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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry: Your notes

Combined Science
1.6 Calculations Involving Masses
Contents
1.6.1 Relative Formula Mass
1.6.2 Empirical Formulae
1.6.3 Determine an Empirical Formula
1.6.4 Conservation of Mass
1.6.5 Reacting Masses
1.6.6 Concentration
1.6.7 The Mole
1.6.8 Limiting Reagents
1.6.9 Deducing Stoichiometry

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1.6.1 Relative Formula Mass

Your notes
Relative Formula Mass
We have seen previously that the symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a particular
element
The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the substance
If the substance is molecular you can use the term relative molecular mass, but this term should not be
used for ionic compounds such as sodium chloride
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the formula
Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table

In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Mass, the sum of the relative formula masses of the
reactants will be the same as the sum of the relative formula masses of the products

Examiner Tip
If you are in any doubt about whether to use the term relative molecular mass or relative formula mass,
use the latter because it applies to all compounds whether they are ionic or covalent.

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1.6.2 Empirical Formulae

Your notes
Empirical Formulae
Empirical Formula from Reacting Masses
An empirical formula gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the
compound
It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound
Suppose a compound contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen. We can calculate the empirical
formula by
1. Dividing the reacting masses by the relative atomic mass of each element (this gives the moles)
2. Divide each result by the lowest number obtained to give the simplest ratio
This can be shown by the following calculations:
Amount of hydrogen atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of hydrogen = (10 ÷ 1) = 10 moles
Amount of oxygen atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of oxygen = (80 ÷ 16) = 5 moles
The ratio of moles of hydrogen atoms to moles of oxygen atoms:

Since equal numbers of moles of atoms contain the same number of atoms, the ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1
Hence the empirical formula is H2O
Empirical Formula from Molecular Formula
By inspection you simply reduce the molecular formula to the simplest ratio and you have the empirical
formula
Sometimes the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula, as in the example of methane
The formula of ionic compounds is always the empirical formula
Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

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Your notes

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

To find the molecular formula from the empirical formula you need to know the relative formula mass of
the substance
The steps involved are:
1. Find the empirical formula mass
2. Divide the relative formula mass by the empirical formula mass to obtain the multiple
3. Multiple this number by the empirical formula to obtain the molecular formula

Worked example
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1 and the relative formula mass of X is 180. What is the molecular
formula of X?
Relative Formula Masses: carbon : 12 hydrogen : 1 sulfur : 32
Answer:
Step 1 - Calculate the relative empirical formula mass
(C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1) = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1) = 90
Step 2 - Divide relative formula mass of X by the relative empirical mass
180 / 90 = 2
Step 3 - Multiply each number of elements by 2
(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
Molecular formula of X = C8H20S2

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Sometimes when you are finding the empirical formula from the reacting masses of two elements you
do not get an exact whole number in step 2 after dividing by the relative atomic masses. However, it
should be close to a whole number, so just round up or down to get the answer.

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1.6.3 Determine an Empirical Formula

Your notes
Determine an Empirical Formula
Aim:
To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by combustion of magnesium
Diagram:

Finding the empirical formula of magnesium oxide involves heating magnesium ribbon very strongly in a
crucible. A lid is used to trap any smoke (not shown)
Method:
Measure mass of crucible with lid
Add sample of magnesium into crucible and measure mass with lid (calculate the mass of the metal by
subtracting the mass of empty crucible)
Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes
Lift the lid frequently to allow sufficient air into the crucible for the magnesium to fully oxidise without
letting magnesium oxide smoke escape
Continue heating until the mass of crucible remains constant (maximum mass), indicating that the
reaction is complete
Measure the mass of crucible and contents (calculate the mass of metal oxide by subtracting the mass
of empty crucible)
Working out the empirical formula:

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Mass of metal:
Subtract mass of crucible from magnesium and the mass of the empty crucible Your notes
Mass of oxygen:
Subtract mass of the magnesium used from the mass of magnesium oxide
Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of the elements
Step 2 – Simplify the ratio
magnesium oxygen
Mass a b
Moles a / Ar b / Ar
=x =y
Ratio x : y
Step 3 – Represent the ratio into the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, MgO

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1.6.4 Conservation of Mass

Your notes
Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that no matter is lost or gained during a chemical reaction.
Mass is always conserved, therefore the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of
the products, which is why all chemical equations must be balanced
The sum of the relative atomic/molecular masses of the reactants will be the same as the sum of the
relative atomic/molecular masses of the products
A precipitation reaction is one in which two solutions react to form an insoluble solid called a
precipitate
If the reaction flask is closed and no other substance can enter or leave the system, then the total mass
of the reaction flask will remain constant
For example, the reaction between calcium chloride and sodium sulfate produces a precipitate of
calcium sulfate.
If carried out in a closed system then the mass before and after the reaction will be the same
The balanced equation is:
CaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) ⟶ CaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

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Your notes

Diagram showing the conservation of mass in a precipitation reaction

If the reaction flask is open and a gaseous product is allowed to escape, then the total mass of the
reaction flask will change as product mass is lost when the gas leaves the system
For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate produces carbon dioxide
gas:
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) ⟶ CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Mass will be lost from the reaction flask unless it is closed
If the mass of a reaction flask is found to increase then it may be due to one of the reactants being a
gas found in the air and all of the products are either solids or liquids

Examiner Tip
Matter cannot be created or destroyed, so the total amount of matter before and after a reaction is the
same. What changes is the chemical and physical properties of the reactants as they transform into
products.

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1.6.5 Reacting Masses

Your notes
Reacting Masses
Chemical equations can be used to calculate the reacting masses of reactants and products
The mass ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical equation
The steps are:
1. Write down the balanced equation for the reaction
2. Write the relative formula masses under the substances and add the units in the question
3. Multiply the relative formula masses by the coefficients in the equation
4. Find the mass of product for 1 g of reactant
5. Scale up for the mass given in the question

Worked example
Example 1
Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0 g of magnesium
in oxygen.
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2MgO (s)
Step 2: Add RFMs and units
24 g 40 g
Step 3: Multiply by coefficients
2 x 24 = 48 g 2 x 40 = 80 g
Step 4: Cross multiply for 1 g
1g 80 / 48 = 1.66 g
Step 5: Scale up to mass in question
6g 6 x 1.66 = 10 g

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 2
Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51 tonnes of aluminium oxide.
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation
2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2
Step 2: Add the RFMs and units
102 tonnes 27 tonnes

Step 3: Multiply by coefficients

2 x 102 = 204 tonnes 4 x 27 = 108 tonnes

Step 4: Cross multiply for 1 tonne

108 / 204 = 0.53
1 tonne
tonne

Step 5: Scale up to mass in question

51 x 0.53 = 27 tonnes of
51 tonnes
Al

Examiner Tip
As long as you are consistent it doesn't matter whether you work in grams or tonnes or any other mass
unit as the reacting masses will always be in proportion to the balanced equation.

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Percentage Composition
The percentage by mass of an element in a compound can be calculated using the following equation: Your notes
Ar × number of atoms of the element
% mass of an element = × 100
Mr of the compound

Worked example
Calculate the percentage by mass of calcium in calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
Answer:

Examiner Tip
Don’t forget to multiply your answer by 100 in order to convert it to a percentage.

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1.6.6 Concentration
Your notes
Calculating Concentration
A solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is called a solvent and the two
when mixed together form a solution
Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such as water or an
organic solvent
Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent
The greater the amount of solute in a given volume then the greater the concentration
A general formula for concentration is thus:

Concentration can be measured in grams per cubic decimetre

1 decimetre cubed (dm3) = 1000 cm3
1 decimetre cubed (dm3) is the same as 1 litre
You may be given data in a question which needs to be converted from cm3 to dm3 or the other way
around
To go from cm3 to dm3 :
Divide by 1000
To go from dm3 to cm3 :
Multiply by 1000

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Worked example
Your notes
A student dissolved 10 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 2 dm3 of distilled water. Calculate the
concentration of the solution.
Answer:

Examiner Tip
Be careful when doing volume unit conversions as it is easy to multiply instead of dividing by 1000 and
vice-versa. Always ask yourself – is the result going to be a bigger or smaller number than I started
with? Do I get more or fewer cubic decimetres when I convert from cubic centimetres?

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1.6.7 The Mole

Your notes
The Mole
Chemical amounts are measured in moles
The symbol for the unit mole is mol
One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules, or ions
as one mole of any other substance
The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole (1 mol) of a given substance is the Avogadro
constant. The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole
For example:
One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium
One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen
One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

The formula triangle showing the relationship between moles, particles and the Avogadro constant

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Worked example
Your notes
Particles from Moles: How many hydrogen atoms are in 0.010 moles of CH3CHO?
Answer:
There are 4 H atoms in 1 molecule of CH3CHO
So, there are 0.040 moles of H atoms in 0.010 moles of CH3CHO
The number of H atoms is the amount in moles x L
This comes to 0.040 x (6.02 x 1023) = 2.4 x 1022 atoms

Worked example
Moles from Particles: How many moles of hydrogen atoms are in 3.612 x 1023 molecules of H2O2?

Answer:
In 3.612 x 1023 molecules of H2O2 there are 2 x (3.612 x 1023) atoms of H
So, there are 7.224 x 1023 atoms of H
The number of moles of H atoms is the number of particles ÷ L
This comes to 7.224 x 1023 ÷ (6.02 x 1023) = 1.20 moles of H atoms

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Linking the Mole and Relative Atomic Mass

Linking the Mole and Relative Atomic Mass Your notes
One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams or for a
compound the relative formula mass in grams
This is called the molar mass
If you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, that number of carbon atoms would have a mass of
12 g (because the Ar of carbon is 12)
So one mole of helium atoms would have a mass of 4 g (Ar of He is 4), one mole of lithium would have a
mass of 7 g (Ar of Li is 7) and so on
To find the mass of one mole of a compound, we add up the relative atomic masses
So one mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 g
So one carbon atom has the same mass as 12 hydrogen atoms
Moles and Molar Mass
Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the laboratory we use digital
balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as it is impractical to try and measure out
moles
Therefore we have to be able to convert between moles and grams
We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the molar mass:

Formula triangle for moles, mass and molar mass

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Worked example
Your notes
Mass from Moles: What is the mass of 0.250 moles of zinc?
Answer:
From the periodic table the relative atomic mass of Zn is 65.38
So, the molar mass is 65.38 g mol-1
The mass is calculated by moles x molar mass
This comes to 0.250 mol x 65.38 g mol-1 = 16.3 g

Worked example
Moles from Mass: How many moles are in 2.64 g of sucrose, C12H22O11 (Mr = 342.3)?
Answer:
The molar mass of sucrose is 342.3 g mol-1
The number of moles is found by mass ÷ molar mass
This comes to 2.64 g ÷ 342.3 g mol-1 = 7.71 x 10-3 mol

Examiner Tip
Always show your workings in calculations as its easier to check for errors and you may pick up credit if
you get the final answer wrong.

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1.6.8 Limiting Reagents

Your notes
Limiting Reagents
A chemical reaction stops when one of the reagents is used up
The reagent that is used up first is the limiting reagent, as it limits the duration and hence the amount of
product that a reaction can produce
The amount of product is therefore directly proportional to the amount of the limiting reagent added
at the beginning of a reaction
The limiting reagent is the reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction
In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reagent in a reaction, we have to consider the ratios
of each reactant in the balanced equation
When performing reacting mass calculations, the limiting reagent is always the number that should be
used as it indicates the maximum possible amount of product
The steps are:
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction
2. Calculate the moles of each reactant
3. Compare the moles & deduce the limiting reactant

Worked example
9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of sulfur to produce sodium sulfide, Na2S. Which reactant is in
excess and which is the limiting reactant?
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio
2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratios is 2 : 1
Step 2: Calculate the moles of each reactant
Moles = Mass ÷ Ar
Moles Na = 9.2/23 = 0.40
Moles S = 8.0/32 = 0.25
Step 3: Compare the moles
To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S and since there are 0.25
moles of S, then S is in excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
An easy way to determine the limiting reactant is to find the moles of each substance and divide the
moles by the coefficient in the equation. The lowest number resulting is the limiting reactant
In the example above:
divide 0.40 moles of Na by 2, giving 0.20
divide 0.25 moles of S by 1, giving 0.25, so Na is limiting

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1.6.9 Deducing Stoichiometry

Your notes
Writing & Balancing Equations
Nothing created - nothing destroyed
New substances are made during chemical reactions
However, the same atoms are always present before and after reaction
They have just joined up in different ways
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so if they exist in the reactants then they absolutely must
be in the products!
Because of this the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products
This idea is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass enables us to balance chemical equations, since no atoms can be
lost or created
You should be able to:
Write word equations for reactions outlined in these notes
Write formulae and balanced chemical equations for the reactions in these notes
Word Equations
These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical names
The reactants are those substances on the left-hand side of the arrow and can be thought of as the
chemical ingredients of the reaction
They react with each other and form new substances
The products are the new substances which are on the right-hand side of the arrow
The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants into
products
Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst (a substance added to make a reaction go faster) can be
written above the arrow
An example is the reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) and hydrochloric acid produces sodium
chloride (common table salt) and water:
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ⟶ sodium chloride + water
Balancing equations
A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using chemical symbols to
show the number and type of each atom in the reactants and products
During chemical reactions as atoms cannot be created or destroyed, the number of each atom on
each side of the reaction must therefore be the same
E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced
When balancing equations remember:

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Not to change any of the formulae

To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in combustion reactions of Your notes
organic compounds
When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
Write the formulae of the reactants and products
Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified by using state symbols
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous

Worked example
Balance the following equation:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Answer:
Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Mg + O2 → MgO
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2 moles of
magnesium oxide
Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

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Ionic Equations
Higher Only Your notes
Ionic equations
In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however only some of the ions
in solution take part in the reactions
The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, and not the spectator
ions

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Worked example
Your notes
1. Balance the following equation
zinc + copper(II) sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper
2. Write down the ionic equation for the above reaction
Answer 1:
Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The equation is already
balanced

Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Answer 2:
Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic equation
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

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Deducing Stoichiometry
Higher Only Your notes
Stoichiometry refers to the numbers in front of the reactants and products in an equation, which must
be adjusted to make sure that the equation is balanced
These numbers are called coefficients (or multipliers) and if we know the masses of reactants and
products, the balanced chemical equation for a given reaction can be found by determining the
coefficients
First, convert the masses of each reactant and product in to moles by dividing by the molar masses
using the periodic table
If the result yields uneven numbers, then multiply all of the numbers by the same number, to find the
smallest whole number for the coefficient of each species
For example, if the resulting numbers initially were 1, 2 and 2.5, then you would multiply all of the
numbers by 2, to give the whole numbers 2, 4 and 5
Then, use the molar ratio to write out the balanced equation

Worked example
64 g of methanol, CH3OH, reacts with 96 g of oxygen gas to produce 88 g of carbon dioxide and 72 g
of water. Deduce the balanced equation for the reaction.(C = 12, H = 1, O = 16).
Answer:
Calculate the molar masses of the substances in the equation

CH3OH = 32 g mol-1 O2 = 32 g mol-1

CO2 = 44 g mol-1 H2O = 18 g mol-1
Divide the masses present by the molar mass to obtain the number of moles

CH3OH = 64 g ÷ 32 g mol-1 = 2 mol

O2 = 96 g ÷ 32 g mol-1 = 3 mol
CO2 = 88 g ÷ 44 g mol-1 = 2 mol
H2O = 72 g ÷ 18 gmol-1 = 4 mol
The mole ratios are the same as the coefficients in the balanced equation

2CH3OH + 3O2 ⟶ 2CO2 + 4H2O

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
The molar ratio of a balanced equation gives you the ratio of the amounts of each substance in the
reaction.

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