
begins growing a tube toward the ovule.
2. Pollen Tube Growth - two sperm cells travel
down the tube, making their way to the ovule.
3. First Fertilization - one sperm cell fuses with
the egg, forming a zygote, which will develop
into the baby plant.
4. Second Fertilization - the other sperm fuses
with the polar nuclei, creating a triploid
The reproductive parts of a flower consist of endosperm, which serves as the nutrient-rich
the following: food source for the developing embryo.
A. Stamen: This is the male reproductive STAGES OF PLANT REPRODUCTION:
organ and is also known as Androecium. It
consists of two parts namely: anther and 1. Seed Germination - The seed absorbs
filaments. water, and the radicle anchors the plant while
the shoot grows upward.
1. Anther: is a yellowish, sac-like
structure, involved in producing and 2. Vegetative Growth - Roots, stems, and
storing the pollens. leaves form with the help of the shoot apical
meristem and auxin.
2. Filament: is a slender, threadlike
object, which functions by supporting 3. Reproductive Development - The plant
the anther. produces flowers, fruits, and seeds.

B. Pistil: This is the innermost part and the 4. Embryogenesis - The zygote divides to form
female reproductive organ of a flower which the embryo, ensuring the next generation.
comprises three parts -stigma, style and ovary. 5. Organogenesis - Specific organs like
This is collectively known as the pistil. leaves, stems, and roots form.
1. Stigma: It is the topmost part or 6. Senescence - The plant ages, transferring
receptive tip of carpels in the nutrients to developing parts or seeds.
gynoecium of a flower.
2. Style: It is the long tube-like slender STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT:
stalk that connects the stigma and the
ovary. 1. Fertilization – A sperm cell fuses with an egg
cell, forming a single-celled zygote. This
3. Ovary: It is the ductless reproductive process restores the diploid chromosome
gland that holds a lot of ovules. It is the number and initiates embryonic development.
part of the plant where the seed
formation takes place. 2. Cleavage – The zygote undergoes rapid
mitotic divisions without overall growth,
forming a multicellular blastula. These
PLANT REPRODUCTION - DOUBLE divisions create smaller cells while maintaining
FERTILIZATION the original size of the embryo.
- In flowering plants, reproduction involves a
special event called double fertilization. This
means that two fertilization events happen
almost simultaneously within the plant's ovule
(the part that becomes the seed).
3. Gastrulation – The blastula undergoes 4. Urethra - It is the passageway of both urine
extensive cell movements to form three germ from the urinary bladder and semen from the
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. glands.
These layers give rise to all tissues and organs
in the developing animal.
a. Ectoderm – is the Outer layer that Forms the
skin, brain, and nervous system.
b. Mesoderm – The Middle layer that Forms
muscles, bones, heart, and blood vessels.
c. Endoderm – The Inner layer that Forms the
digestive system, lungs, and other organs.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovary - Produces egg cells and the sex
hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Females have two ovaries where matured egg
4. Organogenesis – Cells differentiate and cells are produced during ovulation.
organize into functional tissues and organs. 2. Fallopian Tube - The fallopian tube
This stage shapes the embryo into its distinct transports the egg from the ovary to the uterus
body plan, leading to further growth and and is the site of fertilization.
specialization.
3. Uterus - The uterus which is also called the
5. Growth & Differentiation – The embryo womb is shaped like an upside-down pear
specializes and develops into mature and fully where the unborn baby is developed. It has a
functional tissues and organs. soft, smooth, inner lining called uterine lining
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM or endometrium.

The human reproductive system plays a 4. Cervix - It is a narrow opening between the
crucial role in the continuation of life. Through uterus and vagina which enlarges to let the
reproduction, new life begins, marking the first passage of a fetus during birth.
stage of the human life cycle. 5. Vagina - Also called the birth canal is a
1. Testes - Glands that produce sperm cells hollow, muscular tube that leads to the
and male sex hormones called testosterone. opening called vulva. It expands to let the baby
The testes protrude outside the body because pass through during normal delivery.
the temperature inside the main body cavity is
warmer and not suitable for the development
of sperm cells.
2. Vas deferens - It is a long, muscular tube
that serves as passageway of the sperm cells
released from the testes. It also connects the
testes to the seminal vesicle and urethra.
3. Penis - It is the external male organ with a
tip called glans. It is covered with foreskin that
may be removed through circumcision and
acts as a conduit for urine to leave the body.
 TYPES OF ANIMAL LIFE CYCLE STEPS IN DOUBLE FERTILIZATION:
1. Oviparous Animals - Also known as Egg- 1. Pollination - Pollen lands on the stigma and
Laying Animals. These animals lay eggs begins growing a tube toward the ovule.
outside their body, and the embryo develops
2. Pollen Tube Growth - two sperm cells travel
within the egg until it hatches.
down the tube, making their way to the ovule.
Ex. Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, and most fish
3. First Fertilization - one sperm cell fuses with
2. Viviparous Animals - Also known as Live- the egg, forming a zygote, which will develop
Bearing Animals. These are animals where the into the baby plant.
embryo develops inside the mother and is
4. Second Fertilization - the other sperm fuses
nourished through a placenta before being
with the polar nuclei, creating a triploid
born as a fully formed offspring.
endosperm, which serves as the nutrient-rich
Ex. Humans, Dogs, Cats, and Most Mammals food source for the developing embryo.
3. Ovoviviparous Animals - These animals
produce eggs, but instead of laying or
releasing them, the eggs remain inside the
mother’s body until they hatch, giving the
appearance of live birth. The embryos, instead
of depending on a placenta, rely on the
nutrients from the egg yolk.
Ex. Sharks, Snakes, and Certain Fish

STAGES OF PLANT GROWTH AND

PLANT REPRODUCTION - DOUBLE DEVELOPMENT:
FERTILIZATION
- In flowering plants, reproduction involves a 1. Seed Germination - The seed absorbs
special event called double fertilization. This water, and the radicle anchors the plant while
means that two fertilization events happen the shoot grows upward.
almost simultaneously within the plant's ovule
(the part that becomes the seed). 2. Vegetative Growth - Roots, stems, and
leaves form with the help of the shoot apical
meristem and auxin.
Steps in Double Fertilization 3. Reproductive Development - The plant
1. Pollination - Pollen lands on the stigma and produces flowers, fruits, and seeds.
begins growing a tube toward the ovule. 4. Embryogenesis - The zygote divides to form
2. Pollen Tube Growth - two sperm cells travel the embryo, ensuring the next generation.
down the tube, making their way to the ovule. 5. Organogenesis - Specific organs like
3. First Fertilization - one sperm cell fuses with leaves, stems, and roots form.
the egg, forming a zygote, which will develop 6. Senescence - The plant ages, transferring
into the baby plant. nutrients to developing parts or seeds.
4. Second Fertilization - the other sperm fuses
with the polar nuclei, creating a triploid
endosperm, which serves as the nutrient-rich
food source for the developing embryo.