1

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __1__

TOPIC/S:

Objectives and Scope of Machine Design

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

1. Define the process, phases and design consideration of machine design

2. Explain the importance and roles of materials selection in design
3. Describe the use of stress-strain curve in design
4. Identify standards and codes in machine design
5. State the importance of mechanical properties and factor of safety in machine
design

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

1.1 What is Design?

The word ‘design’ can either be a noun or a verb. As a noun, ‘Design’ can be referred to an
object’s aesthetic appearance as well as its function. For example, ‘a nicely designed car
engine that gives very good mileage and performance’ refers to the concept of function. As a
verb, ‘Design’ is the act of formalizing an idea or concept into concrete information. It
includes the processes of conception, invention, visualization, calculation, refinement and
specification of details that determine the form of a product. Design may be defined as an
iterative decision making process to formulate a plan by which resources are optimally
converted into systems, processes or devices in order to solve a specific problem or to fulfill a
specific need. It begins with a need, a problem, an idea or a concept and ends with concrete
information, in the form of drawings, computer representation or in any other form, which
helps in manufacturing and utilization of a product.

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1.2 Phases of Design Process

The design process begins with identification of a need and a decision to do something about
it. After a number of iterations, the process ends with the presentation of the plans for
satisfying the need. Depending on the nature of the design task, several phases may be
repeated before the design is finalized. Complete design process can be explained with the
help of Figure1.1, which shows the phases of design process and iterations.

1.2.1 Identification of Need

Design process generally starts with the identification of need, a problem or with the
recognition of a potential market for a product, device or process. Recognition of the need
requires a lot of imagination and creativity, because the need is generally not clear and
evident and can be vague. It can be just a feeling of uneasiness or a sensing that something is
wrong. For example, there is a need to do something about the design of a motor vehicle may
be indicated by its low efficiency, lesser maximum speed or high noise and vibration levels.
Then the need statement may say that the design of the motor vehicle needs an improvement.

1.2.2 Definition of Problem

Need statement is generally brief and doesn’t include the details. The definition of problem is
more specific and includes all the specifications for the object to be designed, which include
the input i.e. resources to be utilized, expected output, cost limitations, quantity required,
expected life and reliability, temperature limitations, maximum range and expected
variations in the variables, dimensional & weight limitations, manufacturing limitations etc.
Anything that limits the designer’s freedom of choice is a constraint and all the constraints
should be clearly defined in the problem definition.

Background information on all the relevant aspects of the problem should also be gathered. It
includes the study to find out whether this, or a similar problem, has been solved before. If a

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ready-made solution is available in the market, it can be used. Or even if something new is to
be done, the study of existing similar technologies, products, relevant patent literature and
technical publications can be very helpful.

1.2.3 Synthesis

Synthesis is the process of concept generation, the purpose of which is to develop as many
ideas as possible to offer potential solutions to the problem defined in previous phase.
Primary need is identified for initial focus and then all feasible design alternatives are
developed. Different proposed alternatives should not be compared with each other, in this
phase, and each alternative should be separately evaluated on the basis of established criteria.

1.2.4 Analysis and Optimization

After synthesis, different proposed solutions are analyzed to assess their performance and
can be ranked. Alternatives having unsatisfactory performance can either be revised and
improved or discarded. It is always advisable to select two or three design concepts and
develop them instead of selecting presumably the best one only. Concepts, with potential, are
optimized to further increase their performance. Optimization is the repetitive process of
refining a set of criteria, which are often conflicting, to achieve the best compromise. These
competing design concepts can finally be compared again so that the path leading to the most
competitive product can be chosen. For analysis and optimization, mathematical models are
prepared to simulate the real physical system.

Synthesis, analysis and optimization go hand in hand. Identification of any kind of

deficiency or inadequacy in the proposed solution, in the analysis and optimization phase,
may require synthesis of some new solution and process keeps on repeating until an adequate
and optimum solution is obtained.

1.2.5 Evaluation

In this phase, prototype model of the design is generally made and tested, which is the final
evaluation of the design to make sure that it satisfies the original requirements. In addition to
this, design is evaluated for its reliability, competitiveness, economic viability, maintenance
requirements, profitability and so on.

1.2.6 Presentation

Final phase of the design process is to communicate the design to others. This presentation
can be in the form of drawings, computer models on in any other form that would help in
manufacturing and utilization of the product.

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1.3 Machine Design

Machine is a combination of linkages having definite motion and capable of performing

useful work. Machine Design is creation of plans for the machine to perform the desired
functions. Machine design can be defined as creation of right combination of correctly
proportioned moving and stationary components so constructed and joined as to enable the
liberation, transformation and utilization of energy. Scientific principles, technical knowledge
and imagination are used to develop a machine or mechanical system to perform specific
functions with maximum economy and efficiency. It includes the creation of new better
machines or improving the existing ones. Machine Design requires the knowledge of basic
and engineering sciences such as Physics, Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of
Materials, Theory of Machines, Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, Vibrations, Fluid
Mechanics, Metallurgy, Manufacturing Processes and Engineering Drawing.

In machine design, the designer’s task is to determine the motion, forces and energy transfer
involved so as to determine the sizes, shapes and materials for each element of the machine.
When any component of machine ceases to perform its intended function, machine element
or machine is said to have failed. Generally the machine elements are designed on the basis
of strength and rigidity so that they are able to withstand the applied load with permissible
deformation or stress. In addition to strength and stiffness, other factors that are considered in
design of machine element are weight, cost, wear, safety, reliability etc. Design work may
involve concentrating on one component at a time, but it is very important to simultaneously
consider its relation with the other components and the product as a whole.

In machine design, as in any other kind of design, no standard procedure or rigid rules can be
specified for the designer, but the following steps are generally followed:

1. Problem to be solved or desired purpose of the machine is completely and clearly

stated.

2. Possible mechanisms that will provide the desired motion or set of motions are
selected.

3. Forces acting on and energy transmitted by each element of the machine are
determined.

4. Best suitable material is selected for each of the machine element.

5. Allowable values of stress and deflection are determined for each machine
element, depending upon its material and functional requirements.

6. Size and shape of each machine element is determined so that it can withstand
the applied loads without failure.

7. Dimensions of the machine elements are modified considering manufacturing

aspects.

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8. Assembly and detailed drawings of the machine are made with complete
specification of materials and manufacturing methods.

1.4 Design Considerations

As discussed in the previous article, strength and stiffness are very important factors that are
considered in machine design but there are a number of other considerations that the designer
has to keep in mind while designing any product. Some of the important factors considered in
design are listed below:

1. Functionality
2. Strength
3. Stiffness
4. Wear
5. Corrosion
6. Thermal Properties
7. Surface Finish
8. Lubrication
9. Friction
10. Weight
11. Noise
12. Shape
13. Size
14. Safety
15. Reliability
16. Manufacturability
17. Utility
18. Maintenance
19. Liability
20. Cost
21. Life
22. Styling
23. Control
24. Volume
25. Marketability
26. Remanufacturing

1.5 Selection of Material

Material selection is a very vital step in the process of machine design. Selection of material
depends upon following aspects:

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1. Performance Requirements: Material is selected considering the design constraints

and performance requirements e.g. loads acting on the member, size & weight
constraints, environmental conditions, desired reliability & durability etc.

2. Material Properties: Performance requirements are compared with properties of

materials to select the best suitable material. For example stress level estimated for
any machine member is compared with the strength of the available materials.
Properties can be Physical (melting point, co-efficient of thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, specific heat, specific gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic
properties etc.), Chemical (corrosion resistance, reactivity with acids, bases, water
etc.), Mechanical (hardness, toughness, ductility, malleability etc.) or Manufacturing
(castability, weldability, formability, machineability etc.). Any of these properties can
become important depending upon the design requirements and environmental
conditions.

3. Manufacturing Aspects: Along with the selection of material designer also has to
decide about the manufacturing processes to be used to give it desired shape.
Therefore in addition to the manufacturing properties of the material, manufacturing
constraints are also to be taken care of, while selecting a particular material.

4. Availability & Cost: Material selected should be easily available at an acceptable

cost. In addition to the material cost, total cost of fabrication is also considered as the
desired shape has to be given to the material with best quality and least cost.

Availability of a large number of materials with varying properties makes the job of material
selection very difficult. Also due to dynamic nature of the market, cost keeps on varying,
desiring the designer to remain updated about the available materials and their cost.

Stress-Strain Curve

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As discussed above, to design any component performance requirements are compared with
the properties of the material. These properties are obtained experimentally. Tension test is
the simplest and basic test that gives very important properties related to the mechanical
behavior of the material. In this test, a standard specimen, shown in Figure 3.1, is subjected
to gradually increasing axial tensile force. Before starting the test gauge length is marked on
the specimen and initial diameter and gauge length are measured. Axial tensile load is applied
on the specimen, which is increased gradually till the fracture of the component takes place.
Load and deformation values are measured and stress (=Force/Area) & strain
(=Deformation/Original Length) are calculated at each step. This data is then plotted in the
form of stress-strain curve. Typical Stress-Strain curve for ductile material is shown in Figure
3.2. Stress-Strain curve provides the following information:

1. Proportional Limit (P): Stress-strain curve is linear up to point P. Representing

the maximum stress where stress and strain are directly proportional.

2. Modulus of Elasticity: It is the ratio of stress to strain up to point P and is given

by slope of line OP., E = tan\theta= PX/OX = stress/strain\] .

3. Elastic Limit: is the maximum stress it can withstand before it undergoes

permanent (plastic) deformation; beyond this point, the material will not return to
its original shape when the stress is removed.

4. Yield Strength : While often used interchangeably, "yield stress" and "yield
strength" technically refer to the same concept: the stress level at which a
material begins to deform plastically (permanently) rather than elastically
(reversibly)

5. Ultimate Tensile Strength: refers to the maximum stress a material can withstand
before breaking, while "ultimate tensile stress" is the specific stress value at that
point on the stress-strain curve.

6. Breaking Strength: Breaking strength refers to the maximum force a material or

object can withstand before it breaks or ruptures. After U, the cross-sectional
area of specimen begins to decrease rapidly and a localized decrease in area
called ‘necking’ takes place and ultimately the fracture takes place. F is called
Fracture Point and corresponding stress is called Breaking Strength.

7. Percentage Elongation: It is the ratio of increase in the gauge length of the

specimen, at the time of fracture, to its original length, expressed in percent.

8. Percentage Reduction in Area: It is the ratio of decrease in cross-sectional area of

the specimen after fracture to the original cross-sectional area, expressed in
percent.

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Brittle Materials don’t exhibit Yield Point, deviation of stress-strain curve from straight line
begins very early, there is very small plastic deformation, no necking occurs and fracture
takes place suddenly. Stress-strain curve for a brittle material is shown in Figure 3.3.

Ductile vs. Brittle Material Behavior

Ductile material - Sustains significant Brittle material -No significant plastic

plastic deformation prior to fracture. deformation before fracture

The only true means of determining if a material is ductile or brittle is by testing it (tensile
test)

Note: The same alloy can be either ductile or brittle, depending upon temperature and/or how
it was formed

Some general indications of brittle behavior

 Glass, ceramic, and wood
 Cast ferrous alloys
 Materials in extreme cold temperatures
 Also, if you can’t find S y in a handbook (only Su given)

Mechanical Properties of Materials

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Mechanical properties of materials describe their behavior under the action of external forces
and are very important in the determination of shape and size of the components. Following
are some important mechanical properties:

Strength Ability of the material to withstand external forces without yielding or fracture.

Stiffness Ability of the material to resist deformation under the action of external forces.

Ability of the material to regain its original shape and size when the external load
Elasticity
is removed.

Ability of the material to permanently retain the deformation produced due to

Plasticity external load. Ability to have large plastic deformation without fracture is very
important property in certain operations like stamping.

Ability of the material to have large plastic deformation without fracture when
Ductility subjected to tensile force. It is measured by %age elongation and %age reduction in
area. Ductility decreases with increase in temperature.

Ability of the material to have large plastic deformation without fracture when
Malleability subjected to compressive force. Malleability increases with increase in
temperature.

Brittleness Property of the material to show negligible plastic deformation before fracture.

Ability of the material to resist penetration, plastic indentation, abrasion or

scratching. Wear resistance increases with increase in hardness and processes like
Hardness
case hardening are used to increase to increase the hardness of surfaces rubbing
against each other.

Ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and release this
energy when unloaded. It is measured by Modulus of Resilience which is strain
Resilience
energy per unit volume up to the elastic limit and is given by the area under the
stress-strain curve, from origin to elastic limit.

Toughness Ability of the material to absorb energy before the fracture takes place. Tough
materials have ability to bend, twist or stretch before it gets fractured. It is an
important property for components subjected to shock loads. It is measured by

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Modulus of Toughness which is the total work done or energy absorbed by the
component up to the fracture point and is given by the area under the stress-strain
curve up to the fracture point.

Engineering Materials

Engineering Materials can be classified as metals (ferrous & non-ferrous) and non-metals,
which are discussed in the following articles:

Ferrous Materials

Ferrous materials can be classified into Wrought Iron, Cast Iron and Steel.

Wrought Iron and Cast Iron

Wrought Iron and Cast Iron along with its types are discussed in the table given below

Introduction Properties Applications

Tough, malleable,
ductile, weldable,
forgeable & corrosion Bolts, nuts, railway
resistant couplings, chains,
Wrought Purest form of iron with
crain hooks, oil rigs,
Iron more than 99.5% Fe Poor castability, high
pipes, pipe fittings,
melting point
plates, sheets etc.
(1510°C)low impact
strength, cannot be
hardened or tempered

Cast An alloy of Fe & C with C Low cost, good Automobile engine

> 2%, other ingradients – castability & blocks, machine tool
Iron Si, Mn, S, Ph etc, hard and machinability, high structures
brittle compressive strength,
wear resistant, good
vibration damping
capacity

Very brittle, low

plasticity, low

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malleability, cannot be
forged

Low cost, good

Contains 2.5 to 3.75 % C castability &
present in the form of machinability, high Machine tool
graphite flakes, giving compressive strength, structures, gas/ water
Grey gray color and hence its graphite acts as lubricant pipeselectric motor
name. making it suitable for frames, piston rings,
Cast Iron sliding parts flywheels, cylinder
Examples: FG150, FG250,
block, heads, housings
FG350Si12 (no. indicates Low tensile and impact
UTS, Si12 means 12% Si) strength, less ductility,
poor weldability

Very hard and brittle,

Contains 1.75 to 2.30% C good abrasion resistance, Rail/car wheels, valve
White Cast
present in the form of poor mechanical seats, cams, small
Iron
cementite (Fe3C) properties, low pulleys, rollers, gears
machinability

Obtained by annealing of
white cast iron, contains
2.2 to 3.6% C. Examples: Low cost, malleable,
BM 300 WM200 PM400 Crank case, pump
ductile, forgeable, good
Malleable bodies, conveyer
wear resistance, impact
Cast Iron BM, WM & PM indicate chain links,
strength and vibration
Black hearth, White hearth crankshafts, levers etc.
damping capacity
& Pearlitic Malleable CI
resp. numbers indicate
UTS

Cylinders, cylinder
Stronger, more ductile,
Also known as nodular or heads, valves, pipes,
tougher, good fluidity,
Spheroidal ductile CI, C (graphite) is pipe fittings, power
castability, machinabilty,
Cast Iron present in the transmission
weldability and wear
spheroidal/nodular form equipment, earth
resistance
moving machinery

Alloy Improved properties by Increased strength, high Automobile parts like

adding alloying elements wear and corrosion cylinders, pistons,

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piston rings, crank

like Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, Si, case, brake drums,
Cast Iron resistance
Mn etc. crushing and grinding
machine parts

Steel

It is an alloy of Fe and C with C < 1.5%. C is present in the form of iron carbide (Fe 3C),
which imparts hardness and strength. No free carbon (graphite) is present. Steel is used for
most of the engineering applications. Its properties can be modified using heat treatment. It
can be classified as Plain Carbon Steels and Alloy Steels.

Plain Carbon Steel: It contains 0.5 to 1.0 % of C. It is cheap, easily available, has wide range
of mechanical properties that can be controlled with the help of heat treatment and alloying
elements, has good machinability and weldability. It can be classified as low, medium and
high carbon steel.

Carbon
Type Properties Applications
%age

Low Carbon Small forgings, machined,

Very soft and ductile, good
Steel (Mild < 0.3 % welded and cold formed
machinability and weldability
Steel) parts

Medium Carbon 0.3 to 0.7 High strength , good

Most machine components
Steel % weldability

High yield strength, tough,

High Carbon Cutting tools, springs,
> 0.7 % hard and brittle, low
Steel bearings
weldability

Alloy Steels: When certain alloying elements are added in sufficient quantity to impart some
desired property, these are called alloy steels. For example, Ni provides hardness, strength &
toughness without compromising ductility, Cr provides high hardness, strength, wear &
corrosion resistance, Mo & W increases hardenabilty & wear resistance, V improves fatigue
resistance and so on. Some examples of alloy steels are 40Cr1Mo28, 40Ni3, 37Mn2,
31Ni3Cr65Mo55.Table gives the list of some alloying elements along with the properties
they impart.

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Non-ferrous Materials

A variety of non-ferrous materials are also used in engineering applications. They are
soft, have low melting point, low strength, high corrosion resistance, can be cold worked and
have good manufacturing properties. Some important non-ferrous materials are Al Alloys
(Duralumin, Y alloy, Magnalium, Hindalium), Cu Alloys (Brasses, Bronzes, Gun metal,
Babbits), Ni Alloys (Monel Metal, Inconel, Nichrome, Nimonics) etc.

Non-Metallic Materials

Non-metals have low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat & electricity. Examples are
timber, leather, rubber, plastics etc.

Standards and Codes

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is
to limit the multitude of variations that can arise from the arbitrary creation of a part,
material, or process. A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture,
and construction of something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of
safety, efficiency, and performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety codes do
not imply absolute safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain. Sometimes the
unexpected event really does happen. Designing a building to withstand a 120 mi/h wind
does not mean that the designers think a 140 mi/h wind is impossible; it simply means that
they think it is highly improbable. All of the organizations and societies listed below have
established specifications for standards and safety or design codes. The name of the
organization provides a clue to the nature of the standard or code. Some of the standards and
codes, as well as addresses, can be obtained in most technical libraries or on the Internet. The
organizations of interest to mechanical engineers are:

Aluminum Association (AA)

American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
ASM International
British Standards Institution (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)

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Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)

International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
National Association of Power Engineers (NAPE)
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Stress-strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the
axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is
measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen
takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal
stress σ and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along
the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain
differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon
structural steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural
steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of
rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as
the dividing line between these two classes.

Stress-strain diagram of a medium-carbon structural steel

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Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight
line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed
by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain or

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young’s Modulus

and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to E is called the elastic range. The region from E
to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The
resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent
distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-

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strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable
stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the
yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength
(ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

Factor of Safety
A factor of safety is the load carrying capacity of a system beyond what the system actually
supports. Bridges, buildings, safety equipment and fall protection all start with a factor of
safety.

Simply put, the safety factor is how much stronger a system is than required. The factor of
safety is the backbone of all structures and safety equipment and originates with engineers. In
the planning phase of all structures and safety equipment, engineers determine required
overload from any object to remain safe in the event of an emergency.

For reliability, structures are typically built stronger than necessary. This is in case a structure
experiences a heavier-than-expected load. This is a factor of safety. Ultimately, the amount of
stress and overload a structure can handle comes down to the material used to build it.

Determining the factor of safety:

Engineers perform strength tests to determine how much weight a material can handle.
Certain materials are more ductile than others, meaning they deform to pressure before
breaking more so than others, like brittle materials. Brittle materials simply break once they
meet the maximum force.

Ductile materials use the yield strength to determine the safety factor. Brittle materials use
the ultimate strength.

Yield strength: Determines the safety factor until the start of deformation.

Ultimate strength: Determines the safety factor until failure.

Ductile materials often test the factor of safety against yield and ultimate strengths while
brittle materials usually only calculate the ultimate safety factor since the yield and ultimate
values are often so close.

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The necessary factor of safety of any structure determines the materials used. If a structure
has a high required factor of safety, then engineers use a ductile material to build it.
The realized factor of safety determines the amount of material used.

Required (design factor): A constant value imposed by law or standard. A structure is

required to meet this value at minimum.

Realized (safety factor): A calculated ratio of structural capacity to actual applied load. A
measure of the reliability of a design.

Factor of Safety

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The magnitude of factor of safety depends upon following factors

PROGRESS CHECK

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TRUE or FALSE

1. Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding
2. Ductile materials use the yield strength to determine the safety factor. Brittle
materials use the ultimate strength.
3. Yield strength: Determines the safety factor until the start of deformation.
4. Design process generally starts with the identification of need

5. Synthesis is the process of concept generation, the purpose of which is to develop as

many ideas as possible to offer potential solutions to the problem defined in previous
phase.

REFERENCES

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125511

Ullman, (2016), The Mechanical Design Process

Budynas, (2015), Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Edition

Garg, (2012), Workshop Technology

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __2__

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TOPIC/S:

Design for Static Loading

&
Theories of Failure & Stress Concentration

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

1. Differentiate types of loads and calculating loads

2. Describe different types of simple stresses
3. Define combine loading in machine design
4. Explain theories of failure and stress concentration

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

1. DESIGN FOR STATIC LOADING

A. Load & Its Determination

All the machine members are subjected to different types of loads that may be acting
because of energy, torque or power transmission, their self-weight, frictional resistance,
inertia or centrifugal forces or due to temperature gradient. Load may be classified as
static or dynamic.

Static load is the load which does not change in magnitude or direction and gradually
increases to a steady value e.g. dead weight of machine elements. Dynamic load is the load
which changes in magnitude or direction or both with respect to time e.g. load acting on the
connecting rod of an internal combustion engine. Impact load (load applied with certain
velocity) and shock load (suddenly applied load) are also types of dynamic load.

Determination of appropriate loads acting on a machine member is a critical and challenging

task. All the stress and deflection analysis is useless and the component cannot function
satisfactorily if the operating loads are not calculated or predicted correctly. Sometimes
the operating loads are easily determinable e.g. load on a shaft running at known speed
and transmitting a known value of torque. But often the loads are difficult to determine e.g.
the load on vehicle chassis which depends on road condition and driving practices. Loads
acting on a machine member may be directly known or may have to be calculated using basic
concepts of engineering mechanics etc. Sometimes experimental methods are used to obtain a
statistical definition of the load. Also sometimes the service loads are estimated with the help
of record of service failures and strength analysis. After the determination or estimation of
applied load, load acting on different members of the machine are determined with the help
of free body diagrams and basic equilibrium equations of forces and moments.

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B. Failure Criteria

A machine element is said to have failed when it ceases to perform its intended function. It
may happen if its stress or deflection crosses the acceptable limit. Excessive deformation of
a particular element may lead to unwanted interference between the machine elements or
jamming of the machine and therefore deformation is considered as a failure criterion. Same
way, excessive stresses may result in yielding or fracture of a machine element making it
unable to perform its desired function. When stress developed in a ductile material reaches
the yield strength, it starts yielding and excessive plastic deformation occurs, therefore Yield
strength is taken as failure criterion for ductile materials. In brittle material, very small plastic
deformation occurs and fracture takes place once the stress developed reaches Ultimate
Tensile Strength. Therefore Ultimate Tensile Strength is considered as failure criterion for
brittle materials. Bearing Pressure (for components rubbing against each other with
appreciable relative velocity e.g. bearings, clutches, brakes etc.) and wear (for components
having sliding or rolling motion e.g. gears, bearings, bushes, piston-cylinders etc.) are
examples of other failure criteria.

C. Factor of Safety & Allowable Stresses

The factor of safety is a measure of reserve strength provided to take care of any
unexpected or unpredicted conditions that may arise due to uncertainties in the properties
of the material, magnitude & direction of the load and operating conditions. Value of
factor of safety thus depends upon effect of failure (level of severity, cost & danger
involved) , type of load (static or dynamic), accuracy in load calculations, material
selected (ductile, brittle, homogeneity), desired reliability, service conditions (normal,
corrosive, temperature level), manufacturing quality (variation in desired dimensions,
quality) and cost etc. Depending upon the criteria of failure decided, strength of the material
is divided by factor of safety to obtain allowable stress or design stress which is then used to
determine the dimensions of the components as discussed in the next article.

Where,
S y is yield strength,
Sut is ultimate tensile strength
fos is factor of safety.

D. Design for Simple Stresses

When a mechanical component is subjected to an external load, a resisting force is set

up within the component. This resisting force per unit area of the component is called
stress. The maximum stress developed in a member should not exceed the allowable
value as obtained from the material strength considering certain value of factor of
safety i.e any stress ‘σ ’ should always be ≤ [σ ] . Limiting values of dimensions desired
can be calculated by equating σ and [σ ]. Equation σ = [σ ] is called design equation and
its use for simple stresses is discussed here.

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I. Direct Tensile & Compressive Stress

When the fibers of the component tend to elongate under the external load, stress
developed in the component is called tensile stress. On the other hand, when the fibers
tend to shorten under the external load, stress developed in the component is called
compressive stress.

where, P is external load, A is cross-sectional area of the component and [σ] and [σc] are
allowable tensile and compressive stress of the material. From P / A = [σ] or P/A = [σc],
minimum cross-sectional area required to withstand a known load, P can be determined for
given allowable stresses.

Figure 3.1 shows tensile and compressive stress developed in members subjected to load P.

Tensile or compressive strain is the deformation per unit length and is given by,

According to Hook's Law, within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.
Therefore, σt ∞ ε or σt = Eε

where, constant of proportionality E is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of

Elasticity.

E = 207000 N/mm2 for Carbon Steels, 100000 N/mm2 for Grey Cast Iron

1. Stretching a Rod

A 2.0-m-long steel rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.30cm2.The rod is a part of a vertical support
that holds a heavy 550-kg platform that hangs attached to the rod’s lower end. Ignoring the weight of
the rod, what is the tensile stress in the rod and the elongation of the rod under the stress?

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2. A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and
a concrete footing. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the stress in wood is
limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.

3. A Steel rod (E=200 GPa) has a circular cross section and is 20m long. Determine the
minimum diameter if the rod must hold a 30 kN tensile force without deforming more than
5mm. Assume the steel stays in the elastic region. Note, 1 GPa = 10^9 Pa.

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4. A sculpture weighing 10,000 N rests on a horizontal surface

at the top of a 6.0-m-tall vertical pillar .The pillar’s cross-
sectional area is 0.20m2 and it is made of granite with a mass
density of 2700kg/m3. Find the compressive stress at the cross-
section located 3.0 m below the top of the pillar and the value

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of the compressive strain of the top 3.0-m segment of the pillar. Young’s modulus for granite
for granite is 4.5 x 10
10
Pa

First we find the weight of the 3.0-m-long top section of the pillar. The normal force that acts
on the cross-section located 3.0 m down from the top is the sum of the pillar’s weight and the
sculpture’s weight. Once we have the normal force, we use equation of stress. To find the
compressive strain, we find the value of Young’s modulus for granite.

II. Direct Shear Stress

When the external load acting on the component tends to slide the adjacent planes with
respect to each other, the resulting stresses on these planes are called direct shear stresses.

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Figure 3.2 shows two plates joined together with the help of a rivet and subjected to load P.
In this case the rivet is subjected to direct shear stress. Average shear stress is given by,

where,

P is external load,

A is cross-sectional area of the component

tau is allowable shear stress.

1. Compute the average shear stress developed in a plate (10 thickness) under the action of a
piston (40 mm diameter) subjected to a force of 50 KN.

2. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? The
shear strength is 350 MN/m2

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3. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 40 ksi. The

compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi. (a) Compute the maximum thickness of
plate in which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be punched. (b) If the plate is 0.25 inch thick,
determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.

III. Bending Stress

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When a machine member is subjected to bending moment, tensile stress develops on one side
of the neutral axis and compressive stress on the other. Therefore, the outside fibers are in
tension and the inside fibers are in compression. The bending stress at any fiber is given by,

where, M is Applied bending moment, I is Moment of inertia of the cross-section about

the neutral axis and y is the distance of the fiber from the neutral axis. Distribution of
bending stress is linear as shown in Figure 3.3. Stress is proportional to the distance of the
fiber from neutral axis and is maximum in the farthest fiber.

1. A cantilever beam of length 2m fails when a load of 2KN is applied at the free end. If
the section is 40mmx60mm, find the stress at the failure.

Solution:
Step 1: Data:
Length of beam = 2m or 2000mm
load at failure = 2KN
Section dimensions = 40mm X 60mm

Step 2: Calculation of moment of inertia

I = bd3/12
= (40) (603)/12
= 7.2X105 mm4

Step 3: Calculation of bending moment about fixed end

M = WL
= (2)(2)
= 4KN-m

Step 4:
Calculation of bending stress
M /I= σ / y
Substitute for above (where y = depth /2= 60/2 = 30mm)
There fore
σ = 166.67N/mm2

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2. A rectangular beam of breadth 100 mm and depth 200 mm is simply supported over a span
of 4 m. The beam is loaded with an uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m over the entire span.
Find the maximum bending stresses.

3. A beam is simply supported and carries a uniformly distributed load of 40KN/m run over
the whole span. The section of the beam is rectangular having depth as 500mm.If the
maximum stress in the material of the beam is 120N/mm 2and moment of inertia of the section
is 7x108mm4, find the span of the beam.

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Solution:
Step 1: Data:
Depth of beam = 500mm
maximum bending stress = σ = 120N/mm2.
moment of inertia =7x108mm4

Step 2: Calculation of bending moment for the above condition

M = wL2/8
= 40(L)2/8
= 5L2

Step 3: Calculation of length of beam

M /I= σ / y
Substitute for above (where y = depth /2= 500/2 =250mm)
5L2 /7x108= 120 / 250
L=8197.56 mm

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IV. Torsional Shear Stress

Figure 3.4a shows a shaft subjected to torque. Stress induced in a machine member to resist
the action of twist is called torsional shear stress. It is given by,

where, T is applied torque, r is radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation and
J is Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation. Distribution of
torsional shear stress is shown in Figure 3.4b. Stress is maximum at the outer fiber and zero
at the axis of rotation. Angle of twist for a given value of applied torque, T and length of
shaft, l can be calculated using the relation, [T/J = G (theta) /l] , where, [theta ] is angle of
twist (radians) and G is Modulus of rigidity.

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V. Bearing or Crushing Stress

Crushing means to press or squeeze with a force that destroys or deforms or to squeeze into
small fragments. Crushing or Bearing stress is defined as the compressive stress developed at
the surface of contact between two interacting members that are relatively at rest. Crushing
stress is assumed to act uniformly on the projected area. Consider a riveted joint as shown in
figure 3.5. If d is diameter of the rivet and tis thickness of the plate, crushing stress is given

by,

If n is the total number of rivets used, total projected area will become n.d.t.

Also, the local compression that exists at the surface of contact between two members that
are in relative motion is called bearing pressure. For example, bearing pressure exists
between the contact surfaces of a journal rotating in a fixed bearing as shown in figure 3.6.
For a journal of diameter, d and contact length, l, bearing pressure is given by,

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1.

2.

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2. Assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The
allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of
rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest average tensile
stress in the plates.

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3. The lap joint shown in Fig. is fastened by four ¾-in. diameter rivets. Calculate the
maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi
and the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly
distributed among the four rivets.

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5. In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum
thickness of each yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a
shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

VI. Thermal Stresses

Materials expand with increase in temperature and contract with decrease in the temperature.
Stresses develop in a component, if it is prevented from freely expanding or contracting
under the effect of temperature change. Theses stresses are called thermal stresses. Change in
length of any machine member as a result of temperature change is given by,

where, l is original length of the member, a is Coefficient of thermal expansion and t is rise or
fall of temperature. If this change in length is prevented i.e. the member is not allowed to
freely expand or contract, strain induced in the body is given by,

where, E = Modulus of Elasticity of material of the member

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2. DESIGN FOR COMBINED LOADING & THEORIES OF FAILURE

Combined Loading & Principal Stresses

When a machine component is subjected to only axial load, bending moment or torque,
uniaxial state of stress is produced, which was discussed in the previous lesson. But in
actual practice, the components are mostly subjected to combination of loads e.g.
transmission shaft is subjected to bending and torsion at the same time. Combined loading
leads to complex state of stress.

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Maximum Tensile Stress = Tensile Stress + Bensing Stress

Maximum Compressive Stress = Compressive Stress + Bendimg Stress

2
m
σt
= F
A ¿
40 kg x 9.81

583 mm
2
s
= 0.67 MPa

2
m
σc
= F
A =
40 kg x 9.81

583 mm
2
s
= 0.67 MPa

σb
= My
I

( )
2
m
σb
= 40 kg 9.81
s
(750 mm)(30.15 mm)
6
0.238 x 10 mm
4
= 37.24 MPa

σ tmax
= 37.24 MPa + 0.67 MPa = 37.91 MPa

σ cmax
= 37.24 MPa + 0.67 MPa = 37.91 MPa

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Infinite number of stress vectors act at any point inside the member subjected to combined
loads as infinite number of planes can pass through a point. Each stress vector is
characterized by the corresponding plane on which it is acting. State of stress at a point is the
totality of all stress vectors acting on it. For design purpose, it is very important to know the
state of stress so as to determine the critical planes, the respective critical stresses and relate
them to the strength of the material.
If the stress vectors acting on three mutually perpendicular planes passing through the point
are known, stress vector acting on any other arbitrary plane at that point can be determined.
Let us consider three mutually perpendicular planes (x-plane, y-plane and z-plane) passing
through a point as shown in figure 4.1a. Normal and shear stress components acting on these
planes are:

Normal Stress Shear Stress

Plane
Component Components

x-
sx τxy, τxz
plane

For equilibrium, in most cases,

y- cross shears are equal i.e. τxy = τyx,
sy τyx, τyz
plane τyz = τzy and τxz =τzx. Therefore, six
components of stress are required
z- to completely define the state of
sz τzx, τzy stress. State of stress, when the
plane
stresses on one surface are zero, is
called plane stress. Figure 4.1b
shows the state of plane stress, with
normal and shear stress components on the z-plane to be zero (s z = τzx = τzy =0). Stress acting
on any oblique plane, whose normal makes an angle theta with the x-axis, for state of plane
stress, can be determined with the help of figure 4.2a. Considering equilibrium of forces,
normal (σ) and shear stress (tau) components acting on this arbitrary oblique plane are given
by,

From strength consideration, it is important to find the plane of maximum normal stress
and plane of maximum shear stress and their magnitudes. Differentiating the expression
for normal stress (s) with respect to q and equating it to zero, we get:

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This gives two values of theta i.e. two planes, which are perpendicular to each other. One has
maximum value of normal stress and the other has minimum value. These two planes are
called principal planes as the shear stress component along these planes is zero. Normal
stress components on these planes are called Principal Stresses and are given by,

Differentiating the expression for shear stress (\[\tau \]) with respect to q and equating it to
zero, we get

This also gives two values of theta i.e. two mutually perpendicular planes, which make an
angle of 45° with the principal planes. Shear stress component along these planes, also
called principal shear stress is given by,

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Theories of Failure

In the previous article, it has been discussed that how the state of stress can be determined for
any point in a component subjected to combined loads and how to get the value of maximum
principal stresses and maximum principal shear stress developed in the component. Now for
designing components subjected to combined load, it is important to relate this complex
state of stress to the properties of material (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
percentage elongation etc.), which are obtained from the simple tension test, so that the
failure in such conditions can be predicted. This relationship is provided by ‘Theories of
Elastic Failure’, which are discussed below.

Maximum Principal Stress Theory

This theory is credited to W.A. J. Rankine. It states that failure

of any mechanical component subjected to complex state of
stress occurs whenever one of the three principal stresses
equals or exceeds the strength i.e. whenever maximum tensile
stress exceeds the uniaxial tensile strength or maximum
compressive stress exceeds the uniaxial compressive strength.
If σ1,σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses with

σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 , theory says that to avoid failure,

Therefore, design equations based on maximum principal stress

theory can be written as:

4.2.2 Maximum Shear Stress Theory

This theory is credited to C.A. Coulumb, H Tresca and J.J. Guest. It states that any
mechanical component subjected to any combination of loads will fail whenever maximum
shear stress exceeds shear strength of the material (i.e. shear stress at the time of yielding in
the standard specimen of tension test). Figure 4.4 shows Mohr’s Circle for 3-dimensional
stress with σ1,σ2 and σ3 as principal stresses such that σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3. Three principal shear
stresses are then given by,

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Now, for simple tension test,σ1 = σx & σ2 = σ3 = 0,

giving . Also yielding in simple tension test starts
when σ1 = Syt. Therefore, maximum shear stress at the time of yielding in simple tension test
is \[{\tau _{max}}\] = Syt / 2. Thus, design equation based on maximum shear stress theory
can be written as:

Note that for plane stress case, σ3 = 0 and.

Graphical representation of maximum shear stress theory, giving failure envelop for state of
plane stress (σ3=0), is shown in Figure 4.5. According to this theory, for state of plane stress,
yielding starts when σ1 - σ2 = Syt . But in 1st and 3rd quadrant of this (σ1 - σ2) plot, σ1 and σ2 are
of same nature with (σ1 - σ2) > σ2 and yielding may start when reaches the yield strength,Syt .
Therefore, in 1st and 3rd quadrant, area is bounded by lines σ1 = ±Syt and σ2 = ±Syt. Whereas in
2nd and 4th quadrant, area is bounded by lines, which represent the condition where maximum
shear stress reaches the shear strength of the material i.e. \[{\tau _{max}}\] = S sy = Syt /2 .
This theory is suitable for predicting failure of ductile materials but is a little conservative.

4.2.3 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

This theory is credited to M.T. Hueber, R. von-Mises and H. Hencky. It states that a
mechanical component subjected to combined loads fails when the distortion strain energy
per unit volume at any point in the component reaches or exceeds the distortion strain
energy per unit volume of standard specimen of simple tension test, at the time of yielding.

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This theory gives a value of equivalent stress, called von-Mises Stress, which is defined as
the value of uniaxial tensile stress that would produce the same level of distortion energy as
the actual stress involved. It is given by,

To avoid failure of the component, this von-Mises stress should not exceed yield strength of
the material. Therefore design equation based on maximum distortion energy theory can be
written as,

Figure 4.6 shows the failure envelop, based on maximum distortion energy theory, for state
of plane stress. Experimental results have proved that this theory is the best suitable for
predicting failure of ductile materials. It can be proved that according to maximum distortion
energy theory, yield strength in shear is 0.577 times yield strength in tension i.e. S ys = 0.577
Syt.

ROGRESS CHECK
REFERENCE

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125512

Ullman, (2016), The Mechanical Design Process

Budynas, (2015), Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Edition

http://www.mem50212.com/MDME/MEMmods/MEM09155A-CAE/070-Combined-
Stresses/Combined-Stresses.html

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LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __3_

TOPIC/S:

Stress Concentration

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

1. Define Stress Concentration

2. Describe stress concentration factor
3. Explain Methods to reduce stress concentration

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Stress Concentration

The basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and torsion are based on a
number of assumptions. One of the assumptions is that there are no geometric
irregularities or abrupt change in the cross-section of the member. But these irregularities
and changes in the cross-section of members are unavoidable. There will be holes, oil
grooves, notches, keyways, splines, screw threads etc.

Stress Concentration

Any of the discontinuities in a machine part alters the distribution of stress in its vicinity
and localized stress much higher than those calculated with the elementary stress
equations are observed. This localization of high stresses due to geometrical irregularities
or abrupt changes of the cross-section is called ‘stress concentration’ and the
discontinuities are called stress raisers. Stress concentrations can also arise from some
irregularity. Stress distribution in a plate with a small circular hole, subjected to tensile load,
is shown in figure 5.1. In addition to the abrupt changes in the cross-section, other causes of

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stress concentration can be variation in material properties e.g. internal cracks, flaws, air
holes, foreign inclusions etc. and surface irregularities like scratches or stamp marks.

To consider the effect of stress concentration, stress concentration factor is used, which is
the ratio of maximum stress to nominal stress.

Stress concentration factor for normal stress, Stress concentration factor for shear stress,

Where, σmax , = localized stresses near the discontinuities

σ0,= Nominal stresses as determined by elementary equations for minimum cross-section

For the plate shown in figure 5.1, if ‘w’ and ‘t’ are width and thickness of the plate, ‘d’ is
diameter of the hole and ‘P’ is the applied load, nominal tensile stress is given by,

Stress-concentration factor

A stress concentration factor (Kt) is a dimensionless factor that is used to quantify how
concentrated the stress is in a mechanical part. It is defined as the ratio of the highest
stress in the part compared to a reference stress.

Value of stress-concentration factor depends on the geometry of the part only and is
independent of the material used. For this reason, it is called theoretical or geometric stress-
concentration factor. Stress-concentration factors for different geometric shapes are found by
using experimental techniques like photo-elasticity, grid methods, brittle-coating methods,
and electrical strain-gauge methods. The finite-element method has also been used.
Theoretical stress concentration factors for different configurations are available in
handbooks, few of which are shown in figures below [charts for stress concentration factors
are to be provided here].

Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

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Effect of stress concentration cannot be completely eliminated but its effect can be reduced
by slightly altering the geometry of the components. Flow analogy is helpful in
understanding how a particular discontinuity affects the stress distribution around it and how
its effect can be reduced. Figure 5.2 shows the stress distribution in an axially loaded plate
which is similar to the velocity distribution in fluid flow in a channel. For a channel having
uniform cross-section, velocities are uniform and streamlines are equally spaced. If the cross-
section of the channel is suddenly reduced, velocity increases to maintain same flow and the
stream lines become narrower. Similarly, with reduction in cross-section, to transmit same
force, the stress lines come closer. Location where the cross-section changes, stress lines
bend as the stream lines do. Sudden change in the cross-section leads to very sharp bending
of stress lines which results in stress concentration. Therefore by avoiding severe bending of
the stress lines, effect of stress concentration can be reduced. Figure 5.3 shows certain
methods to reduce stress concentration.

Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

Effect of Ductility & Brittleness on Stress Concentration

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Stress concentration has negligible effect on the ductile materials subjected to static loads.
Under the static load, when the stress near the discontinuity reaches the yield point, local
plastic deformation takes place and the stresses get redistributed, relieving the stress
concentration. Therefore, ductile materials, subjected to static loads, are not affected by stress
concentration and there is no need to apply stress concentration factor to statically loaded
ductile materials.

But for the ductile materials, subjected to dynamic load, stress at the discontinuity may reach
its endurance limit leading to fatigue failure. Therefore, stress concentration reduces the
endurance limit of ductile materials and stress concentration factor must be used for
dynamically loaded ductile materials. This aspect will be discussed in the next lesson.

Stress concentration has more severe effect on the brittle materials due to their inability to
plastically deform. As there is no local yielding, stresses don’t get redistributed and local
stress due to discontinuity increases highly. Therefore, stress concentration factor must be
used for components made of brittle materials subjected to static or dynamic loads.

Take K t = 2.63 from the table

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2. Find the maximum stress developed in a stepped shaft subjected to a twisting moment
of 100 Nm as shown in figure- 3.2.4.2.

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PROGRESS CHECK

Fill in the blanks

1. ____ is a dimensionless factor that is used to quantify how concentrated the stress is in a
mechanical part. It is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the part compared to a
reference stress.

2. This localization of high stresses due to geometrical irregularities or abrupt changes of the
cross-section is called ____

3-5. Effect of stress concentration cannot be completely eliminated but its effect can be
___by slightly ___ the ____ of the components.

REFERENCE

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125512

Ullman, (2016), The Mechanical Design Process

Budynas, (2015), Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Edition

Garg, (2012), Workshop Technology

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __4_

TOPIC/S:

STRESS CONCENTRATION

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

1. Enumerate and discuss the types of Cyclic Stress

2. Explain the (S-N Curve)
3. Describe Endurance Limit and Fatigue strength
4. Identify Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
5. Define the design for Completely Reversed Stresses

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Introduction

Load which changes in magnitude or direction or both with respect to time is known as
dynamic load. Cyclic load and impact load are types of dynamic loads. In case of static
loading, load is gradually applied and remains stable after reaching the maximum value
giving a steady value of stress. But there are a number of machine members which are
subjected to cyclic loads resulting in variable stresses that fluctuate between different
levels. For example, a particular fiber on the surface of a rotating shaft, subjected to bending
load, undergoes both tension and compression for each revolution of the shaft.

It was discussed that the failure of members, subjected to static load, occurs when the
induced stress reaches yield strength or ultimate tensile strength. But it has been observed
that machine members subjected to repeated or fluctuating stresses often fail at a
maximum value of induced stress well below the yield or ultimate tensile strength of the
material. Such failure is known as fatigue failure as it occurs after a large number of
stress cycles.

A fatigue failure resembles to a brittle fracture and occurs without any noticeable plastic
deformation or necking. Its sudden occurrence, without any noticeable warning, makes it
dangerous. The fracture surfaces are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis. Fatigue failure
begins with a microscopic crack that occurs due to some discontinuity (oil holes, keyways,
screw threads etc.), surface irregularities due to machining (scratches, stamp marks,
inspection marks etc.) or material defects. This crack propagates due to fluctuating stresses,
grows continually and finally sudden fracture takes place.

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Types of Cyclic Stress

A number of different regular and irregular patterns are followed by cyclic stresses in
machinery but generally it follows sinusoidal pattern because of the nature of some rotating
machinery. Also for design purpose, only maximum and minimum value of stress is
important and not the wave form. Therefore, sine wave can be conveniently used to represent
any kind of variation of stress between the minimum and maximum values of stress.
Following are some important types of cyclic stresses depending upon the level of minimum
and maximum stress between which the stress fluctuates:

Completely extreme values of stress are of equal magnitude Refer Figure

Reversed Stress and opposite nature with mean equal to zero 6.1 a

stress varies from zero to certain maximum value Refer Figure 6.1
Repeated Stress
(nature of stress does not change) b

minimum value and maximum value of stress is Refer Figure 6.1

Fluctuating Stress
of same nature (tensile or compressive) c

stress changes its nature and magnitude of

Alternating Stress extreme values of tensile and compressive stress
is not same

All variable stresses can be considered to be made of two components – static component
called mean stress (sm) and a variable component called stress amplitude (sa).

Mean Stress = Stress Amplitude

=

Stress
Range,

Stress Ratio, Amplitude

Ratio,

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Figure 7.1 a. Completely Reversed Stress Figure 7.1 b. Repeated Stress

Figure 7.1 c. Fluctuating Stress

THE ENDURANCE LIMIT

The determination of endurance limits by fatigue testing is now routine, though a lengthy
procedure. Generally, stress testing is preferred to strain testing for endurance limits. For
preliminary and prototype design and for some failure analysis as well, a quick method of
estimating endurance limits is needed. There are great quantities of data in the literature on
the results of rotating-beam tests and simple tension tests of specimens taken from the same
bar or ingot. By plotting these as in Fig. 6–17, it is possible to see whether there is any
correlation between the two sets of results. The graph appears to suggest that the endurance
limit ranges from about 40 to 60 percent of the tensile strength for steels up to about 210 kpsi
(1450 MPa). Beginning at about Sut 5 210 kpsi (1450 MPa), the scatter appears to increase,
but the trend seems to level off, as suggested by the dashed horizontal line at S’e = 105 kpsi.
We wish now to present a method for estimating endurance limits. Note that estimates
obtained from quantities of data obtained from many sources probably have a large spread
and might deviate significantly from the results of actual laboratory tests of the mechanical
properties of specimens obtained through strict purchase-order specifications. Since the area
of uncertainty is greater, compensation must be made by employing larger design factors than
would be used for static design. For steels, simplifying our observation of Fig. 6–17, we will
estimate the endurance limit as

where Sut is the minimum tensile strength. The prime mark on S’e in this equation refers to
the rotating-beam specimen itself. We wish to reserve the unprimed symbol Se for the
endurance limit of an actual machine element subjected to any kind of loading. Soon we shall
learn that the two strengths may be quite different

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appears that the more ductile microstructures have a higher ratio. Martensite has a very brittle
nature and is highly susceptible to fatigue-induced cracking; thus the ratio is low. When
designs include detailed heat-treating specifications to obtain specific micro structures, it is
possible to use an estimate of the endurance limit based on test data for the particular
microstructure; such estimates are much more reliable and indeed should be used. The
endurance limits for various classes of cast irons, polished or machined, are given in Table
A–24. Aluminum alloys do not have an endurance limit. The fatigue strengths of some
aluminum alloys at 5(108) cycles of reversed stress are given in Table A–24.

Fatigue Strength

An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue tests. Material: UNS G41300 steel,
normalized; Sut 5 116 kpsi; maximum Sut 5 125 kpsi.

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Sample problem

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Fatigue Curve (S-N Curve)

Fatigue properties of the materials are obtained with the help of standard rotating beam test,
in which a highly polished circular section specime is subjected to cyclic loads. Specimen
subjected to constant bending moment is rotated at a very high speed due to which fibers of
the specimen (except those on neutral axis) undergo repeated stress reversals (maximum
tensile stress to maximum compressive stress).Test is repeated for a number of similar
specimens, subjecting them to different values of stress and number of stress reversals that
the specimen survives before fracture are counted. First test is performed by subjecting the
specimen to stress, below ultimate tensile strength and subsequent tests are performed at
decreased levels of stress.

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Figure 7.2 Completely Reversed Stress Figure 7.3 Stress-time Plot

Results of the tests are plotted between stress (S) and number of cycles (N), generally on a
log-log scale. S-N Curve

Figure 7.4 S-N Curve

The ordinate of the S-N curve is called Fatigue Strength (S f), which can be defined as the
maximum stress that the material can withstand for a specified number of stress reversals. For
ferrous metals and their alloys, S-N curve becomes horizontal after 10 6 to 107 cycles, which
means that the material can survive infinite number of stress reversals, if the induced stress is
below this level. Stress corresponding to this horizontal line is called endurance limit or
fatigue limit.

Fatigue or Endurance Limit (S'e) can be defined as maximum amplitude of completely

reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles
without fatigue failure. Study of fatigue in which failure takes place before 1000 cycles is
called Low Cycle Fatigue. High Cycle Fatigue is concerned with failure corresponding to
stress cycles greater than 1000 cycles.

In the absence of experimental fatigue data, following relations are sometimes used:

For Steel, S'e = 0.5 Sut

For Cast Iron, S'e = 0.4 Sut

Sample Problem

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Sample Problem

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Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

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Rotating-beam specimen used to determine endurance limits is very carefully prepared and is
tested under closely controlled conditions. The endurance limit of any machine element
cannot match the values obtained from test due to variation in material, quality of
manufacture, environmental conditions and design. Therefore, the endurance limit obtained
by the test is modified using some factors to obtain more reasonable results. Endurance Limit
of a particular machine part can then be estimated using following relation:

Where, Se = Endurance Limit of the specimen

Ksurf = Surface Finish Factor

Ksize = Size Factor

Kload = Load Factor

Krel = Reliability Factor

Ktemp = Temperature Factor

Kf = Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Surface Finish Factor (Ksurf)

Surface of the rotating beam specimen is highly polished but most of the machine members
don’t have that kind of surface finish requiring a modification in the endurance limit obtained
by rotating beam experiment. Surface finish factor depends upon the manufacturing process
used and ultimate tensile strength of the material. Its value can be selected with the help of
chart shown in figure 6.5.

Surface Finish Factor

Sample

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Size Factor (Ksize)

Standard rotating beam specimen has a diameter of 7.6 mm and modification factor,
Ksize must be applied for machine elements of different sizes. Its value may be taken as:

Size Factor, Ksize 1.0 0.85 0.75

Diameter (d) of Machine Element (mm) d ≤ 7.6 mm 7.6 ≤ d ≥ 50 mm d ≥ 50 mm

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Sample Problem

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Load Factor (Kload)

In rotating beam test, specimen is subjected to bending load and completely reversed stress
cycles but many machine members are subjected to different types of loads and stress cycles.
To account for this, endurance limit is modified using load factor, Kload and its value can be
taken as:

Load Factor, Kload 1.0 0.85 0.59

Type of Completely Reversed Load bending tensile torsional

Reliability Factor (Krel)

Endurance limit obtained experimentally is the mean value and it varies even for same
material and conditions. Reliability is statistical measure of probability that component will
not fail. Reliability factor to modify endurance limit can be taken as:

Reliability (%) 50 90 95 99 99.9 99.99 99.999

Reliability Factor, Krel 1.000 0.897 0.868 0.814 0.753 0.702 0.659

Temperature Factor (Ktemp)

Increase in temperature accelerates the effect of fatigue. Therefore Temperature factor,

Ktemp is used to modify the experimentally obtained endurance limit. It can be taken as:

Ktemp = 1.0 for temperature ≤ 300ºC

= 0.5 for temperature > 300ºC

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Sample Problem

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Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (Kf)

To account for the effect of stress concentration in case of cyclic loading, endurance limit is
modified by dividing it with the fatigue stress concentration factor, which is given by,

Value of this factor is less than the value of theoretical stress concentration factor, K t, since
all the materials are not equally sensitive to the notches. Kf gives the reduced value of stress
concentration factor for less sensitive materials. For these materials, the effective maximum
stress in fatigue is,

Notch sensitivity is defined as the ratio of actual stress over nominal to the increase in
theoretical stress value over the nominal stress. It is given by,

Value of Kf is always greater than one and endurance limit of standard specimen is divided
by it, unlike all the other modification factors. For q = 0, K f =1 and for q=1, Kf = Kt. q can be
estimated form figure 6.6, which is based on the experimental data.

Notch Sensitivity
Design for Completely Reversed Stresses

As discussed earlier, in case of completely reversed stress cycles, extreme values of stress are
of equal magnitude and opposite nature with mean equal to zero. Design problems for
completely reversed stresses can be divided into two groups:

i. Design for Infinite Life ii. Design for Finite Life

1 Design for Infinite Life

If the stress developed in a component is kept below the endurance limit, it can survive for
infinite number of cycles or can have infinite life. Thus endurance limit is the design criteria
in this case and the design equation can be written as:

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2 Design for Finite Life

When components are designed to survive for 10 3 to 106 number of cycles, it is called design
for finite life. For S-N curve of steel shown in figure 7.1, line AB represents this region.

When a particular component is designed for finite life,the particular

S-N curve of the component becomes the criterion of failure.This
case is used mainly for steels.

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ROGRESS CHECK

1. Enumerate and discuss the types of Cyclic Stress

2. Enumerate and discuss Limit Modifying Factors
3. Discuss Endurance Limit and Fatigue strength

REFERENCE

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125512

Ullman, (2016), The Mechanical Design Process

Budynas, (2015), Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Edition

Garg, (2012), Workshop Technology

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.