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CONTENTS
Preface xvi
vi
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CONTENTS vii
Chapter 4 Reinforcement 65
Defining Reinforcement 67 Schedules of Reinforcement 81
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 70 Fixed Ratio 82
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 73 Variable Ratio 83
Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 73 Fixed Interval 84
Conditioned and Unconditioned Variable Interval 85
Reinforcers 75 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 86
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 87
Reinforcement 76
Chapter Summary 88
Immediacy 76
Key Terms 88
Contingency 77
Practice Test 89
Motivating Operations 77
Appendix A 90
Individual Differences 80
Appendix B 90
Magnitude 81
Chapter 5 Extinction 91
Defining Extinction 92 Factors That Influence Extinction 101
Extinction Burst 95 Chapter Summary 103
Spontaneous Recovery 97 Key Terms 103
Procedural Variations of Extinction 98 Practice Test 103
A Common Misconception about Extinction 100 Appendix A 104
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viii CONTENTS
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x CONTENTS
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CONTENTS xi
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xii CONTENTS
Research on Antecedent Control Strategies 338 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Manipulating Discriminative Undesirable Behavior 348
Stimuli 338 Functional Interventions for Problem
Manipulating Response Effort 341 Behaviors 348
Manipulating Motivating Operations 343 Chapter Summary 349
Using Antecedent Control Strategies 346 Key Terms 349
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the Practice Test 349
Desirable Behavior 347 Applications 350
Misapplications 351
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CONTENTS xiii
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xiv CONTENTS
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CONTENTS xv
Glossary 527
References 539
Name Index 557
Subject Index 563
Quizzes Q1
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PREFACE
I am gratified that the first five editions of Behavior Modification: Principles and
Procedures received positive reviews from students and professors. The sixth
edition has kept the positive features of the first five editions, has been revised to
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated to reflect the latest
research in behavior modification.
The goal of this sixth edition (as with the earlier editions) is to describe basic
principles of behavior so that the student learns how environmental events influ-
ence human behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so that
the student learns the strategies by which human behavior may be changed. The
text is divided into 25 relatively short chapters, each of which covers a manageable
amount of information (for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modification, applied behavior
analysis, behavior management, or behavior change.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory level so that it may be under-
stood by students with no prior knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for under-
graduate students or beginning graduate students. It would also be valuable for
individuals working in human services, education, or rehabilitation who must use behav-
ior modification procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their care.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to be gender neutral. When dis-
cussing case examples, I include males and females about equally as often.
Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing behavior are
based on the fundamental principles of behavior established in experimental
research over the last 80 years. In the belief that the student will better understand
the procedures after first learning the fundamental principles, the principles
xvi
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PREFACE xvii
underlying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters 4–8; the
application of the principles in the behavior modification procedures is described
in Chapters 9–25.
Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of real-life examples—
some relevant to college students, some chosen from the author’s clinical experience—
to bring the principles and procedures to life.
Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and the most up-
to-date research on behavior modification principles and procedures are integrated
into the text.
Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have short-answer essay
questions, complete with page numbers where the answers can be found.
Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where procedures are taught
(Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application exercises are provided. In each exer-
cise, a real-life case is described and then the student is asked to apply the proce-
dure described in the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to
think about how the procedures are applied in real life.
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xviii PREFACE
Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research literature to illustrate
important principles or procedures. Students must use information from earlier chap-
ters on behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs.
Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important behavior modifica-
tion terms used in the text. Each term is followed by a succinct and precise
definition.
Improved Test Bank The test bank includes multiple-choice questions, fill-
in-the-blank questions, true-false questions, and short-answer essay questions.
For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For Further Reading box.
In this feature, interesting articles that are relevant to the content of the chapter
are identified and briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been
provided. These articles are from JABA (or JEAB), so they can be easily accessed
online by students. Instructors can assign these articles for extra credit or as reading
assignments for when more advanced students use the textbook.
List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there is a list of the
new terms that were used in the chapter. The list of key terms shows the page
number on which each term was introduced. Although these terms are all found
in the Glossary at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page num-
bers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the student to have an easy refer-
ence to the terms when reading the chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.
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PREFACE xix
Getting Buy In Discussed the importance of working with care givers to get buy
in for the procedures they are asked to carry out. Emphasized the importance of
treatment acceptability for promoting buy in and the importance of buy in for
enhancing treatment fidelity.
Time Out Added more information on the effective use of time out. Added a
textbox discussing procedures for increasing compliance with time out.
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xx PREFACE
■
Added a brief discussion of the competing responses framework (Chapter 16)
■
Added a brief discussion of team decision making (Chapter 16)
■ Provided discussion of the use of physical restraint as an emergency proce-
dure (Chapter 18)
■ Discussed the use of social media for social support (Chapter 20)
■ Added information on novel uses of habit reversal (Chapter 21)
■ Added a more succinct definition of a token economy (Chapter 22)
■ Added a text box describing three essential components of relaxation proce-
dures (Chapter 24)
■ Added text box introducing behavioral activation treatment for depression
(Chapter 24)
■ Added numerous new references throughout the text
■ Introduced and defined a number of new terms in the text and added them
to the glossary
®
Online PowerPoint Slides These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint® lecture
slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage
using content directly from the textbook.
Acknowledgments
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on this
manuscript and the first five editions: Judith Rauenzahb, Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St. Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton,
University of Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;
Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; Charles Blose, MacMurry College;
Kristine Brady, California School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western
Michigan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd,
Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illinois University; Richard N. Feil,
Mansfield University; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State Uni-
versity; Stephan Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;
Roger Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The University
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PREFACE xxi
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xxii PREFACE
look at the term (or question) on one side of the card and then read the
definition (or answer) on the other. As you study, you will find that you
need to turn the cards over less and less often. Once you can supply the
answer or definition on the back of the card without looking, you’ll know
that you understand the material. Electronic flash cards are available at
the publisher’s website that accompanies the book.
■ Always study in a location that is reasonably free from distractions or
interruptions.
■ Always begin studying for a test at least a few days in advance. Give your-
self more days to study as more chapters are included on the test.
The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behavior modification or applied behavior
analysis.
Raymond G. Miltenberger
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1
Introduction to Behavior
Modification
■ How is human behavior defined?
■ What are the defining features of behavior modification?
■ What are the historical roots of behavior modification?
■ In what ways has behavior modification improved people’s lives?
I n this textbook you will learn about behavior modification, the principles and
procedures used to understand and change human behavior. Behavior modifi-
cation procedures come in many forms. Consider the following examples.
Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their marriage because of fre-
quent arguments. Their marriage counselor arranged a behavioral contract with
them in which they agreed to do several nice things for each other every day. As
a result of this contract, their positive interactions increased and their negative
interactions (arguments) decreased.
1
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Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
and might probably have failed to do so much. The appetite is the
main point. "The heart's all," as Davy says. A small matter made our
ancestors laugh, because they brought stomachs to the feast of
Momus. And, Heaven save the mark! through how many national
troubles has that same joyous temperament (which is the farthest
thing possible from levity,—one of the phases of deep feeling,—)
helped to bring the national mind! The "merry days" of England
were succeeded by what may be called her "age of tears,"—the era
of the sentimentalists, when young gentlemen ceased to wear
cravats, and leaned against pillars in drawing-rooms in fits of moody
abstraction or under the influence of evident inspiration, and young
ladies made lachrymatories of their boudoirs, and met together to
weep, and in fact went through the world weeping. Amid all its
absurdity, there was some real feeling at the bottom of this too; and
therefore it, too, had its pleasure. But there is to be an end of this
also. Truly are we falling upon the "evil days" of which we may say
we "have no pleasure in them." Men are neither to laugh nor smile,
now, without distinctly knowing why. We are in the age of the
philosophers.—All this time, however, Mr. Thomas Tucker is waiting
to have his style and titles proclaimed; and thus do we find them
duly set forth:—
"The most magnificent and renowned Thomas, by the favor of
Fortune, Prince of Alba Fortunata, Lord of St. John's, High Regent of
the Hall, Duke of St. Giles's, Marquis of Magdalen's, Landgrave of the
Grove, Count Palatine of the Cloysters, Chief Bailiff of Beaumont,
High Ruler of Rome, Master of the Manor of Walton, Governor of
Gloucester Green, sole Commander of all Titles, Tournaments, and
Triumphs, Superintendent in all Solemnities whatever."
From these titles,—as well as from those which we have already
mentioned as being assumed by the courtiers of the illustrious Prince
of Sophie, our readers will perceive that alliteration was an
esteemed figure in the rhetoric of the revels.
In order to give our readers a more lively idea of this potentate,
we have, as the frontispiece to our second part, introduced a Lord of
Misrule to preside over the Christmas sports therein described.
Although the titles with which we have there invested him are taken
from the "Gesta Grayorum," the dress in which the artist has
bestowed him is not copied from any one of the particular
descriptions furnished by the different records. He is intended to
represent the ideal of a Christmas prince, and not the portrait of any
particular one of whom we have accounts. The artist's instructions
were therefore confined to investing him with a due magnificence
(referring to the records only so far as to keep the costume
appropriate) and with a complacent sense of his own finery and
state, and we think that Mr. Seymour has succeeded very happily in
catching and embodying the mock heroic of the character. The
Prince of Purpoole, or His Highness of Sophie, must have looked just
such a personage as he has represented.
We must not omit to observe that a corresponding officer appears
to have formerly exercised his functions at some of the colleges at
Cambridge, under the more classical title of Imperator. And we must
further state that at Lincoln's-Inn, in the early times of their
Christmas celebrations, there appear to have been elected (besides
the Lord of Misrule, and, we presume, in subordination to him)
certain dignitaries exercising a royal sway over the revelries of
particular days of the festival. In the account given by Dugdale of
the Christmas held by this society in the ninth year of the reign of
Henry VIII., mention is made—besides the Marshal and (as he is
there called) the Master of the Revels—of a King chosen for
Christmas day, and an officer for Childermas day having the title of
King of the Cockneys. A relic of this ancient custom exists in the
Twelfth Night King, whom it is still usual to elect on the festival of
the Epiphany, and of whom we shall have occasion to speak at
length in his proper place.
The length of the period over which the sway of this potentate
extended does not seem to be very accurately defined, or rather it is
probable that it varied with circumstances. Strictly speaking, the
Christmas season is in our day considered to terminate with Twelfth
Night, and the festival itself to extend over that space of time of
which this night on one side and Christmas eve on the other are the
limits. In ancient times, too, we find frequent mention of the twelve
days of Christmas. Thus the George Ferrers of whom we have
spoken, is appointed "to be in his hyness household for the twelve
days;" and he dates one of his communications to Sir Thomas
Cawarden, "From Greenwich ye second of January and ye ixth day of
or rule." In the extract from the Household-Book of the
Northumberland family which we have already quoted, mention is
also made of the "Playes, Interludes and Dresinge that is plaid befor
his lordship in his hous in the xijth dayes of Christenmas." Stow,
however, says that "these Lords beginning their rule at Allhallond
Eve, continued the same till the morrow after the Feast of the
Purification, commonly called Candlemas day;" and that during all
that time there were under their direction "fine and subtle
disguisings, masks and mummeries, with playing at cards for
counters, nayles and points in every house, more for pastimes than
for gaine." This would give a reign of upwards of three months to
these gentlemen. Dugdale, in describing the revels of the Inner
Temple speaks of the three principal days being All-hallows,
Candlemas, and Ascension days,—which would extend the period to
seven months; and the masque of which we have spoken as forming
the final performance of the celebrated Christmas of 1594, described
in the "Gesta Grayorum," is stated to have been represented before
the queen at Shrovetide. At the Christmas exhibition of St. John's
college, Oxford, held in 1607, Mr. Thomas Tucker did not resign his
office till Shrove-Tuesday; and the costly masque of which we have
spoken as being presented by the four Inns of Court to Charles I.,
and whose title was "The Triumph of Peace," was exhibited in
February of 1633. In Scotland, the rule of the Abbot of Unreason
appears to have been still less limited in point of time; and he seems
to have held his court and made his processions at any period of the
year which pleased him. These processions, it appears, were very
usual in the month of May (and here we will take occasion to
observe parenthetically, but in connection with our present subject,
that the practice at all festival celebrations of selecting some
individual to enact a principal and presiding character in the
ceremonial is further illustrated by the ancient May King, and by the
practice, not yet wholly forgotten, of crowning on the first of that
month a Queen of the May. This subject we shall have occasion to
treat more fully when we come to speak in some future volume of
the beautiful customs of that out-of-doors season).
From what we have stated, it appears probable that the officer
who was appointed to preside over the revels so universally
observed at Christmas time, extended, as a matter of course, his
presidency over all those which—either arising out of them or
unconnected therewith—were performed at more advanced periods
of the succeeding year; that in fact, the Christmas prince was,
without new election, considered as special master of the revels till
the recurrence of the season. It is not necessary for us to suppose
that the whole of the intervals lying between such stated and remote
days of celebration were filled up with festival observances; or that
our ancestors, under any calenture of the spirits, could aim at
extending Christmas over the larger portion of the year. It is,
however, apparent that although the common observances of the
season were supposed to fall within the period bounded by the days
of the Nativity and the Epiphany, the special pageantries with a view
to which the Lords of Misrule were appointed in the more exalted
quarters were in years of high festival spread over a much more
extended time, and that their potential dignities were in full force, if
not in full display, from the eve of All-hallows to the close of
Candlemas day. It is stated in Drake's "Shakspeare and his Times,"
that the festivities of the season, which were appointed for at least
twelve days, were frequently extended over a space of six weeks;
and our readers know from their own experience that, even in these
our days of less prominent and ceremonial rejoicing, the holiday-
spirit of the season is by no means to be restrained within the
narrower of those limits. The Christmas feeling waits not for
Christmas day. The important preparations for so great a festival
render this impossible. By the avenues of most of the senses, the
heralds of old Father Christmas have long before approached to
awake it from its slumber. Signal notes which there is no mistaking,
have been played on the visual and olfactory organs for some time
past, and the palate itself has had foretastes of that which is about
to be. From the day on which his sign has been seen in the heavens,
the joyous influences of the star have been felt and the moment the
school-boy arrives at his home he is in the midst of Christmas. And if
the "coming events" of the season "cast their shadows before," so,
amid all its cross-lights it would be strange if there were no
reflections flung behind. The merry spirit which has been awakened
and suffered to play his antics so long is not to be laid by the
exorcism of a word. After so very absolute and unquestioned a sway,
it is not to be expected that Momus should abdicate at a moment's
notice. Accordingly, we find that, any thing enacted to the contrary
notwithstanding, the genial feelings of the time and the festivities
springing out of them contrive to maintain their footing throughout
the month of January; and Christmas keeps lingering about our
homes till he is no longer answered by the young glad voices to
whom he has not as yet begun to utter his solemn warnings and
expound his sterner morals, and for whom his coming is hitherto
connected with few memories of pain. Till the merry urchins have
gone back to school there will continue to be willing subjects to the
Lord of Misrule.
In Scotland, the Abbot of Unreason was frequently enacted by
persons of the highest rank; and James V. is himself said to have
concealed his crown beneath the mitre of the merry abbot. As in
England, his revels were shared by the mightiest of the land; but
they appear to have been of a less inoffensive kind and to have
imitated more unrestrainedly the license of the Roman Saturnalia
than did the merry-makings of the South. The mummeries of these
personages (a faint reflection of which still exists in the Guisars
whom we shall have to mention hereafter), if less costly than those
of their brethren in England, were not less showy; and though much
less quaint, were a great deal more free. "The body-guards of the
Abbot of Unreason were all arrayed in gaudy colors bedecked with
gold or silver lace, with embroidery and silken scarfs, the fringed
ends of which floated in the wind. They wore chains of gold or baser
metal gilt and glittering with mock jewels. Their legs were adorned
and rendered voluble by links of shining metal hung with many bells
of the same material twining from the ankle of their buskins to their
silken garters, and each flourished in his hand a rich silk
handkerchief brocaded over with flowers. This was the garb of fifty
or more youths, who encircled the person of the leader. They were
surrounded by ranks, six or more in depth, consisting of tall, brawny,
fierce-visaged men covered with crimson or purple velvet bonnets,
and nodding plumes of the eagle and the hawk, or branches of pine,
yew, oak, fern, boxwood, or flowering heath. Their jerkins were
always of a hue that might attract the eye of ladies in the bower or
serving-damsels at the washing-green. They had breeches of
immense capacity so padded or stuffed as to make each man occupy
the space of five in their natural proportions; and in this seeming
soft raiment they concealed weapons of defence or offence, with
which to arm themselves and the body-guard if occasion called for
resistance. To appearance, they had no object but careless sport and
glee,—some playing on the Scottish harp, others blowing the
bagpipes or beating targets for drums, or jingling bells. Whenever
the procession halted they danced, flourishing about the banners of
their leader. The exterior bands perhaps represented in dumb show
or pantomime the actions of warriors or the wildest buffoonery; and
these were followed by crowds who, with all the grimaces and
phrases of waggery, solicited money or garniture from the nobles
and gentry that came to gaze upon them. Wherever they appeared,
multitudes joined them, some for the sake of jollity, and not a few to
have their fate predicted by spae-wives, warlocks, and interpreters
of dreams, who invariably were found in the train of the Abbot of
Unreason."
In England, not only was this merry monarch appointed over the
revelries of the great and the opulent, but—as of most of the forms
of amusement over which he presided, so of the president himself—
we find a rude imitation in the Christmas celebrations of the
commonalty. Nor was the practice confined to towns or left
exclusively in the hands of corporate or public bodies. The quotation
which we have already made from Stubs's "Anatomie of Abuses,"
refers to a rustic Lord of Misrule; and while the antics which took
place under his governance do not seem to have risen much above
the performances of the morris-dancers, the gaudiness of the tinsel
attire paraded by him and his band forms an excellent burlesque of
the more costly finery of their superiors. Nay, the amusements
themselves exhibit nearly as much wisdom as those of the court
(with less of pretension), and we dare say created a great deal more
fun at a far less cost. As to the Scottish practices, our readers will
not fail to observe from our last quotation that the lordly Abbot and
his train were little better than a set of morris-dancers themselves,
and that so much of their practices as was innocent differed nothing
from those which Stubs and his brother Puritans deemed so
ridiculous in a set of parish revellers. In fact, the Lord of Misrule
seems to have set himself up all over the land; and many a village
had its master Simon who took care that the sports should not
languish for want of that unity of purpose and concentration of mirth
to which some directing authority is so essential.
We have already stated, and have made it quite apparent in our
descriptions, that the Christmas celebrations of the more exalted
classes are not put forward for the consideration of our readers on
the ground of any great wisdom in the matter or humor in the
manner of those celebrations themselves. But we claim for them
serious veneration, in right of the excellence of the spirit in which
they originated, and the excellence of the result which they
produced. The very extravagance of the court pageantries—their
profuse expenditure and grotesque displays—were so many
evidences of the hearty reception which was given to the season in
the highest places, and so many conspicuous sanctions under which
the spirit of unrestrained rejoicing made its appeals in the lowest.
This ancient festival of all ranks, consecrated by all religious feelings
and all moral influences; this privileged season of the lowly; this
Sabbath of the poor man's year,—was recognized by his superiors
with high observance and honored by his governors with
ceremonious state. The mirth of the humble and uneducated man
received no check from the assumption of an unseasonable gravity
or ungenerous reserve on the part of those with whom fortune had
dealt more kindly, and to whom knowledge had opened her stores.
The moral effect of all this was of the most valuable kind. Nothing so
much promotes a reciprocal kindliness of feeling as a community of
enjoyment; and the bond of good will was thus drawn tighter
between those remote classes, whose differences of privilege, of
education, and of pursuit, are perpetually operating to loosen it, and
threatening to dissolve it altogether. There was a great deal of
wisdom in all this; and the result was well worth producing even at
the cost of much more folly than our ancestors expended on it. We
deny that spectacles and a wig are the inseparable symbols of
sapience; and we hold that portion of the world to be greatly
mistaken which supposes that wisdom may not occasionally put on
the cap and bells, and under that disguise be wisdom still! The
ancient custom which made what was called a fool a part of the
establishment of princes, and gave him a right in virtue of his bauble
to teach many a wise lesson and utter many a wholesome truth—
besides its practical utility, contained as excellent a moral and was
conceived in as deep a spirit as the still more ancient one of the
skeleton at a feast. "Cucullus non facit monachum," says one of
those privileged gentry, in the pages of one who, we are sure, could
have enacted a Christmas foolery with the most foolish, and yet had
"sounded all the depths and shallows" of the human mind, and was
himself the wisest of modern men. "Better a witty fool than a foolish
wit." There is a long stride from the wisdom of that sneering
philosopher who laughed at his fellows to his who on proper
occasions can laugh with them; and in spite of all that modern
philosophy may say to the contrary, there was in the very
extravagances of Coke and Hatton, and other lawyers and statesmen
of past times—if they aimed at such a result as that which we have
mentioned, and in so far as they contributed thereto—more real
wisdom than all which they enunciated in their more solemn moods,
or have put upon record in their books of the law.
In the same excellent spirit, too, everything was done that could
assist in promoting the same valuable effect; and while the
pageantries which were prepared by the court and by other
governing bodies furnished a portion of the entertainments by which
the populace tasted the season in towns, and sanctioned the rest,
care was taken in many ways (of which we have given an example)
that the festival should be spread over the country, and provision
made for its maintenance in places more secluded and remote. A set
of arrangements sprang up which left no man without their
influence; and figuratively and literally, the crumbs from the table of
the rich man's festival were abundantly enjoyed by the veriest
beggar at his gate. The kindly spirit of Boaz was abroad in all the
land, and every Ruth had leave to "eat of the bread and dip her
morsel in the vinegar." At that great harvest of rejoicing, all men
were suffered to glean; and they with whom at most other seasons
the world had "dealt very bitterly"—whose names were Mara, and
who ate sparingly of the bread of toil—gleaned "even among its
sheaves," and no man reproached them. The old English gentleman,
like the generous Bethlehemite in the beautiful story, even scattered
that the poor might gather, and "commanded his young men saying,
. . . 'Let fall also some of the handfuls of purpose for them and leave
them, that they may glean them, and rebuke them not.'" And the
prayer of many a Naomi went up in answer, "Blessed be he that did
take knowledge of thee;" "blessed be he of the Lord!"
Gate of the "Old English Gentleman."—Page 109.
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