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 CONTENTS

Preface xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

Defining Human Behavior 2 Prevention 14
Examples of Behavior 4 Sports Performance 14
Defining Behavior Modification 5 Health-Related Behaviors 14
Characteristics of Behavior Modification 6 Gerontology 15
Historical Roots of Behavior Modification 8 Professional Practice, Certification, and
Major Figures 8 Ethics 15
Early Behavior Modification Researchers 11 The Structure of This Textbook 15
Major Publications and Events 11 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior
Change 16
Areas of Application 12
Basic Principles of Behavior 16
Developmental Disabilities 12
Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 16
Mental Illness 12
Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and
Education and Special Education 12
Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 16
Rehabilitation 13
Other Behavior Change Procedures 16
Community Psychology 13
Chapter Summary 17
Clinical Psychology 13
Key Terms 17
Business, Industry, and Human Services 13
Practice Test 17
Self-Management 14
Child Behavior Management 14

PART 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

Chapter 2 Observing and Recording Behavior 19

Direct and Indirect Assessment 20 Continuous Recording 26
Defining the Target Behavior 21 Percentage of Opportunities 29
The Logistics of Recording 23 Product Recording 29
The Observer 23 Interval Recording 30
When and Where to Record 24 Time Sample Recording 31
Choosing a Recording Method 26 Choosing a Recording Instrument 32

vi
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 CONTENTS vii

Reactivity 36 Practice Test 40

Interobserver Agreement 37 Applications 41
Chapter Summary 39 Misapplications 42
Key Terms 40

Chapter 3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 43

Components of a Graph 45 Alternating-Treatments Design 59
Graphing Behavioral Data 47 Changing-Criterion Design 60
Graphing Data from Different Recording Chapter Summary 61
Procedures 50 Key Terms 62
Research Designs 51 Practice Test 62
A-B Design 52 Applications 62
A-B-A-B Reversal Design 53 Misapplications 63
Multiple-Baseline Design 54

PART 2 Basic Principles

Chapter 4 Reinforcement 65
Defining Reinforcement 67 Schedules of Reinforcement 81
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 70 Fixed Ratio 82
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 73 Variable Ratio 83
Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 73 Fixed Interval 84
Conditioned and Unconditioned Variable Interval 85
Reinforcers 75 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 86
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 87
Reinforcement 76
Chapter Summary 88
Immediacy 76
Key Terms 88
Contingency 77
Practice Test 89
Motivating Operations 77
Appendix A 90
Individual Differences 80
Appendix B 90
Magnitude 81

Chapter 5 Extinction 91
Defining Extinction 92 Factors That Influence Extinction 101
Extinction Burst 95 Chapter Summary 103
Spontaneous Recovery 97 Key Terms 103
Procedural Variations of Extinction 98 Practice Test 103
A Common Misconception about Extinction 100 Appendix A 104
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 viii CONTENTS

Chapter 6 Punishment 105

Defining Punishment 106 Problems with Punishment 120
A Common Misconception about Emotional Reactions to Punishment 121
Punishment 108 Escape and Avoidance 121
Positive and Negative Punishment 109 Negative Reinforcement for the Use of
Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishment 121
Punishers 113 Punishment and Modeling 122
Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment 115 Ethical Issues 122
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness Chapter Summary 123
of Punishment 117
Key Terms 123
Immediacy 117
Practice Test 123
Contingency 118
Appendix A 125
Motivating Operations 118
Individual Differences and Magnitude of the
Punisher 120

Chapter 7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and

Generalization 127
Examples of Stimulus Control 128 The Three-Term Contingency 134
Defining Stimulus Control 129 Stimulus Control Research 135
Developing Stimulus Control: Stimulus Generalization 136
Discrimination Training 131 Examples of Generalization 138
Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 131 Chapter Summary 142
Developing Reading and Spelling with Key Terms 143
Discrimination Training 133
Practice Test 143
Stimulus Discrimination Training and
Appendix A 143
Punishment 134

Chapter 8 Respondent Conditioning 145

Examples of Respondent Conditioning 146 Factors That Influence Respondent
Defining Respondent Conditioning 146 Conditioning 155
Timing of the Neutral Stimulus and The Nature of the Unconditioned Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus 149 Conditioned Stimulus 155
Higher-Order Conditioning 151 The Temporal Relationship between the Neutral
Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 155
Conditioned Emotional Responses 151
Contingency between the Neutral Stimulus and
Extinction of Conditioned Responses 153
Unconditioned Stimulus 156
Spontaneous Recovery 154
The Number of Pairings 156
Discrimination and Generalization of
Previous Exposure to the Conditioned
Respondent Behavior 154
Stimulus 156
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 CONTENTS ix

Distinguishing between Operant and Chapter Summary 160

Respondent Conditioning 157 Key Terms 161
Respondent Conditioning and Behavior Practice Test 161
Modification 160

PART 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

Chapter 9 Shaping 163

An Example of Shaping: Teaching a Child to How to Use Shaping 173
Talk 163 Shaping of Problem Behaviors 175
Defining Shaping 164 Chapter Summary 178
Applications of Shaping 166 Key Terms 179
Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 166 Practice Test 179
Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between Applications 179
Bathroom Visits 167
Misapplications 180
Research on Shaping 169

Chapter 10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 181

An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Stimulus Fading 193
Little Leaguers to Hit the Ball 182 How to Use Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus
What Is Prompting? 183 Control 195
What Is Fading? 184 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control in
Types of Prompts 186 Autism Treatment 198
Response Prompts 187 Chapter Summary 198
Stimulus Prompts 188 Key Terms 199
Transfer of Stimulus Control 190 Practice Test 199
Prompt Fading 190 Applications 200
Prompt Delay 192 Misapplications 200

Chapter 11 Chaining 201

Examples of Behavioral Chains 202 Other Strategies for Teaching Behavioral
Analyzing Stimulus-Response Chains 215
Chains 202 Written Task Analysis 215
Task Analysis 204 Picture Prompts 215
Backward Chaining 207 Video Modeling 216
Forward Chaining 209 Self-Instructions 217
Total Task Presentation 211 How to Use Chaining Procedures 218

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 x CONTENTS

Chapter Summary 220 Applications 221

Key Terms 220 Misapplications 221
Practice Test 220

Chapter 12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 223

Examples of Behavioral Skills Training In Situ Training 231
Procedures 224 Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term
Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the Contingency 232
Professors 224 Behavioral Skills Training in Groups 233
Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from Applications of Behavioral Skills Training
Abduction 224 Procedures 234
Components of the Behavioral Skills Training How to Use Behavioral Skills Training
Procedure 225 Procedures 238
Instructions 225 Chapter Summary 240
Modeling 227 Key Terms 240
Rehearsal 229 Practice Test 240
Feedback 229 Applications 241
Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Misapplications 241
Training 230
In Situ Assessment 231

PART 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Undesirable Behavior
Chapter 13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional
Assessment 243
Examples of Functional Assessment 244 Direct Observation Methods 252
Jacob 244 Experimental Methods (Functional
Anna 245 Analysis) 257
Defining Functional Assessment 246 Functional Analysis Research 261
Functions of Problem Behaviors 247 Conducting a Functional Assessment 265
Social Positive Reinforcement 248 Functional Interventions 267
Social Negative Reinforcement 248 Chapter Summary 267
Automatic Positive Reinforcement 248 Key Terms 268
Automatic Negative Reinforcement 248 Practice Test 268
Functional Assessment Methods 249 Applications 269
Indirect Methods 249 Misapplications 271

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 CONTENTS xi

Chapter 14 Applying Extinction 273

The Case of Willy 274 Reinforcing Alternative Behaviors 287
Using Extinction to Decrease a Problem Promoting Generalization and
Behavior 276 Maintenance 287
Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Research Evaluating the Use of Extinction 288
Effects 277 Chapter Summary 292
Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem Key Terms 292
Behavior through Functional
Practice Test 292
Assessment 277
Applications 293
Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance
of the Problem Behavior 278 Misapplications 293
Taking Account of the Schedule of Appendix A 294
Reinforcement before Extinction 285 Appendix B 295

Chapter 15 Differential Reinforcement 297

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of
Behavior 298 Responding 316
Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 298 Defining DRL 317
When to Use DRA 300 Variations of DRL 317
How to Use DRA 300 How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Different? 318
Alternative Behaviors 304 Implementing DRL Procedures 318
Variations of DRA 306 Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 320
Research on DRA 306 Chapter Summary 322
Differential Reinforcement of Other Key Terms 323
Behavior 309 Practice Test 323
Defining DRO 310 Applications 324
Implementing DRO 311 Misapplications 325
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 313

Chapter 16 Antecedent Control Procedures 327

Examples of Antecedent Control 328 Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable
Getting Marianne to Study More 328 Behavior 333
Getting Cal to Eat Right 328 Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or Cues
for Undesirable Behaviors 334
Defining Antecedent Control Procedures 329
D Presenting Abolishing Operations for
Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (S ) or
Undesirable Behaviors 336
Cues for the Desired Behavior 329
Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable
Arranging Establishing Operations for the
Behaviors 337
Desirable Behavior 331

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 xii CONTENTS

Research on Antecedent Control Strategies 338 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Manipulating Discriminative Undesirable Behavior 348
Stimuli 338 Functional Interventions for Problem
Manipulating Response Effort 341 Behaviors 348
Manipulating Motivating Operations 343 Chapter Summary 349
Using Antecedent Control Strategies 346 Key Terms 349
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the Practice Test 349
Desirable Behavior 347 Applications 350
Misapplications 351

Chapter 17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 353

Time-Out 354 Comparing Response Cost, Time-Out, and
Types of Time-Out 356 Extinction 365
Using Reinforcement with Time-Out 357 Considerations in Using Response Cost 366
Considerations in Using Time-Out 357 Research Evaluating Response Cost Procedures 368
Research Evaluating Time-Out Procedures 361 Chapter Summary 370
Response Cost 364 Key Terms 370
Defining Response Cost 365 Practice Test 370
Using Differential Reinforcement with Response Applications 371
Cost 365 Misapplications 371

Chapter 18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics

of Punishment 373
Application of Aversive Activities 374 Alternative Treatments 387
Overcorrection 375 Recipient Safety 387
Contingent Exercise 377 Problem Severity 387
Guided Compliance 378 Implementation Guidelines 388
Physical Restraint 379 Training and Supervision 388
Cautions in the Application of Aversive Peer Review 388
Activities 381 Accountability: Preventing Misuse and
Application of Aversive Stimulation 381 Overuse 388
Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Chapter Summary 389
Resort 384 Key Terms 389
Considerations in Using Positive Practice Test 389
Punishment 385
Applications 390
The Ethics of Punishment 386
Misapplications 390
Informed Consent 387

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 CONTENTS xiii

Chapter 19 Promoting Generalization 393

Examples of Generalization Programming 393 Providing Cues in the Natural
Defining Generalization 395 Environment 404
Strategies for Promoting Generalization of Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of
Behavior Change 395 Generalization 405
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 395 Implementing Strategies to Promote
Generalization 406
Training Skills That Contact Natural
Contingencies of Reinforcement 397 Promoting Generalized Reductions in Problem
Behaviors 407
Modifying Contingencies of Reinforcement and
Punishment in the Natural Chapter Summary 409
Environment 399 Key Terms 410
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus Practice Test 410
Situations in Training 400 Applications 410
Incorporating Common Stimuli 403 Misapplications 411
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent
Responses 403

PART 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

Chapter 20 Self-Management 413

Examples of Self-Management 414 Social Support 422
Getting Murray to Run Regularly 414 Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 423
Getting Annette to Clean Up Her Mess 414 Steps in a Self-Management Plan 424
Defining Self-Management Problems 416 Clinical Problems 427
Defining Self-Management 418 Chapter Summary 428
Types of Self-Management Strategies 418 Key Terms 428
Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring 419 Practice Test 429
Antecedent Manipulations 419 Applications 429
Behavioral Contracting 420 Misapplications 430
Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 421

Chapter 21 Habit Reversal Procedures 431

Examples of Habit Behaviors 432 Habit Reversal Procedures 435
Defining Habit Behaviors 432 Applications of Habit Reversal 436
Nervous Habits 433 Nervous Habits 436
Motor and Vocal Tics 433 Motor and Vocal Tics 437
Stuttering 434 Stuttering 438

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 xiv CONTENTS

Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 439 Practice Test 444

Other Treatment Procedures for Habit Applications 445
Disorders 442 Misapplications 445
Chapter Summary 444
Key Terms 444

Chapter 22 The Token Economy 447

Rehabilitating Sammy 447 Staff Training and Management 456
Defining a Token Economy 449 Practical Considerations 456
Implementing a Token Economy 449 Applications of a Token
Defining the Target Behaviors 449 Economy 457
Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 451 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token
Economy 464
Identifying Backup Reinforcers 451
Chapter Summary 464
Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of
Reinforcement 453 Key Terms 465
Establishing the Token Exchange Rate 454 Practice Test 465
Establishing the Time and Place for Exchanging Applications 465
Tokens 454 Misapplications 466
Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 455

Chapter 23 Behavioral Contracts 469

Examples of Behavioral Contracting 470 Negotiating a Behavioral Contract 477
Getting Steve to Complete His Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence
Dissertation 470 Behavior? 478
Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along Applications of Behavioral Contracts 479
Better 471 Chapter Summary 483
Defining the Behavioral Contract 472 Key Terms 483
Components of a Behavioral Contract 473 Practice Test 483
Types of Behavioral Contracts 475 Applications 484
One-Party Contracts 475 Misapplications 484
Two-Party Contracts 476

Chapter 24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 487

Examples of Fear and Anxiety Reduction 488 Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety 492
Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Relaxation Training 492
Speaking 488 Systematic Desensitization 498
Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders 488 In Vivo Desensitization 499
Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems 490

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 CONTENTS xv

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Key Terms 506

and In Vivo Desensitization 503 Practice Test 506
Other Treatments for Fears 504 Applications 506
Clinical Problems 505 Misapplications 507
Chapter Summary 505

Chapter 25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 509

Examples of Cognitive Behavior Cognitive Coping Skills Training 520
Modification 510 Acceptance-Based Therapies 522
Helping Deon Control His Anger 510 Clinical Problems 523
Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 511 Chapter Summary 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification 513 Key Terms 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior 513 Practice Test 524
Functions of Cognitive Behavior 514 Applications 524
Cognitive Behavior Modification Misapplications 525
Procedures 515
Cognitive Restructuring 515

Glossary 527
References 539
Name Index 557
Subject Index 563
Quizzes Q1

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 PREFACE

I am gratified that the first five editions of Behavior Modification: Principles and
Procedures received positive reviews from students and professors. The sixth
edition has kept the positive features of the first five editions, has been revised to
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated to reflect the latest
research in behavior modification.
The goal of this sixth edition (as with the earlier editions) is to describe basic
principles of behavior so that the student learns how environmental events influ-
ence human behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so that
the student learns the strategies by which human behavior may be changed. The
text is divided into 25 relatively short chapters, each of which covers a manageable
amount of information (for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modification, applied behavior
analysis, behavior management, or behavior change.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory level so that it may be under-
stood by students with no prior knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for under-
graduate students or beginning graduate students. It would also be valuable for
individuals working in human services, education, or rehabilitation who must use behav-
ior modification procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their care.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to be gender neutral. When dis-
cussing case examples, I include males and females about equally as often.

Features of the Text Continued from the First

Five Editions
The following features of the text are intended to help the reader learn easily.

Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to the field in

Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present information on behavior recording,
graphing, and measuring change. This information will be utilized in each
subsequent chapter. Next, Chapters 4–8 focus on the basic principles of operant
and respondent behavior. The application of these principles forms the subject of
the remaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establish new behaviors are described in
Chapters 9–12, and procedures to increase desirable behaviors and decrease
undesirable behaviors are considered in Chapters 13–19. Finally, Chapters 20–25
present a survey of other important behavior modification procedures.

Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing behavior are
based on the fundamental principles of behavior established in experimental
research over the last 80 years. In the belief that the student will better understand
the procedures after first learning the fundamental principles, the principles
xvi
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 PREFACE xvii

underlying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters 4–8; the
application of the principles in the behavior modification procedures is described
in Chapters 9–25.

Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of real-life examples—
some relevant to college students, some chosen from the author’s clinical experience—
to bring the principles and procedures to life.

Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and the most up-
to-date research on behavior modification principles and procedures are integrated
into the text.

Quizzes Accompany Each Chapter Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10

questions are provided for each of the 25 chapters. The quizzes provide students
with further exercises for self-assessment of their knowledge of the chapters’ con-
tent. The quizzes are on perforated pages, which can be easily torn out so that
the instructor can have students hand the quizzes in as homework assignments or
have students take the quizzes in class.

Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have short-answer essay
questions, complete with page numbers where the answers can be found.

Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where procedures are taught
(Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application exercises are provided. In each exer-
cise, a real-life case is described and then the student is asked to apply the proce-
dure described in the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to
think about how the procedures are applied in real life.

Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed by misapplica-

tion exercises. In each one, a case example is provided, and the procedure from
the chapter is applied to the case in an incorrect or inappropriate manner. The
student is asked to analyze the case example and to describe what is wrong with
the application of the procedure in that case. These misapplication exercises
require the student to think critically about the application of the procedure.
Answers to Applications and Misapplications are in the Instructors Manual, mak-
ing them valuable tools for instructors as they assess their students’ abilities to
apply the information provided in the chapter.

Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular behavior modifi-

cation procedure is taught, the implementation of the procedure is outlined in a
step-by-step fashion, for ease of comprehension.

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information from a chapter is

summarized in a box that has been set off from the text. These boxes are intended
to help the student organize the material in the chapter.

Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information that is consistent

with the opening questions in each chapter.

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 xviii PREFACE

Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic principles

(Chapters 4–7), there are tables with examples of the principle discussed within that
chapter. Later in the chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the student is directed to
return to a specific table and, using the new information being presented in the chap-
ter, to analyze specific aspects of the examples provided in that table.

Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text, students are pre-

sented with self-assessment questions. To answer these questions, students will
need to utilize the information already presented in the chapter. These questions
will help students assess their understanding of the material. In most cases,
answers are presented in the text immediately following the question.

Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research literature to illustrate
important principles or procedures. Students must use information from earlier chap-
ters on behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs.

Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important behavior modifica-
tion terms used in the text. Each term is followed by a succinct and precise
definition.

Improved Test Bank The test bank includes multiple-choice questions, fill-
in-the-blank questions, true-false questions, and short-answer essay questions.

For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For Further Reading box.
In this feature, interesting articles that are relevant to the content of the chapter
are identified and briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been
provided. These articles are from JABA (or JEAB), so they can be easily accessed
online by students. Instructors can assign these articles for extra credit or as reading
assignments for when more advanced students use the textbook.

List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there is a list of the
new terms that were used in the chapter. The list of key terms shows the page
number on which each term was introduced. Although these terms are all found
in the Glossary at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page num-
bers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the student to have an easy refer-
ence to the terms when reading the chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.

New Features in the Sixth Edition

Highlighting There is new highlighting of important information in each chap-
ter to draw the students’ attention to the information. In addition, in-text questions
are highlighted with a ? icon. Finally, more text boxes are provided highlighting
important information.

Motivating Operations The term motivating operation was introduced in the

last edition. In this edition, more detail is provided on the two types of motivating
operations (EOs and AOs) in Chapters 4 and 6 to help students better understand

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 PREFACE xix

the concept applied to reinforcement and punishment. A table in Chapter 6

provides a succinct summary.

Functional Relationships Provided more detail on how functional relationships

between environmental variables and behavior are assessed. Emphasized how func-
tional relationships are established in each type of research design (Chapter 3) and
how functional analysis procedures identify functional relationships (Chapter 13).

Functional Analysis Provided more information on functional analysis in

Chapter 13. Clarified the distinction between functional assessment and functional
analysis and clinical applications of the functional analysis methodology.

Behavior Recording Added a figure highlighting the difference between inter-

val recording and time sample recording (Chapter 2). Discussed the use of tech-
nology for behavior recording including information on behavior recording apps
for smartphones and tablets, accelerometers and GPS-enabled devices for record-
ing exercise and physical activity, and web-based programs for recording and self-
management (Chapters 2 and 23).

Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics Discussed professional prac-

tice, certification, and ethics in Chapter 1. Provided information on Board
Certified Behavior Analysts as the practicing professional who uses the behavior
modification procedures presented in this text. Discussed ethical principles in
Chapters 1 and 6.

Getting Buy In Discussed the importance of working with care givers to get buy
in for the procedures they are asked to carry out. Emphasized the importance of
treatment acceptability for promoting buy in and the importance of buy in for
enhancing treatment fidelity.

Time Out Added more information on the effective use of time out. Added a
textbox discussing procedures for increasing compliance with time out.

Generalization Added discussion of another strategy for promoting generaliza-

tion; providing cues for the behavior in the natural environment

Other New Features

■ Added more self-assessment questions in the text
■ Updated the definition of behavior modification (Chapter 1)
■ Added brief discussion of behaviorism (Chapter 1)
■ Highlighted that the AB design is not a true research design (Chapter 3)
■ Introduced the terms evoke and abate in the discussion of EOs and AOs
(Chapter 4) and evoke in the discussion of stimulus control (Chapter 7)
■ Moved discussion of instructions before the discussion of modeling in
behavioral skills training (Chapter 12)
■ Clarified the two functions of feedback (Chapter 12)
■ Distinguished between preference assessment and reinforcer assessment
(Chapter 15)

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xx PREFACE

■
Added a brief discussion of the competing responses framework (Chapter 16)
■
Added a brief discussion of team decision making (Chapter 16)
■ Provided discussion of the use of physical restraint as an emergency proce-
dure (Chapter 18)
■ Discussed the use of social media for social support (Chapter 20)
■ Added information on novel uses of habit reversal (Chapter 21)
■ Added a more succinct definition of a token economy (Chapter 22)
■ Added a text box describing three essential components of relaxation proce-
dures (Chapter 24)
■ Added text box introducing behavioral activation treatment for depression
(Chapter 24)
■ Added numerous new references throughout the text
■ Introduced and defined a number of new terms in the text and added them
to the glossary

Accompanying This Text

Online Instructor’s Manual The instructor’s manual contains a variety of
resources to aid instructors in preparing and presenting text material in a manner
that meets their personal preferences and course needs. It presents chapter-
by-chapter suggestions and resources to enhance and facilitate learning.

®
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slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage
using content directly from the textbook.

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online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content as
well as create multiple test versions in an instant. You can deliver tests from your
school’s learning management system, your classroom, or wherever you want!

Acknowledgments
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on this
manuscript and the first five editions: Judith Rauenzahb, Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St. Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton,
University of Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;
Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; Charles Blose, MacMurry College;
Kristine Brady, California School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western
Michigan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd,
Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illinois University; Richard N. Feil,
Mansfield University; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State Uni-
versity; Stephan Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;
Roger Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The University

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE xxi

of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University; Stephen W. Holborn, Univer-

sity of Manitoba; Dorothea Lerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo,
University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern Eastern University;
Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay McIntyre, University of Missouri–
St. Louis; Ronald Miller, Brigham Young University—Hawaii; Robert W.
Montgomery, Georgia State University; Charles S. Peyser, University of the South;
Brady Phelps, South Dakota State University; Joseph J. Plaud, University of North
Dakota; Robyn Rogers, Southwest Texas State University; Johannes Rojahn, George
Mason University; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; Alison Thomas Cottingham,
Rider University; J. Kevin Thompson, University of Southern Florida; Bruce Thyer,
University of Georgia; James T. Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon Van
Leer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer, University of Florida; Robert
W. Wildblood, Northern Virginia Community College; Kenneth N. Wildman,
Ohio Northern University; Douglas Woods, University of Wisconsin–-Milwaukee;
and Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College. I especially want to thank
Marianne Taflinger, senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance and support
throughout the initial development of the text.

For the Behavior Modification Student

To get the most out of this text and out of your behavior modification course, you
are encouraged to consider the following recommendations.
1. Read the assigned chapters before the class meeting at which the chapter is
to be discussed. You will benefit more from the class if you have first read
the material.
2. Answer each of the self-assessment questions in the chapter to see if you
understand the material just covered.
3. Answer the practice test questions at the end of each chapter. If you can answer
each question, you know that you understand the material in the chapter.
4. Complete the end-of-chapter quizzes to assess your knowledge of the chap-
ter content.
5. Complete the application and misapplication exercises at the end of the
procedure chapters. In that way, you will understand the material in the
chapter well enough to apply it or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.
6. The best way to study for a test is to test yourself. After reading and reread-
ing the chapter and your class notes, test yourself in the following ways.
■ Look at key terms in the chapter and see if you can define them without
looking at the definitions in the text.
■ Look at each practice test question at the end of the chapter and see if
you can give the correct answer without looking up the answer in the
text or in your notes.
■ Come up with novel examples of each principle or procedure in the chapter.
■ Make flash cards with a term or question on one side and the definition of
the term or the answer to the question on the other side. While studying,

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 xxii PREFACE

look at the term (or question) on one side of the card and then read the
definition (or answer) on the other. As you study, you will find that you
need to turn the cards over less and less often. Once you can supply the
answer or definition on the back of the card without looking, you’ll know
that you understand the material. Electronic flash cards are available at
the publisher’s website that accompanies the book.
■ Always study in a location that is reasonably free from distractions or
interruptions.
■ Always begin studying for a test at least a few days in advance. Give your-
self more days to study as more chapters are included on the test.

The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behavior modification or applied behavior
analysis.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711 Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
http://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.apbahome.net/ Association of Professional Behavior Analysts
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div25.aspx/ APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)
http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy
http://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.txaba.org/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapy
http://www.baojournal.com/ The Behavior Analyst Online
www.autismspeaks.org Autism Speaks
http://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
http://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundation
http://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board

Raymond G. Miltenberger

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 1

Introduction to Behavior
Modification
■ How is human behavior defined?
■ What are the defining features of behavior modification?
■ What are the historical roots of behavior modification?
■ In what ways has behavior modification improved people’s lives?

I n this textbook you will learn about behavior modification, the principles and
procedures used to understand and change human behavior. Behavior modifi-
cation procedures come in many forms. Consider the following examples.
Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their marriage because of fre-
quent arguments. Their marriage counselor arranged a behavioral contract with
them in which they agreed to do several nice things for each other every day. As
a result of this contract, their positive interactions increased and their negative
interactions (arguments) decreased.

1
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
and might probably have failed to do so much. The appetite is the
main point. "The heart's all," as Davy says. A small matter made our
ancestors laugh, because they brought stomachs to the feast of
Momus. And, Heaven save the mark! through how many national
troubles has that same joyous temperament (which is the farthest
thing possible from levity,—one of the phases of deep feeling,—)
helped to bring the national mind! The "merry days" of England
were succeeded by what may be called her "age of tears,"—the era
of the sentimentalists, when young gentlemen ceased to wear
cravats, and leaned against pillars in drawing-rooms in fits of moody
abstraction or under the influence of evident inspiration, and young
ladies made lachrymatories of their boudoirs, and met together to
weep, and in fact went through the world weeping. Amid all its
absurdity, there was some real feeling at the bottom of this too; and
therefore it, too, had its pleasure. But there is to be an end of this
also. Truly are we falling upon the "evil days" of which we may say
we "have no pleasure in them." Men are neither to laugh nor smile,
now, without distinctly knowing why. We are in the age of the
philosophers.—All this time, however, Mr. Thomas Tucker is waiting
to have his style and titles proclaimed; and thus do we find them
duly set forth:—
"The most magnificent and renowned Thomas, by the favor of
Fortune, Prince of Alba Fortunata, Lord of St. John's, High Regent of
the Hall, Duke of St. Giles's, Marquis of Magdalen's, Landgrave of the
Grove, Count Palatine of the Cloysters, Chief Bailiff of Beaumont,
High Ruler of Rome, Master of the Manor of Walton, Governor of
Gloucester Green, sole Commander of all Titles, Tournaments, and
Triumphs, Superintendent in all Solemnities whatever."
From these titles,—as well as from those which we have already
mentioned as being assumed by the courtiers of the illustrious Prince
of Sophie, our readers will perceive that alliteration was an
esteemed figure in the rhetoric of the revels.
In order to give our readers a more lively idea of this potentate,
we have, as the frontispiece to our second part, introduced a Lord of
Misrule to preside over the Christmas sports therein described.
Although the titles with which we have there invested him are taken
from the "Gesta Grayorum," the dress in which the artist has
bestowed him is not copied from any one of the particular
descriptions furnished by the different records. He is intended to
represent the ideal of a Christmas prince, and not the portrait of any
particular one of whom we have accounts. The artist's instructions
were therefore confined to investing him with a due magnificence
(referring to the records only so far as to keep the costume
appropriate) and with a complacent sense of his own finery and
state, and we think that Mr. Seymour has succeeded very happily in
catching and embodying the mock heroic of the character. The
Prince of Purpoole, or His Highness of Sophie, must have looked just
such a personage as he has represented.
We must not omit to observe that a corresponding officer appears
to have formerly exercised his functions at some of the colleges at
Cambridge, under the more classical title of Imperator. And we must
further state that at Lincoln's-Inn, in the early times of their
Christmas celebrations, there appear to have been elected (besides
the Lord of Misrule, and, we presume, in subordination to him)
certain dignitaries exercising a royal sway over the revelries of
particular days of the festival. In the account given by Dugdale of
the Christmas held by this society in the ninth year of the reign of
Henry VIII., mention is made—besides the Marshal and (as he is
there called) the Master of the Revels—of a King chosen for
Christmas day, and an officer for Childermas day having the title of
King of the Cockneys. A relic of this ancient custom exists in the
Twelfth Night King, whom it is still usual to elect on the festival of
the Epiphany, and of whom we shall have occasion to speak at
length in his proper place.
The length of the period over which the sway of this potentate
extended does not seem to be very accurately defined, or rather it is
probable that it varied with circumstances. Strictly speaking, the
Christmas season is in our day considered to terminate with Twelfth
Night, and the festival itself to extend over that space of time of
which this night on one side and Christmas eve on the other are the
limits. In ancient times, too, we find frequent mention of the twelve
days of Christmas. Thus the George Ferrers of whom we have
spoken, is appointed "to be in his hyness household for the twelve
days;" and he dates one of his communications to Sir Thomas
Cawarden, "From Greenwich ye second of January and ye ixth day of
or rule." In the extract from the Household-Book of the
Northumberland family which we have already quoted, mention is
also made of the "Playes, Interludes and Dresinge that is plaid befor
his lordship in his hous in the xijth dayes of Christenmas." Stow,
however, says that "these Lords beginning their rule at Allhallond
Eve, continued the same till the morrow after the Feast of the
Purification, commonly called Candlemas day;" and that during all
that time there were under their direction "fine and subtle
disguisings, masks and mummeries, with playing at cards for
counters, nayles and points in every house, more for pastimes than
for gaine." This would give a reign of upwards of three months to
these gentlemen. Dugdale, in describing the revels of the Inner
Temple speaks of the three principal days being All-hallows,
Candlemas, and Ascension days,—which would extend the period to
seven months; and the masque of which we have spoken as forming
the final performance of the celebrated Christmas of 1594, described
in the "Gesta Grayorum," is stated to have been represented before
the queen at Shrovetide. At the Christmas exhibition of St. John's
college, Oxford, held in 1607, Mr. Thomas Tucker did not resign his
office till Shrove-Tuesday; and the costly masque of which we have
spoken as being presented by the four Inns of Court to Charles I.,
and whose title was "The Triumph of Peace," was exhibited in
February of 1633. In Scotland, the rule of the Abbot of Unreason
appears to have been still less limited in point of time; and he seems
to have held his court and made his processions at any period of the
year which pleased him. These processions, it appears, were very
usual in the month of May (and here we will take occasion to
observe parenthetically, but in connection with our present subject,
that the practice at all festival celebrations of selecting some
individual to enact a principal and presiding character in the
ceremonial is further illustrated by the ancient May King, and by the
practice, not yet wholly forgotten, of crowning on the first of that
month a Queen of the May. This subject we shall have occasion to
treat more fully when we come to speak in some future volume of
the beautiful customs of that out-of-doors season).
From what we have stated, it appears probable that the officer
who was appointed to preside over the revels so universally
observed at Christmas time, extended, as a matter of course, his
presidency over all those which—either arising out of them or
unconnected therewith—were performed at more advanced periods
of the succeeding year; that in fact, the Christmas prince was,
without new election, considered as special master of the revels till
the recurrence of the season. It is not necessary for us to suppose
that the whole of the intervals lying between such stated and remote
days of celebration were filled up with festival observances; or that
our ancestors, under any calenture of the spirits, could aim at
extending Christmas over the larger portion of the year. It is,
however, apparent that although the common observances of the
season were supposed to fall within the period bounded by the days
of the Nativity and the Epiphany, the special pageantries with a view
to which the Lords of Misrule were appointed in the more exalted
quarters were in years of high festival spread over a much more
extended time, and that their potential dignities were in full force, if
not in full display, from the eve of All-hallows to the close of
Candlemas day. It is stated in Drake's "Shakspeare and his Times,"
that the festivities of the season, which were appointed for at least
twelve days, were frequently extended over a space of six weeks;
and our readers know from their own experience that, even in these
our days of less prominent and ceremonial rejoicing, the holiday-
spirit of the season is by no means to be restrained within the
narrower of those limits. The Christmas feeling waits not for
Christmas day. The important preparations for so great a festival
render this impossible. By the avenues of most of the senses, the
heralds of old Father Christmas have long before approached to
awake it from its slumber. Signal notes which there is no mistaking,
have been played on the visual and olfactory organs for some time
past, and the palate itself has had foretastes of that which is about
to be. From the day on which his sign has been seen in the heavens,
the joyous influences of the star have been felt and the moment the
school-boy arrives at his home he is in the midst of Christmas. And if
the "coming events" of the season "cast their shadows before," so,
amid all its cross-lights it would be strange if there were no
reflections flung behind. The merry spirit which has been awakened
and suffered to play his antics so long is not to be laid by the
exorcism of a word. After so very absolute and unquestioned a sway,
it is not to be expected that Momus should abdicate at a moment's
notice. Accordingly, we find that, any thing enacted to the contrary
notwithstanding, the genial feelings of the time and the festivities
springing out of them contrive to maintain their footing throughout
the month of January; and Christmas keeps lingering about our
homes till he is no longer answered by the young glad voices to
whom he has not as yet begun to utter his solemn warnings and
expound his sterner morals, and for whom his coming is hitherto
connected with few memories of pain. Till the merry urchins have
gone back to school there will continue to be willing subjects to the
Lord of Misrule.
In Scotland, the Abbot of Unreason was frequently enacted by
persons of the highest rank; and James V. is himself said to have
concealed his crown beneath the mitre of the merry abbot. As in
England, his revels were shared by the mightiest of the land; but
they appear to have been of a less inoffensive kind and to have
imitated more unrestrainedly the license of the Roman Saturnalia
than did the merry-makings of the South. The mummeries of these
personages (a faint reflection of which still exists in the Guisars
whom we shall have to mention hereafter), if less costly than those
of their brethren in England, were not less showy; and though much
less quaint, were a great deal more free. "The body-guards of the
Abbot of Unreason were all arrayed in gaudy colors bedecked with
gold or silver lace, with embroidery and silken scarfs, the fringed
ends of which floated in the wind. They wore chains of gold or baser
metal gilt and glittering with mock jewels. Their legs were adorned
and rendered voluble by links of shining metal hung with many bells
of the same material twining from the ankle of their buskins to their
silken garters, and each flourished in his hand a rich silk
handkerchief brocaded over with flowers. This was the garb of fifty
or more youths, who encircled the person of the leader. They were
surrounded by ranks, six or more in depth, consisting of tall, brawny,
fierce-visaged men covered with crimson or purple velvet bonnets,
and nodding plumes of the eagle and the hawk, or branches of pine,
yew, oak, fern, boxwood, or flowering heath. Their jerkins were
always of a hue that might attract the eye of ladies in the bower or
serving-damsels at the washing-green. They had breeches of
immense capacity so padded or stuffed as to make each man occupy
the space of five in their natural proportions; and in this seeming
soft raiment they concealed weapons of defence or offence, with
which to arm themselves and the body-guard if occasion called for
resistance. To appearance, they had no object but careless sport and
glee,—some playing on the Scottish harp, others blowing the
bagpipes or beating targets for drums, or jingling bells. Whenever
the procession halted they danced, flourishing about the banners of
their leader. The exterior bands perhaps represented in dumb show
or pantomime the actions of warriors or the wildest buffoonery; and
these were followed by crowds who, with all the grimaces and
phrases of waggery, solicited money or garniture from the nobles
and gentry that came to gaze upon them. Wherever they appeared,
multitudes joined them, some for the sake of jollity, and not a few to
have their fate predicted by spae-wives, warlocks, and interpreters
of dreams, who invariably were found in the train of the Abbot of
Unreason."
In England, not only was this merry monarch appointed over the
revelries of the great and the opulent, but—as of most of the forms
of amusement over which he presided, so of the president himself—
we find a rude imitation in the Christmas celebrations of the
commonalty. Nor was the practice confined to towns or left
exclusively in the hands of corporate or public bodies. The quotation
which we have already made from Stubs's "Anatomie of Abuses,"
refers to a rustic Lord of Misrule; and while the antics which took
place under his governance do not seem to have risen much above
the performances of the morris-dancers, the gaudiness of the tinsel
attire paraded by him and his band forms an excellent burlesque of
the more costly finery of their superiors. Nay, the amusements
themselves exhibit nearly as much wisdom as those of the court
(with less of pretension), and we dare say created a great deal more
fun at a far less cost. As to the Scottish practices, our readers will
not fail to observe from our last quotation that the lordly Abbot and
his train were little better than a set of morris-dancers themselves,
and that so much of their practices as was innocent differed nothing
from those which Stubs and his brother Puritans deemed so
ridiculous in a set of parish revellers. In fact, the Lord of Misrule
seems to have set himself up all over the land; and many a village
had its master Simon who took care that the sports should not
languish for want of that unity of purpose and concentration of mirth
to which some directing authority is so essential.
We have already stated, and have made it quite apparent in our
descriptions, that the Christmas celebrations of the more exalted
classes are not put forward for the consideration of our readers on
the ground of any great wisdom in the matter or humor in the
manner of those celebrations themselves. But we claim for them
serious veneration, in right of the excellence of the spirit in which
they originated, and the excellence of the result which they
produced. The very extravagance of the court pageantries—their
profuse expenditure and grotesque displays—were so many
evidences of the hearty reception which was given to the season in
the highest places, and so many conspicuous sanctions under which
the spirit of unrestrained rejoicing made its appeals in the lowest.
This ancient festival of all ranks, consecrated by all religious feelings
and all moral influences; this privileged season of the lowly; this
Sabbath of the poor man's year,—was recognized by his superiors
with high observance and honored by his governors with
ceremonious state. The mirth of the humble and uneducated man
received no check from the assumption of an unseasonable gravity
or ungenerous reserve on the part of those with whom fortune had
dealt more kindly, and to whom knowledge had opened her stores.
The moral effect of all this was of the most valuable kind. Nothing so
much promotes a reciprocal kindliness of feeling as a community of
enjoyment; and the bond of good will was thus drawn tighter
between those remote classes, whose differences of privilege, of
education, and of pursuit, are perpetually operating to loosen it, and
threatening to dissolve it altogether. There was a great deal of
wisdom in all this; and the result was well worth producing even at
the cost of much more folly than our ancestors expended on it. We
deny that spectacles and a wig are the inseparable symbols of
sapience; and we hold that portion of the world to be greatly
mistaken which supposes that wisdom may not occasionally put on
the cap and bells, and under that disguise be wisdom still! The
ancient custom which made what was called a fool a part of the
establishment of princes, and gave him a right in virtue of his bauble
to teach many a wise lesson and utter many a wholesome truth—
besides its practical utility, contained as excellent a moral and was
conceived in as deep a spirit as the still more ancient one of the
skeleton at a feast. "Cucullus non facit monachum," says one of
those privileged gentry, in the pages of one who, we are sure, could
have enacted a Christmas foolery with the most foolish, and yet had
"sounded all the depths and shallows" of the human mind, and was
himself the wisest of modern men. "Better a witty fool than a foolish
wit." There is a long stride from the wisdom of that sneering
philosopher who laughed at his fellows to his who on proper
occasions can laugh with them; and in spite of all that modern
philosophy may say to the contrary, there was in the very
extravagances of Coke and Hatton, and other lawyers and statesmen
of past times—if they aimed at such a result as that which we have
mentioned, and in so far as they contributed thereto—more real
wisdom than all which they enunciated in their more solemn moods,
or have put upon record in their books of the law.
 In the same excellent spirit, too, everything was done that could
assist in promoting the same valuable effect; and while the
pageantries which were prepared by the court and by other
governing bodies furnished a portion of the entertainments by which
the populace tasted the season in towns, and sanctioned the rest,
care was taken in many ways (of which we have given an example)
that the festival should be spread over the country, and provision
made for its maintenance in places more secluded and remote. A set
of arrangements sprang up which left no man without their
influence; and figuratively and literally, the crumbs from the table of
the rich man's festival were abundantly enjoyed by the veriest
beggar at his gate. The kindly spirit of Boaz was abroad in all the
land, and every Ruth had leave to "eat of the bread and dip her
morsel in the vinegar." At that great harvest of rejoicing, all men
were suffered to glean; and they with whom at most other seasons
the world had "dealt very bitterly"—whose names were Mara, and
who ate sparingly of the bread of toil—gleaned "even among its
sheaves," and no man reproached them. The old English gentleman,
like the generous Bethlehemite in the beautiful story, even scattered
that the poor might gather, and "commanded his young men saying,
. . . 'Let fall also some of the handfuls of purpose for them and leave
them, that they may glean them, and rebuke them not.'" And the
prayer of many a Naomi went up in answer, "Blessed be he that did
take knowledge of thee;" "blessed be he of the Lord!"
 Gate of the "Old English Gentleman."—Page 109.

In a word, the blaze of royal and noble celebration was as a great

beacon to the land, seen afar off by those who could not share in its
warmth or sit under the influence of its immediate inspirations. But it
was answered from every hill-top and repeated in every valley of
England; and each man flung the Yule log on his own fire at the
cheering signal. The hearth, according to Aubrey, at the first
introduction of coals, was usually in the middle of the room; and he
derives from thence the origin of the saying, "round about our coal
fire." But whether the huge fagot crackled and flustered within those
merry circles or flared and roared up the ample chimneys,—all social
feelings, and all beautiful superstitions and old traditions and local
observances awoke at the blaze; and from their thousand hiding-
places crept out the customs and ceremonials which crowd this
festal period of the year, and of which it is high time that we should
proceed to give an account in these pages. The charmed log that
(duly lighted with the last year's brand, which, as we learn from
Herrick, was essential to its virtue) scared away all evil spirits,
attracted all beneficent ones. The 'squire sat in the midst of his
tenants as a patriarch might amid his family, and appears to have
had no less reverence, though he compounded the wassail-bowl
with his own hands and shared it with the meanest of his
dependants. The little book from which we have more than once
quoted by the title of "Round about our Coal-fire," furnishes us with
an example of this reverence too ludicrous to be omitted. Its writer
tells us that if the 'squire had occasion to ask one of his neighbors
what o'clock it was, he received for answer a profound bow and an
assurance that it was what o'clock his worship pleased,—an answer,
no doubt, indicative of profound respect, but not calculated to
convey much useful information to the inquirer. In fine, however,
while the glad spirit of the season covered the land, hospitality and
harmony were everywhere a portion of that spirit. The light of a
common festival shone for once upon the palace and the cottage,
and the chain of a universal sympathy descended unbroken through
all ranks, from the prince to the peasant and the beggar.
"The damsel donned her kirtle sheen;
The hall was dress'd with holly green;
Forth to the wood did merry men go,
To gather in the misletoe.
Then opened wide the baron's hall,
To vassall, tenant, serf and all;
Power laid his rod of rule aside,
And ceremony doffed his pride.
The heir, with roses in his shoes,
Those nights might village partner chuse;
The lord, underogating, share
The vulgar game of 'post-and-pair.'

. . . .

The fire with well-dried logs supplied,

Went roaring up the chimney wide;
The huge hall-table's oaken face,
Scrubbed till it shone, the time to grace,
Bore then upon its massive board
No mark to part the 'squire and lord.
 Then was brought in the lusty brawn,
By old blue-coated serving-man;
Then the grim boar's head frowned on high,
Crested with bays and rosemary.
Well can the green-garbed ranger tell,
How, when, and where, the monster fell;
What dogs, before his death, he tore,
And all the batings of the boar.
The wassail round, in good brown bowls,
Garnished with ribbons, blithely trowls.
There the huge sirloin reeked; hard by
Plumb-porridge stood, and Christmas pye;
Nor failed old Scotland to produce,
At such high-tide, her savoury goose.
Then came the merry masquers in,
And carols roared with blithesome din;
If unmelodious was the song,
It was a hearty note, and strong.
Who lists may, in their mumming, see
Traces of ancient mystery;
White shirts supplied the masquerade,
And smutted cheeks the visors made:
But, Oh! what masquers, richly dight,
Can boast of bosoms half so light?
England was merry England, when
Old Christmas brought his sports again.
'Twas Christmas broached the mightiest ale,
'Twas Christmas told the merriest tale,
A Christmas gambol oft would cheer
The poor man's heart through half the year."
The ceremonies and superstitions and sports of the Christmas
season are not only various in various places, but have varied from
time to time in the same. Those of them which have their root in the
festival itself are for the most part common to all, and have dragged
out a lingering existence even to our times. But there are many
which, springing from other sources, have placed themselves under
its protection or, naturally enough, sought to associate themselves
with merry spirits like their own. Old Father Christmas has had a
great many children in his time, some of whom he has survived; and
not only so, but in addition to his own lawful offspring the generous
old man has taken under his patronage and adopted into his family
many who have no legitimate claim to that distinction by any of the
wives to whom he has been united,—neither by the Roman lady, his
lady of the Celtic family, nor her whom he took to his bosom and
converted from the idolatry of Thor. His family appears to have been
generally far too numerous to be entertained at one time in the
same establishment, or indeed by the same community, and to have
rarely travelled therefore in a body.
In Ben Jonson's Masque of Christmas, to which we have already
alluded, the old gentleman is introduced "attired in round hose, long
stockings, a close doublet, a high-crowned hat with a broach, a long
thin beard, a truncheon, little ruffs, white shoes, his scarfs and
garters tied cross, and his drum beaten before him," and is
accompanied by the following members of his fine family: Miss-rule,
Caroll, Minced-pie, Gamboll, Post-and-Pair (since dead), New Year's
Gift, Mumming, Wassail, Offering, and Baby-Cake,—or Baby-Cocke, as we
find him elsewhere called, but who we fear is dead too, unless he
may have changed his name, for we still find one of the family
bearing some resemblance to the description of him given by Ben
Jonson.
In the frontispiece to this volume the artist has represented the
old man like another magician, summoning his spirits from the four
winds for a general muster; and we hope that the greater part of
them will obey his conjuration. The purpose, we believe, is to take a
review of their condition and see if something cannot be done to
amend their prospects,—in which it is our purpose to assist him.
Already some of the children have appeared on the stage; and the
rest, we have no doubt, are advancing in all directions. We are glad
to see amongst the foremost, as he ought to be, Roast Beef,—that
English "champion bold" who has driven the invader hunger from the
land in many a well-fought fray, and for his doughty deeds was
created a knight banneret on one of his own gallant fields so long
ago as King Charles's time. We suppose he is the same worthy who,
in the Romish calendar, appears canonized by the title of Saint
George, where his great adversary Famine is represented under the
figure of a dragon. Still following Roast Beef, as he has done for
many a long year, we perceive his faithful 'squire (bottle-holder if
you will) Plum Pudding, with his rich round face and rosemary
cockade. He is a blackamoor, and derives his extraction from the
spice lands. His Oriental properties have however received an
English education and taken an English form, and he has long ago
been adopted into the family of Father Christmas. In his younger
days his name was "Plumb-Porridge": but since he grew up to be the
substantial man he is, it has been changed into the one he now
bears, as indicative of greater consistency and strength. His master
treats him like a brother; and he has, in return, done good service
against the enemy in many a hard-fought field, cutting off all
straggling detachments or flying parties from the main body, which
the great champion had previously routed. Both these individuals,
we think, are looking as vigorous as they can ever have done in their
lives, and offer in their well-maintained and portly personages a
strong presumption that they at least have at no time ceased to be
favorite guests at the festivals of the land.
Near them stands, we rejoice to see, their favorite sister Wassail.
She was of a slender figure in Ben Jonson's day, and is so still. If the
garb in which she appears has a somewhat antiquated appearance,
there is a play of the lip and a twinkle of the eye which prove that
the glowing and joyous spirit which made our ancestors so merry
"ages long ago," and helped them out with so many a pleasant fancy
and quaint device, is not a day older than it was in the time of King
Arthur. How should she grow old who bathes in such a bowl? It is
her fount of perpetual youth! Why, even mortal hearts grow younger,
and mortal spirits lighter, as they taste of its charmed waters. There
it is, with its floating apples and hovering inspirations! We see too,
that the "tricksy spirit," whose head bears it (and that is more than
every head could do) has lost none of his gambols, and that he is
still on the best of terms with the Turkey who has been his
playfellow at these holiday-times for so many years. The latter, we
suppose, has just come up from Norfolk, where Father Christmas
puts him to school; and the meeting on both sides seems to be of
the most satisfactory kind.
Mumming also, we see, has obeyed the summons, although he
looks as if he had come from a long distance and did not go about
much now. We fancy he has become something of a student. Misrule
too, we believe, has lost a good deal of his mercurial spirit, and finds
his principal resource in old books. He has come to the muster,
however, with a very long "feather in his cap," as if he considered
the present summons portentous of good fortune. He looks as if he
were not altogether without hopes of taking office again. We
observe with great satisfaction, that the Lord of Twelfth Night has
survived the revolutions which have been fatal to the King of the
Cockneys and so many of his royal brethren; and that he is still
"every inch a king." Yonder he comes under a state-canopy of cake,
and wearing yet his ancient crown. The lady whom we see
advancing in the distance we take to be Saint Distaff. She used to be
a sad romp; but her merriest days we fear are over, for she is
looking very like an old maid. Not far behind her we fancy we can
hear the clear voice of Caroll singing as he comes along; and if our
ears do not deceive us, the Waits are coming up in another
direction. The children are dropping in on all sides.
But what is he that looks down from yonder pedestal in the back-
ground upon the merry muster, with a double face? And why, while
the holly and the mistletoe mingle with the white tresses that hang
over the brow of the one, is the other hidden by a veil? The face on
which we gaze is the face of an old man, and a not uncheerful old
man,—a face marked by many a scar, by the channels of tears that
have been dried up and the deep traces of sorrows past away. Yet
does it look placidly down from beneath its crown of evergreens on
the joyous crew who are assembled at the voice of Christmas. But
what aspect hath that other face which no man can see? Why doth
our flesh creep and the blood curdle in our veins as we gaze? What
awful mystery doth that dark curtain hide? What may be written on
that covered brow, that the old man dare not lift the veil and show it
to those laughing children? Much, much, much that might spoil the
revels. Much that man might not know and yet bear to abide. That
twin face is Janus, he who shuts the gates upon the old year and
opens those of the new, he who looks into the past and into the
future, and catches the reflections of both, and has the tales of each
written on his respective brows. For the past, it is known and has
been suffered; and even at a season like this we can pause to
retrace the story of its joys and of its sorrows as they are graven on
that open forehead,—and from that retrospect, glancing to the
future for hope, can still turn to the present for enjoyment. But oh,
that veil and its solemn enigmas! On that other brow may be written
some secret which, putting out the light of hope, should add the
darkness of the future to the darkness of the past, until, amid the
gloom before and the gloom behind, the festal lamps of the season,
looked on by eyes dim with our own tears, should show as sad as
tapers lighted up in the chamber of the dead. God in mercy keep
down that veil!
"Such foresight who on earth would crave,
Where knowledge is not power to save?"
It will be our business to introduce to our readers each of the
children of old Christmas as they come up in obedience to the
summons of their father, reserving to ourselves the right of settling
the order of their precedence; and we will endeavor to give some
account of the part which each played of old in the revelries of the
season peculiarly their own, and of the sad changes which time has
made in the natural constitutions, or animal spirits, of some of them.
Preparatory, however, to this we must endeavor to give a rapid
glance at the causes which contributed to the decay of a festival so
ancient and universal and uproarious as that which we have
described, and brought into the old man's family that disease to
which some of them have already fallen victims, and which threatens
others with an untimely extinction.
We have already shown that so early as the reign of Elizabeth the
Puritans had begun to lift up their testimony against the pageantries
of the Christmas-tide; and the Lord of Misrule, even in that day of
his potential ascendancy, was described as little better than the
great Enemy of Souls himself. Our friend Stubs (whose
denunciations were directed against all amusements which from long
usage and established repetition had assumed anything like a form
of ceremonial, and who is quite as angry with those who "goe some
to the woodes and groves and some to the hilles and mountaines
. . . where they spende all the night in pastymes, and in the
mornyng they return bringing with them birch bowes and braunches
of trees to deck their assemblies withall," in the sweet month of May,
as he could possibly be with the Christmas revellers, although the
very language in which he is obliged to state the charge against the
former was enough to tempt people out "a Maying," and might
almost have converted himself) assures the reader of his "Anatomie"
that all who contribute "to the maintenaunce of these execrable
pastymes" do neither more nor less than "offer sacrifice to the devill
and Sathanas." It is probable, however, that the people of those
days, who were a right loyal people and freely acknowledged the
claim of their sovereigns to an absolute disposition of all their
temporalities (any of the common or statute laws of the land
notwithstanding), considered it a part of their loyalty to be damned
in company with their sovereigns, too, and resolved that so long as
these iniquities obtained the royal patronage it was of their
allegiance to place themselves in the same category of responsibility.
Or perhaps their notion of regal prerogative, which extended so far
as to admit its right to mould the national law at its good pleasure,
might go the further length of ascribing to it a controlling power over
the moral statutes of right and wrong, and of pleading its sanction
against the menaces of Master Stubs. Or it may be that Master Stubs
had failed to convince them that they were wrong, even without an
appeal to the royal dispensation. Certain it is that, in spite of all that
Master Stubs and his brethren could say, the sway of the Lord of
Misrule, and the revels of his court continued to flourish with
increasing splendor during this reign, and, as we have seen, lost no
portion of their magnificence during the two next, although in that
time had arisen the great champion of the Puritans, Prynne, and
against them and their practices had been directed whole volumes of
vituperation, and denounced large vials of wrath.
In Scotland, however, where the reformation took a sterner tone
than in the southern kingdom, and where, as we have said, the
irregularities committed under cover of the Christmas and other
ceremonials laid them more justly open to its censure, the effect of
this outcry was earlier and far more sensibly felt; and even so early
as the reign of Queen Mary an act passed the Scottish Parliament
whereby the Abbot of Unreason and all his "merrie disports" were
suppressed.
In England, it is true that, according to Sandys, an order of the
common council had issued as early as the beginning of our Mary's
reign prohibiting the Lord Mayor or Sheriffs from entertaining a Lord
of Misrule in any of their houses; but this appears to have been
merely on financial grounds, with a view of reducing the corporation
expenditure, and to have extended no further.
It was not, however, until after the breaking out of the Civil War
that the persecution of the Puritans (who had long and zealously
labored not only to resolve the various ceremonials of the season
into their pagan elements, but even to prove that the celebration of
the Nativity at all was in itself idolatrous) succeeded to any extent in
producing that result which the war itself and the consequent
disorganization of society must in a great measure have effected
even without the aid of a fanatical outcry. In the very first year of
that armed struggle the earliest successful blow was struck against
the festivities with which it had been usual to celebrate this period of
the year, in certain ordinances which were issued for suppressing the
performance of plays and other diversions; and in the following year
some of the shops in London were for the first time opened on
Christmas day, in obedience to the feelings which connected any
observance of it with the spirit of popery. By the year 1647 the
Puritans had so far prevailed that in various places the parish officers
were subjected to penalties for encouraging the decking of churches
and permitting divine service to be performed therein on Christmas
morning; and in the same year the observance of the festival itself,
with that of other holidays, was formally abolished by the two
branches of the legislature.
It was found impossible, however, by all these united means, to
eradicate the Christmas spirit from the land; and many of its
customs and festivities continued to be observed, not only in
obscure places, but even in towns, in spite of prohibition and in spite
of the disarrangement of social ties. The contest between the
Puritan spirit and the ancient spirit of celebration led to many
contests; and we have an account—in a little book of which we have
seen a copy in the British Museum, entitled "Canterbury Christmas,
or a True Relation of the Insurrection in Canterbury"—of the
disturbances which ensued in that city upon the Mayor's
proclamation, issued in consequence of that Parliamentary
prohibition at the Christmas which followed. This said proclamation,
it appears, which was made by the city crier, was to the effect "that
Christmas day and all other superstitious festivals should be put
downe and that a market should be kept upon Christmas day." This
order, it goes on to state, was "very ill taken by the country," the
people of which neglected to bring their provisions into the town,
and gave other tokens of their displeasure of a less negative kind.
For, a few of the shopkeepers in the city, "to the number of twelve at
the most," having ventured to open their shops in defiance of the
general feeling, "they were commanded by the multitude to shut up
again; but refusing to obey, their ware was thrown up and down and
they at last forced to shut in."
Nor were the revilings of the Puritans against the lovers of
Christmas observances suffered to remain unanswered. Many a
squib was directed against the Roundheads; and the popular regret
for the suppression of their high festival was skilfully appealed to by
Royalist politicians and favorers of the ancient religion. The
connection between the new condition of things in Church and State
and the extinction of all the merriment of the land was carefully
suggested in publications that stole out in spite of penalties and
were read in defiance of prohibitions. As an example, that curious
little tract from which we have more than once quoted under the
title of "An Hue and Cry after Christmas," bears the date of 1645;
and we shall best give our readers an idea of its character by setting
out that title at length, as the same exhibits a tolerable abstract of
its contents. It runs thus: "The arraignment, conviction, and
imprisoning of Christmas on St. Thomas day last, and how he broke
out of prison in the holidayes and got away, onely left his hoary hair
and gray beard sticking between two iron bars of a window. With an
Hue and Cry after Christmas, and a letter from Mr. Woodcock, a
fellow in Oxford, to a malignant lady in London. And divers passages
between the lady and the cryer about Old Christmas; and what shift
he was fain to make to save his life, and great stir to fetch him back
again. Printed by Simon Minc'd Pye for Cissely Plum-Porridge, and
are to be sold by Ralph Fidler Chandler at the signe of the Pack of
Cards in Mustard Alley in Brawn Street." Besides the allusions
contained in the latter part of this title to some of the good things
that follow in the old man's train, great pains are taken by the
"cryer" in describing him, and by the lady in mourning for him, to
allude to many of the cheerful attributes that made him dear to the
people. His great antiquity and portly appearance are likewise
insisted upon. "For age this hoarie-headed man was of great yeares,
and as white as snow. He entered the Romish Kallendar, time out of
mind, as old or very neer as Father Mathusalem was,—one that
looked fresh in the Bishops' time, though their fall made him pine
away ever since. He was full and fat as any divine doctor on them
all; he looked under the consecrated lawne sleeves as big as Bul-
beefe,—just like Bacchus upon a tunne of wine, when the grapes
hang shaking about his eares; but since the Catholike liquor is taken
from him he is much wasted, so that he hath looked very thin and ill
of late." "The poor," says the "cryer" to the lady, "are sory for" his
departure; "for they go to every door a-begging, as they were wont
to do (good Mrs., Somewhat against this good time); but Time was
transformed, Away, be gone; here is not for you." The lady, however,
declares that she for one will not be deterred from welcoming old
Christmas. "No, no!" says she; "bid him come by night over the
Thames, and we will have a back-door open to let him in;" and ends
by anticipating better prospects for him another year.
And by many a back-door was the old man let in to many a
fireside during the heaviest times of all that persecution and
disgrace. On the establishment of the Commonwealth, when the
more settled state of things removed some of the causes which had
opposed themselves to his due reception, the contests of opposition
between the revived spirit of festival and the increased sectarian
austerity became more conspicuous. There is an order of the
Parliament in 1652 again prohibiting the observance of Christmas
day, which proves that the practice had revived; and there are
examples of the military having been employed to disperse
congregations assembled for that purpose. In the "Vindication of
Christmas," published about this time, the old gentleman, after
complaining bitterly of the manner in which he was "used in the city,
and wandering into the country up and down from house to house,
found small comfort in any," asserts his determination not to be so
repulsed: "Welcome or not welcome," says he, "I am come." In a
periodical publication of that day entitled "Mercurius Democritus, or
a True and Perfect Nocturnall, communicating many strange wonders
out of the World in the Moon, etc.," the public are encouraged to
keep Christmas, and promised better days. No. 37 contains some
verses to that effect, of which the following are the first two:—
"Old Christmass now is come to town,
Though few do him regard;
He laughs to see them going down,
That have put down his Lord.
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