TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
THAPATHALI CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE AND MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER [ME 555]

[LABORATORY MANUAL]
2074

Compiled by: Er. Sudan Neupane, Head; Department of Industrial Engineering

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GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. The purpose of this laboratory is to reinforce and enhance your understanding of the heat
and mass transfer.The experiments here are designed to demonstrate the applications of
the basic principles and to provide a more intuitive and physical understanding of the
theory. The main objective is to introduce a variety of classical experimental and
diagnostic techniques, and the principles behind these techniques. This laboratory exercise
also provides practice in making engineering judgments, estimates and assessing the
reliability of your measurements, skills which are very important in all engineering
disciplines.
2. Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the lab. You
must be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In many cases you may
have to go back to your textbooks to review the principles dealt with in the experiment.
3. Please actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions.
4. To encourage you to be prepared and to read the lab manual before coming to the
laboratory, unannounced questions may be asked at any time during the lab.
5. Don’t forget to bring calculator, graph sheets and drawing accessories when you come to
lab.
6. In performing the experiments, please proceed carefully to minimize any water spills,
especially on the electric circuits and wire.
7. Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and
discipline inside the lab. Don’t use cell phones inside the laboratory.
8. Any injury no matter how small, must be reported to the instructor immediately.
9. Start writing your Laboratory records early, don’t wait till the day before the lab records
are due. Most experiments require a significant amount of analysis, which cannot be done
properly if you start one or two days before the due date. Start early and give yourself time
to get help in case you run into problems, we cannot help you if you wait till the last
moment.
10. Wish you a nice experience in this lab!

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1. Heat Transfer In Forced Convection

OBJECTIVE:
Study of convection heat transfer in forced convection.
AIM:
Comparison of heat transfer coefficient for different air flow rates and heat flow rates.
To find surface heat transfer coefficient for a pipe losing heat by forced convection.
INTRODUCTION:
Convection is defined as process of heat transfer by combined action of heat conduction and
mixing motion. Convection heat transfer is further classified as Natural Convection and
Forced Convection. If the mixing motion takes place due to density difference caused by
temperature gradient, then Natural or Free Convection knows the process of heat transfer as
heat transfer. If the mixing motion is induced by Forced Convection knows some external
means such as a pump or blower then the process as heat transfer.
THEORY:
Air flowing into the heated pipe with very high flow rate the heat transfer rate increases. The
temperature taken by the cold air from the bulk temperature and rises its temperature. Thus,
for the tube the total energy added can be expressed in terms of a bulk-temperature difference
by
.

q= m CP (Tb2 −Tb1)

Bulk temperature difference in terms of heat transfer coefficient q= hA(Tb2 −Tb1)

DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is surrounding
by nichrome heater. Four Temperature Sensors are embedded on the test section and two
temperature sensors are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test section.
Test Pipe is connected to the delivery side of the blower along with the Orifice. Input to the
heater is given through a dimmer stat and measured by volt meter & Ampere meter. Digital
temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature. Airflow is measured with the help
of Orifice meter and the water manometer fitted on the board.

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UTILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 VAC, 50Hz, 5-15Amp socket with earth connection.

2. Floor Area Required: 1.5 m x 0.5 m EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Starting Procedure:

3. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position & dimmer stat is
at zero position.
4. Connect electric supply to the set up.
5. Fill water in manometer up to half of the scale, by opening PU pipe connection from the
air flow pipe and connect the pipe back to its position after doing so.
6. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.
7. Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 V.
8. Switch ON the blower.
9. Set the flow of air by operating the valve.
10. After 0.5 hrs. Note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter, and manometer and
temperature sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing
change in consecutive readings of temperatures (± 0.2 oC).

Closing Procedure:
1. After experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
2. Switch OFF the blower.
3. Switch OFF the Mains ON/OFF switch.
4. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.

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OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

DATA:
Di = 0.028 m
Do = 0.038 m
L = 0.4 m
do = 0.014 m
dp = 0.028 m
Cp = 1.003 kJ/kg oC
ρa = 1.205 kg/m3
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Co = 0.64
OBSERVATION TABLE:

V I T1 oC T2 oC T3 oC T4 oC T5 oC T6 oC h1 h2
volts amp cm cm

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CALCULATIONS:

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NOMENCLATURE:

A = transfer area, m2
Cp = Specific heat of air, kJ/kg oC
Co = Coefficient of discharge
Di = Inner diameter of test section, m
Do = Outer diameter of test section, m
dp = Diameter of pipe, m
do = Diameter of orifice, m
∆H = Head loss, m of air
I = Ammeter reading, amp
L = Length of test section, m
m = Mass flow rate of air, kg/s
Qa = Heat taken by air, W
Q = Flow rate of air, m3/s
h1,h2 = Manometer readings, cm
T1 = Air inlet temperature, oC
T2,T3,T4,T5 = Surface temperature of test section, oC
T6 = Air outlet temperature, oC
Ts = Average surface temp, oC
Ta = Average temperature of air, oC
U = Heat transfer coefficient, Watt/m²°C
V = Voltmeter reading, volts
ρw = Density of water, kg/m3
ρa = Density of air, kg/m3
PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230
volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
4. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

TROUBLESHOOTING:

1. If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main supply.
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2. Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not, check the
connection of heater in control panel.

REFERENCES:

1. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”,
7th ed., McGraw Hill, NY, 2005, Page 296.
2. Y.A.Cengel, “Heat & Mass Transfer”, McGraw Hill, ND, 2008, Page 25-26.
PROPERTIES OF AIR & WATER
1. Domkundwar, “A Course in Heat & Mass Transfer”, S.C Arora & S. Domkundwar, NY,
2003, Page A.6, A.10

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2. Unsteady State Heat Transfer Unit

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the variation of the temperature as a function of time and position T (x,y).

AIM:
To calculate Biot Number, Fourier Number and hence the heat transfer coefficient.

INTRODUCTION:
This laboratory exercises is used to investigate the heat transfer response of simple geometrical
shapes that are suddenly exposed to convection with a fluid at a constant temperature. This configuration
can be extended to many practical applications by using the lumped capacitance method to model the
transient heat transfer. It is the overall objective of this experiment to investigate how shape and material
selection affects the transient heat transfer response of the system. Additionally, the non-dimensional
parameters related to transient heat transfer are used to analyze the response when different materials are
used.

THEORY:
Heat transfer is very often in the unsteady state, in which temperatures are changing and materials are warming
or cooling. Unfortunately, study of heat flow under these conditions is complicated. In fact, it is the subject
for study in a substantial branch of applied mathematics, involving finding solutions for the Fourier equation
written in terms of partial differentials in three dimensions. There are some cases that can be simplified and
handled by elementary methods, and also charts have been prepared which can be used to obtain numerical
solutions under some conditions of practical importance.A simple case of unsteady state heat transfer arises
from the heating or cooling of solid bodies made from good thermal conductors, for example a long cylinder,
such as a meat sausage or a metal bar, being cooled in air. The rate at which heat is being transferred to the
air from the surface of the cylinder is given by eqn.
q = dQ/dt = hsA(Ts - Ta)
where Ta is the air temperature and Ts is the surface temperature.

5. DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of a thermal bath fitted with electric heater and a stirrer.
Stirrer is provided to get throughout same temperature in the bath during experiment.
Temperature Sensors are provided to measure the temperature of test piece and surrounding.
One sensor is provided at the center of test cylinder (Made up of Brass or steel). Digital
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Now, the heat being lost from the surface must be transferred to the surface from the interior of the
cylinder by conduction. This heat transfer from the interior to the surface is difficult to determine but
as an approximation, we can consider that all the heat is being transferred from the centre of the
cylinder. In this instance, we evaluate the temperature drop required to produce the same rate of heat
flow from the centre to the surface as passes from the surface to the air. This requires a greater
temperature drop than the actual case in which much of the heat has in fact a shorter path.
Assuming that all the heat flows from the centre of the cylinder to the outside, we can write the
conduction equation
dQ/dt = (k/L)A( Tc– Ts )
where Tc is the temperature at the centre of the cylinder, k is the thermal conductivity of the material
of the cylinder and L is the radius of the cylinder.
Equating these rates:
hsA(Ts --Ta) = (k/L)A( Tc– Ts )
hs(Ts -- Ta) = (k/L)( Tc– Ts )
and so hsL/k = ( Tc– Ts )/ (Ts -- Ta)
To take a practical case of a copper cylinder of 15 cm radius cooling in air
kc = 380 J m-1 s-1 °C-1, hs = 30 J m-2 s-1°C-1 (from Table 5.1), L = 0.15 m,
(Tc– Ts)/ (Ts -- Ta) = (30 x 0.15)/380
= 0.012
In this case 99% of the temperature drop occurs between the air and the cylinder surface. By
comparison with the temperature drop between the surface of the cylinder and the air, the temperature
drop within the cylinder can be neglected. On the other hand, if the cylinder were made of a poorer
conductor as in the case of the sausage, or if it were very large in diameter, or if the surface heat-
transfer coefficient were very much larger, the internal temperature drops could not be neglected.
This simple analysis shows the importance of the ratio:

This dimensionless ratio is called the Biot number (Bi) and it is important when considering unsteady
state heat flow. When (Bi) is small, and for practical purposes this may be taken as any value less than
about 0.2, the interior of the solid and its surface may be considered to be all at one uniform
temperature. In the case in which (Bi) is less than 0.2, a simple analysis can be used, therefore, to
predict the rate of cooling of a solid body.
Therefore for a cylinder of a good conductor, being cooled in air,
dQ = hsA(Ts -- Ta) dt

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But this loss of heat cools the cylinder in accordance with the usual specific heat equation:
dQ = crVdT
where c is the specific heat of the material of the cylinder, r is the density of this material and V is the
volume of the cylinder.
Since the heat passing through the surface must equal the heat lost from the cylinder, these two
expressions for dQ can be equated:
crVdT = hsA(Ts -- Ta) dt
Integrating between Ts = T1 and Ts = T2 , the initial and final temperatures of the cylinder during the
cooling period, t, we have:
- hsAt/crV = loge (T2 - Ta)/(T1– Ta)
or (T2 - Ta)/(T1 – Ta) = exp( -hsAt/crV ) (5.6)

For this case, the temperatures for any desired interval can be calculated, if the surface transfer
coefficient and the other physical factors are known. This gives a reasonable approximation so long
as (Bi) is less than about 0.2. Where (Bi) is greater than 0.2, the centre of the solid will cool more
slowly than this equation suggests. The equation is not restricted to cylinders, it applies to solids of
any shape so long as the restriction in (Bi), calculated for the smallest half-dimension, is obeyed.
Charts have been prepared which give the temperature relationships for solids of simple shapes under
more general conditions of unsteady-state conduction. These charts have been calculated from
solutions of the conduction equation and they are plotted in terms of dimensionless groups so that
their application is more general. The form of the solution is:
ƒ{(T - T0)/( Ti - T0 )} = F{(kt/crL2)(hsL/k)} (5.7)
where ƒ and F indicate functions of the terms following, Ti is the initial temperature of the solid, T0 is
the temperature of the cooling or heating medium, T is the temperature of the solid at time t, (kt/crL2)
is called the Fourier number (Fo) (this includes the factor k/cr the thermal conductance divided by the
volumetric heat capacity, which is called the thermal diffusivity) and (hsL/k) is the Biot number.
A mathematical outcome that is very useful in these calculations connects results for two- and three-
dimensional situations with results from one-dimensional situations. This states that the two- and
three-dimensional values called F(x,y) and F(x,y,z) can be obtained from the individual one-
dimensional results if these are F(x), F(y) and F(z), by simple multiplication:
F(x,y) = F(x)F(y)
and
F(x,y,z) = F(x)F(y)F(z)
Using the above result, the solution for the cooling or heating of a brick is obtained from the product

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of three slab solutions. The solution for a cylinder of finite length, such as a can, is obtained from the
product of the solution for an infinite cylinder, accounting for the sides of the can, and the solution
for a slab, accounting for the ends of the can.
Charts giving rates of unsteady-state heat transfer to the centre of a slab, a cylinder, or a sphere, are
given in Fig. 5.4. On one axis is plotted the fractional unaccomplished temperature change,
(T - T0)/( Ti - T0 ). On the other axis is the Fourier number, which may be thought of in this
connection as a time coordinate. The various curves are for different values of the reciprocal of the
Biot number, k/hr for spheres and cylinders, k/hl for slabs.

temperature controller is provided to get the constant temperature conditions in thermal bath
that can be maintained in a temperature range of 50 to 80 degree Celcius. DTC automatically
cut the heater when temperature goes beyond the set value. Digital temperature indicator is
provided to read the temperature from different sensors.

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UTILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 VAC, 50Hz, 5-15Amp socket with earth connection.
2. Bench Area Required: 1m x 1m

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Starting Procedure:

1. Ensure that Mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position .
2. Connect electric supply to the set up.
3. Switch ON the Mains ON / OFF switch.
4. Set the Temperature in DTC in the range of 50 to 80 degree C.
5. Switch on the stirrer.
6. Wait till the desired temperature is reached in DTC.
7. Immerse the brass cylinder in hot water bath .
8. Start noting down the readings of T1 untill it gets stabilize equal to +_ 0.3 Degree C.
9. Once temperature gets stabilize take the brass cylinder out of bath and immerse the Steel
cylinder.
10. Start noting the readings of T2 until it gets stabilize equal to +_ 0.3 Degree C.
11. Perform the experiment by varying the different bath temperatures.
Closing Procedure:

1. After experiment is over make the heater off.

2. Switch OFF the Mains ON/OFF switches.
3. Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.

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OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS:

DATA:
K(steel) = 25 (W/m K)
α (steel) = 0.6 x 10-5 m2/s
K(Brass) = 121 (W/m K)
α (Brass) = 3.7 x 10-5 m2/s
For Brass Cylinder
Sr. No T1 T, min

For Steel Cylinder

Sr. No T2 T, min

Dimensionless temperature

θ = T (r, t) - T∞ = exp t
Ti - T∞ Ԏt

Ԏt = ρ . V . CP = Rt . Ct ; when Rt = 1 and Ct = ρ . V . CP
h . As h . As

t = h . As . t = h . b . k .t = h.b . α.t = Bi . Fo
Ԏt ρ . V . CP k ρ . CP . b2 k b2

Biot number: Bi = hb
k

Dimensionless time or Fourier number: Fo = αt

b2

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NOMENCLATURE:

α = thermal diffusivity of the cylinder = k (m2s-1)

ρ . Cp
h = heat transfer coefficient (Wm-2Co-1)
k = thermal conductivity of the cylinder (Wm-1 C0-1)
t = time since step change (s)
T(0,t) = temperature at the center of cylinder (=T3 at time t) (oC)
Ti = initial temperature of the cylinder (=T3 at t=0) (oC)
T∞ = temperature of hot water (=T1) (oC)
b = equivalent length V/As (m)
r = radial position within the cylinder (at axis r = 0) (m)
Ct = lumped thermal capacitance of the soild.
Rt = Resistance to convection heat transfer.

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PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
on the panel are at OFF position.

3. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

TROUBLESHOOTING:

 If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main supply.

REFERENCES:

1. Holman, J.P., “Heat Transfer”, 9th ed., McGraw Hill, ND, 2008, Page 371-378.

2. Y.A.Cengel, “Heat & Mass Transfer”, McGraw Hill, ND, 2008, Page 27-29.

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3. Heat Transfer Through Lagged Pipe

OBJECTIVE:
To study the heat transfer through the insulating medium
AIM:

 To determine heat flow rates though the lagged pipe for known value of thermal conductivity of
lagging material.

 To plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.

INTRODUCTION:

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy transfer from the high temperature
region to the low temperature region. Energy is transferred by conduction and heat transfer rate per unit
area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient:
q T

A X

When the proportionality constant is inserted,

T
q   kA
X
Where q is the heat transfer rate and T / X is the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow. The
positive constant k is called thermal conductivity of the material.
THEORY:
Consider a long cylinder of inside radius ri, and length L. We expose this cylinder to a temperature
differential Ti –To and see what the heat flow will be. For a cylinder with length very large compared to
diameter, it may be assumed that the heat flow in a radial direction, so that the only space coordinate
needed to specify the system is ‘r’. In cylindrical system the Fourier’s law is written
dT
q   kAr
dX

Ar  2rL

dT
q  2krL
dr

with the boundary conditions

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T  Ti at r  ri
T  To at r  ro

The solution to equation is

2krLTi  To 
q
Inro ri 

and the isothermal resistance in this case is

Inro ri 
Rth 
2kL

The thermal-resistance concept may be used for multiple – layer cylindrical walls just as it was
used for plane walls. for the two layer system the solution is

2kLT1  T3 
q
In r2 r1  k A  In r3 r1  k B

DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consist of three concentric pipe mounted on suitable stands. The inside pipe consist
of the heater. Between first two cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is to be done is
asbestos and in second and third pipe is wooden dust.
The Thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders appropriately to measure the
temperatures. The input to the heater is varied through a dimmer stat and measured on a voltmeter,
ammeter. The experiments can be conducted at various values of input and calculations can be made
accordingly.

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UTILITIES REQUIRED:
 Electricity Supply: 1 Phase, 220 V AC, 2 Amp.
 Table for set-up support

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Start the supply of heater & by varying dimmer stat adjusts the input for desired values by using
voltmeter and ammeter.

2. Take reading of all the 6 thermocouples at the interval of 10 minutes until the said steady state is
reached.

3. Note down steady state readings in observation table.

(Assumptions: The Pipe is so long as compared with diameter that heat flows in radial direction only
in middle half section.)

SPECIFICATION:

Inner pipe = 5 cm Dia (Approx)

Middle Pipe = 10 cm Dia (Approx)

Outer Pipe = 15 cm Dia (Approx)

Temp. Sensor position of T1 & T2 = 25 cm from each end. Similarly for T3, T4, T5, T6 Heater

Nichrome wire heater with control unit capacity of 440 watts Max.

Heater control Unit 2 Amps.

Single phase Dimmerstat 1 No

Voltmeter 0-2.5 V

Ammeter 0-2.5 Amps.

Temperature Indicator for the thermocouples

Range 0-200o C 1 Nos

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FORMULAE:

1. Theoretical heat flow rate though the composite cylinder (for two insulating layers)

2LTi  To 
Q
In R2 R1  k1   In R3 R2  k 2 
2. From know value of heat flow rate value of combined thermal conductivity, keff of lagging
material can be calculated:

2Lk eff Ti  To 

Q
InR3 R1 

QInR3 R1 
k rff 
2LTi  To 

3. To plot the temperature distribution use formulae:-

T  T1 InR R1 

To T i InR3 R1 

Thus the plot of T Vs R (Thickness) can be made for different values of R.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

DATA:

Radius of Innermost pipe = 25 mm

Radius of Middle pipe = 50 mm

Radius of Outermost pipe = 75 mm

Material filled in Inner Annulus: = Asbestos

Material filled in Outer Annulus: = Sawdust

Thermal Conductivity of Asbestos = 0.26 W/m o C

Thermal Conductivity of Sawdust = 0.069 W/m o C

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Volt Reading Ammeter q = heat supplied Thermocouple Readings

meter V I = V  I  0.707
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
W

CALCULATION:

Mean Readings:

T1  T2
Inside, Ti 
2
T3  T4
Middle, Tm 
2
T T
Outside, To  5 6
2

Power supplied = heat supplied = Q  V  l avg ,W

Calculate Qthe and keff.

NOMENCLATURE:

k = Thermal conductivity of material.

A = Heat transfer area.
q = heat transfer rate.
ri = inside radius of the pipe.
ro = outside radius of the pipe.
Ti = inside temperature of the pipe.
To = outside temperature of the pipe.
L = Length of the pipe.
R = Isothermal Resistance.

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PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Use the stabilize A.C. Single Phase supply only.

2. Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on the
panel are at OFF position.

3. Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.

4. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.

5. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 240 volts.

6. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

7. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

8. There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating of if the
satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.

TROUBLESHOOTING:

1. If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the fuse and also check the
main supply.

2. If D.T.I displays “I” on the screen check the computer socket. If loose tight it.

3. If temperature of any sensor is not displays in D.T.I check the connection and rectify that.

4. Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not. Tight the heater
socket & switch if ok it means heater burned.

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4. Critical Heat Flux Apparatus

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is

a. To study about the pool boiling phenomenon up to the critical heat flux in a boiling
apparatus.
b. To determine the critical heat flux of a given wire.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

The apparatus required for this experiment is

a. Pool boiling apparatus with

i. Electricity supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp. Socket with earth
connection
ii. Water supply: initial filled with drainage

INTRODUCTION

This experimental set-up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux. The
pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical heat flux point
at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied
convection to nucleate boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number
can be visualized followed by vigorous bubbles and their immediate carrying over to surface and ending
this in the breaking of wire indicating the occurrence of critical heat flux point. This is repeated for various
temperatures of the water in the container up to the saturation temperature.

THEORY

When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at a temperature higher than the
saturation temperature of the liquid, it is used for the part of the liquid to change phase. This change of
phase is called 'Boiling'. Boiling are of various types depending upon the temperature difference between
the surface and the liquid. The different types of experimental boiling curve are obtained in a saturated
pool of liquid.

The heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw - Ts) i.e., the difference between the temperature
of the surface and the saturation temperature of the liquid.

It is seen that the boiling curve can be divided into four regions:

a. Natural Convection Region.

b. Nucleate Boiling Region, and

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c. Transition Boiling Region

d. Film Boiling Region.

Natural Convection Region: The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature differences (of
the order of 10 0C or less). Heat transfer from the heated surface to liquid in its vicinity causes the liquid
to be superheated. This superheated liquid rises to the free liquid surface by natural convection, where
vapor is produced by evaporation.

Figure 1: Typical boiling curve for water at 1 atmospheric pressure.

Nucleate Boiling Region: As the temperature difference (Tw - Ts ) is increased, nucleate boiling starts.
In this region, it is observed that bubble start to form at certain locations on the heated surface. Region II
consists of two parts. In the first part, II - a, the bubble form action as well as the number. In the second
part, II - b, the rate of bubble formation as well as the number of locations where they are formed, increase.
Some of the bubbles now rise all the way to the free surface. With increasing temperature difference a
stage is finally reached when the rate of formation of bubble is so high, that they start to collapse and
blanked the surface with a vapor film. This the beginning of region III, viz.

Transition Boiling Region: In the fast part of this region, III - a, the vapor film is unstable, so that film
boiling may be occurring on a portion of the heated surface area, while nucleate boiling may be occurring
on the remaining area.
Film Boiling Region: In the second part, IV, a stable film covers the entire surface. The temperature
difference in this region is the order of 1000 0C and consequently radiative heat transfer across the vapor
film is also significant.

In region I, the heat flux is proportion to (Tw - Ts)n where 'n' is slightly greater than unity (about 1.3) when
the transition from nature convection to nucleate boiling occur, the heat flux starts to increase more rapidly
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with temperature difference, the value of 'n' increase to about at the end of region II, the boiling curve
reaches a peak. Beyond this, region III, in spite of increasing temperature difference, the heat flux decrease
because the thermal resistance to heat flow increase with the formation of a vapor film. The heat flux
passes through a minimum (point D) at the end of region IV. It starts to increase again with (Tw -Ts) only
when stable film boiling and radiation becomes increasingly important.

It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surface gangs as the heat flux is steadily increase
from zero. Up to natural convection boiling and then nucleate boiling occur and the temperature of the
heating surface is obtained by reading the value of (Tw - Ts) from the boiling curve.

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of container housing the test heater and heater coil for initial heating of water. This
heating coil is directing connected to mains (Heater) and the Test Heater (Nichrome Wire) is connected
also to mains via a dimmer stat and a ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to read
the current and voltage. A micro controller based peak detector has been provided to measure the
maximum current during the process. The heater wire can be viewed through a transparent window.

Figure : Pool Boiling Apparatus

PRECAUTION
a. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230 volts.
b. Never switch on mains power supply before insuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
on the panel are at OFF position.
c. Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
d. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

Note: If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the main supply.

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PROCEDURE
a. Fill the water bath with water up to the desired level.
b. Connect the spinfied gauge/test heater wire.
c. Set the desired bath temperature with the help of DTC (500C - 800C)
d. Initialize the peak indicator by pressing the button provided.
e. Switch-ON the test heater.
f. Very gradually increase the voltage across it by slowly changing the variac from one
position to the other and stop a while at each position to observe the boiling phenomenon on
wire.
g. Record the voltage and current at various intermediate stages. This can be used to find the
resistance of wire at varying temperature co-efficient for Nichrome wire using this T, surface
temperature can be calculated.
h. Go on increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note the voltage and current at
this point.
i. Bring the variac to zero voltage and note down the maximum current.
j. Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

OBSERVATIONS

The observation table is as follows.

S.N. Heater Input Temperature (0C)

Voltage Amperage Bulk Heater Nichrome Heater Boiling Water
(V) (I) Temperature (T1) Temp. (T2) Temperature (T3)
1.

2.

3.

4.

For this experiment, the given data are as follows

Diameter of test heater wire (d) = 0.09 mm

Length of the test heater wire (L) = 150 mm
Resistance of wire (R) = 4ῼ

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CALCULATIONS

Surface area of the wire, A is given by 𝑨 = 𝝅 × 𝒅 × 𝑳, m2…………………. (1)

Heat supplied by the heater (W) is given by, 𝑾 = 𝑽 × , Watts …………………. (2)

Critical heat flux (Q cri, flux) is given by, , W/m2…………………. (3)

Heat transfer coefficient, h is given by, 𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒 × (𝑸𝒄𝒓𝒊,𝒍𝒖𝒙)𝟎.𝟕𝟓 , W/m2K………………. (4)

𝒉
√
Temperature excess, ΔT is given by, 𝜟𝑻 = 𝟓.𝟓𝟖 K ………………. (5)

RESULT ANALYSIS
a. Drawn the graph of Qcri,flux Versace ΔT and
b. Compare ΔT with the experimental values i.e., difference of water temperature and the test
wire/boiling temperature.

CONCLUSION

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5. Heat Transfer In Drop And Film Wise Condensation

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is

a. To demonstrate dropwise and filmwise condensation.

b. To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient in dropwise and filmwise condensation.
c. To compare the heat transfer phenomenon between dropwise and filmwise condensation

APPARATUS REQUIRED

The apparatus required for this experiment is

a. Dropwise and filmwise condensation apparatus with

i. Electricity supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp. Socket with earth
connection
ii. Water supply: initial filled with drainage

INTRODUCTION

This experimental set-up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux. The
pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical heat flux point
at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the
applied convection to nucleate boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and
number can be visualized followed by vigorous bubbles and their immediate carrying over to surface and
ending this in the breaking of wire indicating the occurrence of critical heat flux point. This is repeated
for various temperatures of the water in the container up to the saturation temperature.

THEORY

In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it transfer heat to a cooling medium, e. g., cold water
in the condenser of a generating station, hot water in a heating calorifire, sugar refinery, etc. During
condensation very high heat fluxes are possible & provided the heat can be quickly transferred from the
condensing surface to the cooling medium, heat exchanger using steam can be compact & effective.

Steam may condense on to a surface in two distinct modes, known a "Filmwise" & "Dropwise". For the
same temperature difference between the steam & the surface, dropwise condensation is much more
effective than film wise & for this reason the former is desirable although in practical plants it rarely
occurs for prolonged periods.
Filmwise condensation: Unless specially treated, most materials are wettable & as condensation occurs
a film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film depends upon a number of factors,
e. g. the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the condensate and whether the surface is vertical or
horizontal, etc. Fresh vapour condenses on to the outside of the film & heat is transferred by conduction

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through the film to the metal surface beneath. As the film thickness increases, it flows downward & drips
from the low points leaving the film intact & at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is barrier to
the transfer of heat and its resistance accounts for most of the difference between the effectiveness of
filmwise and dropwise condensation.

Dropwise condensation: By specially treating the condensing surface the contact angle can be changed
and the surface becomes 'non - wettable'. As the steam condenses, a large number of generally spherical
beads cover the surface. As condensation proceeds, the moving bead gathers all the static beads along its
downward in its trail. The 'bear' surface offers very little resistance to the transfer of heat and very high
heat fluxes therefore possible.

Unfortunately, due to the nature of the material used in the construction of condensing heat exchangers,
filmwise condensation is normal. (Although many bare metal surfaces are 'non - wettable' this not is true
of the oxide film which quickly covers the bare material)

DESCRIPTION

The equipment consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes place.

Figure : Dropwise and filmwise apparatus

The lower portion houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A special arrangement is provided
for the container for filling the water. The glass cylinder houses two water cooled copper condensers, one
of which is chromium plated to promote dropwise condensation and the other is in its natural state to give
filmwise condensation.

A connection for pressure gauge is provided. Separate connections of two condensers for passing water
are provided. One rotameter with appropriate piping can be used for measuring water flow rate in one of
the condenser under test. A digital temperature indicator provided has multipoint connections which
measures temperature of steam, two condensers, water inlet & outlet temperature of condenser water
flows.

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PRECAUTION
a. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the test unit.
b. Operate gently the selector switch of temperature indicator to read various temperatures.

PROCEDURE
c. Fill up 5 liters distilled water in main unit by opening the valve.
d. After filling the water close the valve. Start water flow through one of the condenser which
is to be tested and note down water flow rate in rotameter. Ensure that during measurement, water
is flowing only through the condenser under test and second valve is closed.
e. Connect supply socket to mains and switch ON the heater switch.
f. Slowly generation will start in the steam generation of the unit and the steam rises to test
section, gets condensed on the tubes and falls down in the cylinder.
g. Depending upon of condenser under test dropwise and filmwise can be visualized.
h. If the water flow rate is low then steam pressure in the chamber will rise and pressure gauge
will read the pressure. If the water flow rate is matched then condensation will occur at more or
less atmospheric pressure or up to 1 kg pressure.
i. Observation like temperature water flow rates, pressure are noted down in the observation
table at the end of each set.
j. Same procedure can be repeated for other condenser.

Note: Except for some exceptional cases overall heat transfer coefficient for Dropwise condensation will
be higher than that of filmwise condensation. Results may vary from theory in some degree due to
unavoidable heat losses.

OBSERVATION

The observation table is as follows.

S.N. Steam pressures (Kg/cm2) Condenser under test Water flow rate (LPH)

1.

2.

3.

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The observation table for temperature reading is as follows.

S.N. 1 2 3

Painted condenser outer surface (T1)

Plain condenser outer surface (T2)
Enclosure (T3)
Water inlet to condenser (T4)
Water outlet plain condenser (T5)
Water outlet plain condenser (T6)

CALCULATIONS

Normally steam will not be pressurized. But if pressure gauge reads some pressure then properties of
steam should be taken at that pressure or otherwise atmospheric pressure will be taken.

I. First, the heat transfer coefficient inside the condenser (h i) under test should be calculated.

For this properties of water are taken at bulk mean temperature of water i. e. (T wi + Two)/2 where Twi and
Two are water inlet & outlet temperature respectively. Following properties are required. ρ 1 = Density
of water, kg/m3 ν1 = Kinematics velocity m2/sec.

K1 = Thermal conductivity, W/m oC Pr = Prandtl number. Calculate

Reynold's number

Where, Di = Inner diameter of condenser = 1.7 cms

If this value of Re ≥ 2100 then flow is turbulent and this value flow is laminar. Normally flow will be
turbulent in the tube.

Calculate Nusselt Number

𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟖 × 𝑷𝒓𝟎.𝟒

The heat transfer coefficient on inside the condenser (h i) is given by,

, W/m2 oC

II. Secondly, the heat transfer coefficient on outer surface of the condenser (ho) under test
should be calculated.

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For this properties of water taken at bulk mean temperature of condensate

𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝒔 + 𝑻𝒘, oC

Where Ts = Temperature of steam, oC and Tw = Temperature of condenser wall, oC.

Properties needed are ρ2 = Density of water, kg/m3 K2 = Thermal

Conductivity, W/m oC

µ = Viscosity of condensate, Kg/m.s λ = Heat of evaporation, 540 Kcal/Kg

Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2 and L = length

of condenser = 160mm.

III. Finally, the overall heat transfer coefficient should be calculated.

From these values overall heat transfer coefficient (U) can be calculated

Sample calculations

A. Filmwise condensation (for plain condenser) Theoretical

calculation

, W/m2 oC

Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2 and L = length

of condenser = 160mm.
From these values overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.

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Experimental calculation
Outer diameter of heat transfer surface, do = 19 mm
Length of heat transfer surface, L =175mm
Heat transfer area, A = π x d x L = π (19 x10-3) x (175 x 10-3) = 0.010445 m2
Steam tap temperature, T∞ = 111.5 oC
Condensation surface temperature, Ts =89 oC (→ average)
Water inlet tap, Twi = 27.6 oC
Water outlet tap, Two = 35.8 oC
Mass flow rate of cooling water, Mw = 86.48 kg/hr
Steam condensed = 252g in 8 minutes
Therefore, Rate of steam condensate, ms = 252/8 = 31.5 g/min. = 1.89 kg/hr. Latent heat of
steam (at T∞) = 2230 kJ/kg or, 533.5 kcal/kg.
Cpwater = 4.174 KJ/kg or, 1 kcal/kg oC
Properties of saturated water at 100 oC (= (111 +89)/2) oC
λ = 533.5 1 kcal/kg, δ = 958.4 kg/m3, K = 0.683W/m.K = 0.5873 kcal/hmoC,

µ = 282.4 x 10-6 Kg/m.s, Pr = 1.75

Heat flux = h (T∞ - Ts)

Condensation flux for a length, L = (T∞ - Ts)/ λ

Q = h A ΔT

hf = Q/ A ΔT = (ms x λ)/ A ΔT = (1.89 x 533.5)/(0.010445 x (111.5 – 89) = 4290.47 kcal/hm 2oC

Observed heat transfer coefficient, hf = 4290.47 kcal/hm2oC

Condensation flux = h (T∞ - Ts)/ λ = 180.95 kg/hm2

Prediction by Nusselt equation

Using Nusselt equation for condensation over a vertical surface

Theoretical heat transfer coefficient, hth = 7066.20 kcal/hm2oC

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Discussion

The deviation between theoretical h & experimental h may be due to

a. Wall temperature may not have remained constant at T s throughout the run.
b. Saturated steam temperature T∞ in the surrounding space varies due to change in steam
pressure.
c. There could be presence of air as non - considerable in the condenser that reduces the heat
transfer coefficient.

In order to minimize this effect, air should be removed to the maximum possible.

B. Dropwise condensation (for painted condenser)

, W/m2 oC

Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2 and L = length

of condenser = 160mm.
From these values overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.

Experimental calculation

Outer diameter of heat transfer surface, do = 19 mm

Length of heat transfer surface, L =175mm
Heat transfer area, A = π x d x L = π (19 x10-3) x (175 x 10-3) = 0.010445 m2
o
Steam tap temperature, T∞ = 108 C
Condensation surface temperature, Ts = 81.5 oC
Water inlet tap, Twi = 29.5 oC
Water outlet tap, Two = 39.6 oC
Mass flow rate of cooling water, Mw = 86.48 kg/hr
Steam condensed = 264g in 6 minutes
Therefore, Rate of steam condensate, ms = 264/6 = 44 g/min. = 2.64 kg/hr. Latent heat of
steam (at T∞) = 2230 kJ/kg or, 533.5 kcal/kg.
Cpwater = 4.174 KJ/kg or, 1 kcal/kg oC

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Experimental heat transfer coefficient is given by,

hd = Q/ A ΔT = (ms x λ)/ A ΔT = (2.64 x 533.5)/(0.010445 x (118 – 81.5) = 5088.43 kcal/hm 2oC

Discussion:

Observed condensation heat transfer coefficient:

Film wise = hf = 4290.47 kcal/h-m2 oC

Dropwise = hd = 5088.43 kcal/h-m2-oC

As can be seen,

Dropwise Condensation is 40% more than of Filmwise condensation.

RESULT ANALYSIS

CONCLUSION

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6. Parallel Flow/Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this experiment is

a. To demonstrate heat transfer through parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.
b. To determine LMTD and effectiveness of the heat exchanger under parallel and counter
flow arrangement.

INTRODUCTION

Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at different
temperatures. Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from
heating and air - conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in
large plants.

This experimental set-up is designed to study the heat transfer mechanism and calculate the LMTD as
well as effectiveness of the heat exchanger under parallel and counter flow arrangement. The water heated
using immersion heater transfers its heat energy to cold water in concentric tubes and temperatures of
both hot and cold water is noted in inlet and outlet condition in the steady state condition. The experiment
is repeated for different flow rates for both flow condition.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

The apparatus required for this experiment is

a. Heat exchanger apparatus with

i. Electricity supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp. Socket with earth
connection
ii. Water supply: Initially filled in both tanks.
b. Glass thermometers: 4 pieces

THEORY

The transfer of heat in an exchanger between two fluids could be carried out either by direct contact heat
exchangers while the latter are regenerators, recuperates or surface exchangers.

Types of Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are generally classified according to the directions of flow of the hot and cold fluids with
respect to each other, or according to the temperature distribution of the two fluids along the exchanger
length. Thus we may have the parallel-flow, counter-flow and cross- flow types of heat exchangers:
a. Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger: In this type of heat exchanger the hot and cold fluids flow in the
same direction, hence the name parallel-flow. In a parallel-flow exchanger, the temperature

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difference between the hot and cold fluids goes on decreasing from inlet to exit many devices, such
as water heaters, oil heaters and oil coolers, etc, belong to this class.
b. Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger: In this case, the two fluids flow through the exchangers in
opposite directions hence the name counter flow. It can be seen that the temperature difference
between the two fluids remains more nearly constant as compared to the parallel flow type. Counter-
flow heat exchangers are the most favorable devices for heating and cooking of fluids because, for a
given surface area, these exchangers give the maximum heat transfer rate.

Figure 1: a) Parallel flow heat exchanger. b) Counter flow heat exchanger

Heat exchangers are analyzed

a. To determine the heat transfer rate for a given temperature change in a fluid stream of
known mass flow rate, or
b. to predict the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams in a specified heat
exchanger.

The log mean temperature difference (or LMTD) method is best suited for the first task and the
effectiveness–NTU method for the second task.

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

The temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids varies along the heat exchanger, and therefore,
it is convenient to have a mean temperature difference T m for use in the relation

𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨𝒔𝜟𝑻𝒍𝒎 ……………….. (1)

Tlm is the log mean temperature difference, which is the suitable form of the average temperature
difference for use in the analysis of heat exchangers.

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……………….. (2)

The logarithmic mean temperature difference Tlm is obtained by tracing the actual temperature profile
of the fluids along the heat exchanger and is an exact representation of the average temperature difference
between the hot and cold fluids. It truly reflects the exponential decay of the local temperature difference.
The log mean temperature difference Tlm relation developed earlier is limited to parallel-flow and
counter-flow heat exchangers only.

Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Method

NTU Method is used for the determination of the heat transfer rate and the outlet temperatures of the hot
and cold fluids for prescribed fluid mass flow rates and inlet temperatures when the type and size of the
heat exchanger are specified. Kays and London came up with a method in 1955 called effectiveness-NTU
method, which greatly simplified heat exchanger analysis. This method is based on a dimensionless
parameter called the heat transfer effectiveness ϵ, defined as

……………….. (3)

Theoretically, effectiveness of heat transfer is given by,

For parallel flow, , ……………….. (4)

For counter flow, , ……………….. (5)

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of two separate tanks for cold and hot water with pumps to flow water through
concentric tubes. The inner tube is made of copper while the outer tube is made of Galvanized Iron.
Insulation is provided on outer tubes and provision has been made for hot water generation by means of
immersion heater. Change over mechanism is provided to change the direction of flow of cold water in a
single operation using valves. Acrylic rotameters of specific range is used for direct measurement of water
flow rate. Temperature sensors are placed at appropriate positions which carry the signals to the

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temperature indicator. Digital temperature indicators as well as glass thermometers are provided to
measure the temperature.

The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed self-sustained sturdy frame made of MS
with vertical control panel. The control panel houses all the indicators, accessories and necessary
instrumentations.

Figure : Heat Exchanger Apparatus for Parallel Flow and Counter Flow

PRECAUTIONS
a. Check all the electrical connections.
b. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180 V.
c. Handle the glass thermometers properly.
d. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole system.

PROCEDURE
a. Switch ON the main switch and heater switch placed on the control panel.
b. Set the exchanger for parallel or counter flow using the changeover mechanism.
c. Start both the pumps after the hot water reaches to 400C.
d. Set the flow rate of the hot water using the rotameter of the hot water.
e. Set the flow rate of the cold water using the rotameter of the cold water.
f. Wait for the sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.
g. Note down the temperatures using thermometer and digital temperature indicator.
h. Note down the flow rates of the water and tabulate.
i. Now, change the direction of flow for the same flow rates and repeat the steps.
j. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates of water.

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OBSERVATIONS

The observation table is as follows.

S.N. Flow Direction Temperature 0C Flow rate, lpm

T1 T2 T3 T4 Hot water Cold water
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

T1 = hot water inlet temperature, T2 = hot water outlet temperature

T3 = cold water inlet temperature (in case of parallel flow); cold water outlet temperature (in case of
counter flow)

T4 = cold water outlet temperature (in case of parallel flow); cold water inlet temperature (in case of
counter flow)

CALCULATIONS

Heat transfer rate from hot water (QH) is given by,

𝑸𝑯 = 𝒎𝑯 × 𝑪𝑷𝑯 × (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐), Watts ……………….. (6)

Heat transfer rate from cold water (QC) is given by,

𝑸𝑪 = 𝒎𝑪 × 𝑪𝑷𝑪 × (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒), Watts……………….. (7)

Where, mH and mC is mass flow rate of hot water and cold water respectively and

CPH and CPC is specific heat of hot water and cold water from table at temperature (T1 + T2)/2 and (T3 +
T4)/2 respectively.

Net heat transfer rate, Q is given by, ……………….. (8)

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) is given by, ……………….. (9)

a. For parallel flow: ΔTI = (ΔTHI – ΔTCI) and ΔTO = (ΔTHO – ΔTCO)
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b. For counter flow: ΔTI = (ΔTHI – ΔTCO) and ΔTO = (ΔTHO – ΔTCI)

Note: The suffix H = hot water, C = cold water, I = inlet, O = outlet

The overall heat transfer coefficients is given by, , W/m 0K ……………….. (10)

𝐴 = 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑜 × 𝐿, m2 where, Do = 0.02 m and L = 1 m

Effectiveness of heat exchanger

The experimental value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is given by,

, if Cmax > Cmin……………….. (11)

, if Cmax < Cmin……………….. (12) The

theoretical value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is given by,

For parallel flow. , ……………….. (13)

For counter flow, , ……………….. (14)

Where, 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝐻 × 𝐶𝑃 , 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐 × 𝐶𝑃𝐶 and

Number of transfer units is given by, ……………….. (15)

Where, CM = minimum of Cmin and Cmax

Percentage of Error = ……………….. (16)

Sample Calculations

At (T1 + T2)/2, CPH = ……………………

At (T3 + T4)/2, CPC = …………………… And

mH = …………………… kg/sec mC =

…………………… kg/sec

𝑸𝑯 = 𝒎𝑯 × 𝑪𝑷𝑯 × (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐) = …………………… watts

𝑸𝑪 = 𝒎𝑪 × 𝑪𝑷𝑪 × (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒) = …………………… watts

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Net heat transfer rate is, = …………………… watts

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

LMTD for parallel flow, = ……………………

LMTD for counter flow, = ……………………

𝐴 = 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑜 × 𝐿 = …………………… m2 where, Do = 0.02 m and L = 1 m

The overall heat transfer coefficients is given by, = ……………………W/m 0K

Effectiveness of heat exchanger

𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝐻 × 𝐶𝑃𝐻 = ……………………

𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑐 × 𝐶𝑃𝐶 = ……………………

= …………………

Since, Cmax > Cmin, The experimental value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is

= ……………………

Or, Since, Cmax < Cmin, The experimental value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is

= ……………………

For parallel flow, the theoretical value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is

= ……………………

For counter flow, the theoretical value of effectiveness of heat exchanger is

= ……………………

Since, Cmax < Cmin Number of transfer units is given by, = ……………………

Percentage of Error = = ……………………

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RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

CONCLUSIONS

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7. Heat Transfer From Pin-Fin Apparatus

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this experiment is

a. To find out the temperature distribution along the given fin for constant base temperature
under natural convection of the fins
b. To calculate the effectiveness of the fin.

INTRODUCTION

This experimental set-up is designed to study the heat transfer phenomenon using pins types and
rectangular types of fins. The water is heated using immersion heater is pumped to insulated unit where
two pins and rectangular fins are provided for heat dissipation. The temperature of fins are measured using
temperature sensors at different positions which will later on used to calculate the efficiency and
effectiveness of the fins.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

The apparatus required for this experiment is

Fins Heat Transfer apparatus with

i. Electricity supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp. Socket with earth
connection
ii. Water supply: Initially filled in tank.

THEORY

The rate of heat transfer from a surface at a temperature T s to the surrounding medium at T∞ is given by
Newton’s law of cooling as

𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗. = 𝒉𝑨𝒔(𝑻𝒔− 𝑻∞) …………………. (1)

Where, As is the heat transfer surface area and h is the convection heat transfer coefficient

When the temperature Ts and T∞ are fixed by design considerations, as is often the case, there are two
ways to increase the rate of heat transfer

1. Increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient h or

2. Increasing the surface area As.

Increasing h may require the installation of a pump of fan, or replacing the existing one with a larger one,
but this approach may or may not be practical. Besides, it may not be adequate.

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The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to the surface extended surfaces called fins
made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum. Finned surfaces are manufactured by extruding,
welding or wrapping a thin metal sheet on a surface. Fin enhance heat transfer from a surface by exposing
a larger surface area to convection and radiation.

In the analysis of fins, we consider steady operation with no heat generation in the fin, and we assume the
thermal conductivity k of the material to remain constant. We also assume the convection heat transfer
coefficient h to be constant and uniform over the entire surface of the fin for the convenience in the
analysis.

Figure 1: a) thin plates fins of a car. b) Some innovative fin designs

Under steady conditions, for a fin of constant thermal conductivity k and cross sectional area A c
and perimeter p, the fin equation is given by

Figure 2: a) Volume element of fin, b) boundary conditions at the fin base and fin tip

……………….. (2)

………………… (3)

𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝑻∞ …………… (4)

Where, 𝜃 is temperature excess.

The steady rate of heat transfer from the entire fin is given by

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…………… (5)

Fins are not likely to be so long that their temperature approaches the surrounding temperature at the tip.
A more realistic assumption is for heat transfer from the fin tip to be negligible since the surface area of
the fin tip is usually a negligible fraction of the total fin area.

So, the heat transfer from the entire fin is also given by,

…………… (6)

In reality, the temperature of the fin will drop along the fin, and thus the heat transfer from the fin will be
less because of the decreasing temperature T(x) - T ∞ towards the fin tip as shown in
the figure 3.

Figure 3: Temperature distribution along a fin a) ideal, b) actual

To account for this effect of this decrease in temperature on heat transfer, we define a fin efficiency as

…………… (7)

Also, efficiency of the fin is given by,

Fins are used to enhance the heat transfer, and the use of fins on a surface cannot be recommended unless
the enhancement in heat transfer justifies the added cost and complexity associated with the fins. In fact,
there is no assurance that adding fins on a surface will enhance heat transfer. The performance of the fins
is judged on the basis of the enhancement in heat transfer in the heat transfer relative to the no-fin case.
The performance of fins expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness εfin is defined as

…………… (8)

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DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of hot water tank with pump to flow hot water through GI pipe that gets collected
in insulated unit where pin-fins and rectangular fins of three different materials in are placed. Pin type fin
of diameter 8 mm and 150 mm long and Plate fins of 50 mm X 50 mm X 5 mm made of copper, brass
and mild steel with suitable temperature points and heater of 1 kW capacity. Heater switch is placed on
the control panel to supply the regulated power input to the heater. Flexible temperature sensors are
provided to measure the surface temperature at different positions of fins and Digital Temperature
Indicator is provided to display the temperatures. The control panel houses all the indicators, accessories
and necessary instrumentations. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed self-
sustained MS frame.

Figure : Fins heat transfer unit

PRECAUTIONS
a. Check all the electrical connections
b. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
c. Special care should be given while handling the temperature sensors.

PROCEDURE
d. Switch on the MCB and the heater switch to heat the water.
e. Wait for reasonable time to allow temperatures to reach steady state.
f. Start the pump after the hot water reaches to 400C.
g. Set the flow rate of the hot water.
h. Measure the flow rate and temperatures for T1 to T4 at known time interval.
i. Calculate the effectiveness and efficiency of the fin using the procedure given.
j. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates of hot water.

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OBSERVATION

The distance between T1, T2, T3 should be measured.

S.N. Fin type, Material Rotameter Temperature, oC

reading,
lps
H1 Air(h=30W/m2K) T1 T2 T3 T4
1. Circular, Copper
(k=401W/mK)
2. Circular, Mild steel
(k=80W/mK)
3. Circular, Brass
(k=109W/mK)
4. Rectangular,
Copper(k=401W/mK)
5. Rectangular, Mild
steel(k=80W/mK)
6. Rectangular, Brass
(k=109W/mK)

CALCULATIONS

Determine overall heat transfer coefficient

Prandtl Number is given by, …………… (9)

Where, Cp is specific heat of air, μ is dynamic viscosity of air, Kair is thermal conductivity of air

Coefficient of volumetric expansion is given by, …………… (10)

Grasshof Number is given by, …………… (11)

Where, L is length of fin, ρ is density of air, Tm is mean effective temperature of the fin., Ta is ambient
temperature

All properties of air should be taken at (Tm + Ta)/2 from the data hand book.

Nusselt Number is calculated using formula,

𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟏(𝑮𝒓. 𝐏𝐫)/𝟔, when 10-1 < (Gr.Pr) > 104…………… (12)

𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑(𝑮𝒓. 𝐏𝐫)/𝟒, when 104 < (Gr.Pr) > 109…………… (13)

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𝑵𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑(𝑮𝒓. 𝐏𝐫)/𝟑, when 109 < (Gr.Pr) > 1012…………… (14) Heat transfer

coefficient of fin is given by, …………… (15)

Where, Dc is diameter of fin. Determine m

m is calculated using formula, …………… (16)

Where, Ac = is the cross section area of the fin = , Dc = 0.008 m

p = is perimeter of the fin, Kf = is conductivity of fin material,

Heat transfer from the fin

The heat transfer from the entire fin is also given by,

…………… (17)

Efficiency of the fin

The efficiency of the fin is given by, …………… (18)

Effectiveness of the fin

The effectiveness of the fin is given by, …………… (19)

Temperature distribution along the fin

The temperature distribution along the fin is given by, …………… (20) Where, T x =
is the temperature along the fin at a distance ‘x’ measured from the base. T 1 = is the fin base
temperature, and T4 = is surrounding air temperature x = is the distance of the unknown temperature
point.

Sample calculations

Tm = …….. , Ta = ……..

From data book, properties of air at (Tm + Ta)/2 = …….. are

Cp = …….. , μ = …….. , Kair = …….. , ρ = ……..

Prandtl Number, ……………

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Coefficient of volumetric expansion, ……………

L = …………….. , Dc = …………….., p = …………….., Kf = is conductivity of fin material,

Grasshof Number, ……………

Now, Gr.Pr = …………………. Which is in the range of 10 -1 < (Gr.Pr) > 104

Nusselt number, 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟏(𝑮𝒓. 𝐏𝐫)/𝟔, when 10-1 < (Gr.Pr) > 104……………

Heat transfer coefficient of fin, ……………

= ……………

Heat transfer from the fin,

Efficiency of the fin, Effectiveness of the

fin,

T1 = …….., and T4 = ……..

Temperature distribution along the fin, …………… = ……..

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

CONCLUSIONS

Compiled by: Er. Sudan Neupane, Head; Department of Industrial Engineering