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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM A CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

Solve ∆ABC , if possible. Round answers to the nearest tenth. ANSWERS

1. c = 12 mi, A = 36°, B = 73°

1.
2. a = 8 in., b = 4 in., A = 36°

3. a = 4.8 ft, b = 8.2 ft, c = 13.6 ft

2.

4. Find the area of ∆ABC if C = 110.5°, a = 7.2 mi, and b = 4.1 mi .

3.

5. Points A and B are opposite sides of a ravine. Point C is 200 ft

from A. The measure of ∠BAC is determined to be 110° and the
measure of ∠ACB is determined to be 38° . What is the width of
the ravine? Round to the nearest foot.
4.

5.

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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM A CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 6. Two airplanes leave an airport at the same time. The first flies
300 km/h in a direction of 210° . The second flies 250 km/h in a
direction of 100° . After 2 hr, how far apart are the planes?

6. 7. Graph: 2 + 3i .

7. See graph.

8.

8. Find the absolute value of 5 − 4i .

9. 9. Find trigonometric notation for −2 + 2i .

10. Divide and express the result in standard notation a + bi :

⎛ 3π 3π ⎞
10. 12 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
.
⎛ π π⎞
4 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 4 4⎠

11.
11. Find ( −4 + 4i ) and write standard notation for the answer.
3

214
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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM A CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

12. Find the polar coordinates of (−8, 8) . Express the angle in degrees ANSWERS
using the smallest possible positive angle.

⎛ π⎞
13. Convert ⎜ −3, ⎟ from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates. 12.
⎝ 4⎠

14. Convert to a polar equation: x = 5 .

13.

15. Graph r = 2 − sin θ .

14.

15. See graph.

16. For vectors u and v , whose initial points coincide, u = 4 , v = 3 ,

and the angle between the vectors is 28° . Find u + v . Give the
magnitude to the nearest tenth and give the direction by specifying 16.
the angle the resultant makes with u , to the nearest degree.

215
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM A CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 17. For u = 2i + 4 j , and v = −3i + 2 j , find 2u + 3v .

18. Find a unit vector in the same direction as 3i + j .

17.
19. Which is the graph of r = 3 cos ( 3θ ) ?
A. B.

18.

C. D.

19.

__________________________________________________________

20.
20. A parallelogram has sides of length 20 and 15.4. Its area is 210.
Find the measures of the angles.

216
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM B CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

Solve ∆ABC , if possible. Round answers to the nearest tenth. ANSWERS

1. b = 30 mm, A = 42°, C = 75°

1.
2. a = 12 m, b = 7 m, B = 20°

3. a = 4.5 in., b = 5.5 in., c = 7.5 in.

2.

4. Find the area of ∆ABC if C = 20°, a = 8 in., and b = 12 in.

3.

5. Points A and B are opposite sides of a crevice. Point C is 30 m

from B. The measure of ∠ABC is determined to be 85° and the
measure of ∠ACB is determined to be 20° . What is the distance
from A to B? Round to the nearest meter.
4.

5.

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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM B CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 6. Two forces of 16 N and 24 N act on an object. The angle between

the forces is 70° . Find the magnitude of the resultant and the angle
that it makes with the larger force.

6. 7. Graph: 3 − i .

7. See graph.

8.

8. Find the absolute value of 12 − 4i .

9. 9. Find trigonometric notation for 6 − 6i .

10. Divide and express the result in standard notation a + bi :

⎛ π π⎞
10. 24 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 6 6⎠
.
⎛ π π ⎞
3 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 3 3⎠

11.
11. Find ( −2 − 2i ) and write standard notation for the answer.
6

218
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM B CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

( )
12. Find the polar coordinates of 5, − 5 3 . Express the angle in ANSWERS
degrees using the smallest possible positive angle.

⎛ 5π ⎞ 12.
13. Convert ⎜ 8, ⎟ from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
⎝ 6 ⎠

14. Convert to a polar equation: x 2 + y 2 = 36 .

13.

15. Graph r sin θ = 2 .

14.

15. See graph.

16. For vectors u and v , whose initial points coincide, u = 12 ,

v = 8 , and the angle between the vectors is 50° . Find u + v .
16.
Give the magnitude to the nearest tenth and give the direction by
specifying the angle the resultant makes with u , to the nearest
degree.

219
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM B CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 17. For u = 3i − 4 j , and v = 2i + 6 j , find 3u − 2 v .

18. Find a unit vector in the same direction as 2i − j .

17. 19. Which is the graph of r sin θ = 3 ?

A. B.

18.

C. D.

19.

__________________________________________________________

20.
20. Let u = 3i − 6 j . Find a vector that has the same direction as u but
has length 9.

220
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM C CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

Solve ∆ABC , if possible. Round answers to the nearest tenth. ANSWERS

1. b = 5 ft, B = 96°, C = 15°

1.
2. a = 2 ft, b = 4 ft, A = 52°

3. a = 3.2 m, b = 5.6 m, c = 6.8 m

2.

4. Find the area of ∆ABC if A = 102.4°, b = 20 mi, and c = 30 mi .

3.

5. The distance from Essex to Morrisville is 45 mi. The distance from

Essex to Milton is 12 mi. The angle formed from Essex to Milton
to Morrisville is 97° . Find the distance from Morrisville to Milton.

4.

5.

221
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM C CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 6. Two airplanes leave an airport at the same time. The first flies
180 mph in a direction of 215° . The second flies 220 mph in a
direction of 25° . After 1.5 hr, how far apart are the planes?

6. 7. Graph: −1 − 4i .

7. See graph.

8.

8. Find the absolute value of 8 + 6i .

9. 9. Find trigonometric notation for 3 − 3 3 i .

10. Divide and express the result in standard notation a + bi :

⎛ π π⎞
10. 2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 3 3⎠
.
⎛ π π⎞
6 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 6 6⎠

11.
11. Find ( 3 − 3i ) and write standard notation for the answer.
4

222
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM C CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

12. Find the polar coordinates of ( )

5, − 5 . Express the angle in ANSWERS
degrees using the smallest possible positive angle.

⎛ 5π ⎞ 12.
13. Convert ⎜ 3, ⎟ from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
⎝ 3 ⎠

14. Convert to a polar equation: 5 x + 3 y = 15 .

13.

15. Graph r = 5 cos θ .

14.

15. See graph.

16. For vectors u and v , whose initial points coincide, u = 8 , v = 12 ,

and the angle between the vectors is 70° . Find u + v . Give the
magnitude to the nearest tenth and give the direction by specifying 16.
the angle the resultant makes with u , to the nearest degree.

223
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM C CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 17. For u = 4i − 3 j , and v = −2i + j , find 3u − v .

18. Find a unit vector in the same direction as 5i − 3 j .

17. 19. Which is the graph of r = 4 sin θ ?

A. B.

18.

C. D.

19.

__________________________________________________________

20. 20. A parallelogram has sides of length 3.5 and 6.5. Its area is 15. Find
the measures of the angles.

224
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM D CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

Solve ∆ABC , if possible. Round answers to the nearest tenth. ANSWERS

1. a = 15 in., B = 42°, C = 63°

1.
2. a = 9 ft, b = 8 ft, A = 113°

3. a = 8 mm, b = 6 mm, c = 5 mm
2.

4. Find the area of ∆ABC if A = 92.5°, b = 4.9 cm, and c = 5.6 cm .

3.

5. Points A and B are opposite sides of a swamp. Point C is 50 yd

from B. The measure of ∠ABC is determined to be 105° and the
measure of ∠ACB is determined to be 28° . What is the distance
from A to B?
4.

5.

225
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM D CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS 6. Two forces of 80 N and 120 N act on an object. The angle between
the forces is 36° . Find the magnitude of the resultant and the angle
that it makes with the larger force.

6. 7. Graph: −3 + 2i .

7. See graph.

8.

8. Find the absolute value of 3 + i .

9. 9. Find trigonometric notation for 5 3 + 5i .

10. Divide and express the result in standard notation a + bi :

⎛ 3π 3π ⎞
10. 24 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
.
⎛ 3π 3π ⎞
6 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 4 4 ⎠

11.
11. Find (1 + i ) and write standard notation for the answer.
5

226
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CHAPTER 8 NAME_____________________________

TEST FORM D CLASS_____SCORE_____GRADE_____

______________________________________________________________________________

( )
12. Find the polar coordinates of −2 3, 2 . Express the angle in ANSWERS
degrees using the smallest possible positive angle.

⎛ 4π ⎞ 12.
13. Convert ⎜ 4, ⎟ from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
⎝ 3 ⎠

14. Convert to a polar equation: 3 x − y = 5 .

13.

15. Graph r = 2 − cos θ .

14.

15. See graph.

16. For vectors u and v , whose initial points coincide, u = 15 ,

v = 5 , and the angle between the vectors is 49° . Find u + v .
16.
Give the magnitude to the nearest tenth and give the direction by
specifying the angle the resultant makes with u , to the nearest
degree.

227
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 been sold for as much as £240 per ℔. In the Great Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760 lea, equal to
about 130 m. per ℔, was shown which had been spun by an Irish woman eighty-four years of
age. In the same exhibition there was shown by a Cambray manufacturing firm hand-spun yarn
equal to 1200 warp and 1600 weft or to more than 204 and 272 m. per ℔ respectively.

Bleaching.—A large proportion of the linen yarn of commerce undergoes a more or less thorough
bleaching before it is handed over to the weaver. Linen yarns in the green condition contain such a large
proportion of gummy and resinous matter, removable by bleaching, that cloths which might present a
firm close texture in their natural unbleached state would become thin and impoverished in a perfectly
bleached condition. Nevertheless, in many cases it is much more satisfactory to weave the yarns in the
green or natural colour, and to perform all bleaching operations in the piece. Manufacturers allow about
20 to 25% of loss in weight of yarn in bleaching from the green to the fully bleached stage; and the
intermediate stages of boiled, improved, duck, cream, half bleach and three-quarters bleach, all
indicating a certain degree of bleaching, have corresponding degrees of loss in weight. The differences
in colour resulting from different degrees of bleaching are taken advantage of for producing patterns in
certain classes of linen fabrics.

Linen thread is prepared from the various counts of fine bleached line yarn by winding the hanks on
large spools, and twisting the various strands, two, three, four or six cord as the case may be, on a
doubling spindle similar in principle to the yarn spinning frame, excepting, of course, the drawing
rollers. A large trade in linen thread has been created by its use in the machine manufacture of boots
and shoes, saddlery and other leather goods, and in heavy sewing-machine work generally. The thread
industry is largely developed at Lisburn near Belfast, at Johnstone near Glasgow, Bridport, Dorsetshire,
and at Paterson, New Jersey, United States. Fine cords, net twine and ropes are also twisted from flax.

Weaving.—The difficulties in the way of power-loom linen weaving, combined with the obstinate
competition of hand-loom weavers, delayed the introduction of factory weaving of linen fabrics for many
years after the system was fully applied to other textiles. The principal difficulty arose through the
hardness and inelasticity of the linen yarns, owing to which the yarn frequently broke under the tension
to which it was subjected. Competition with the hand-loom against the power-loom in certain classes of
work is conceivable, although it is absolutely impossible for the work of the spinning wheel to stand
against the rivalry of drawing, roving and spinning frames. To the present day, in Ireland especially, a
great deal of fine weaving is done by hand-loom. Warden states that power was applied on a small
scale to the weaving of canvas in London about 1812; that in 1821 power-looms were started for
weaving linen at Kirkcaldy, Scotland; and that in 1824 Maberly & Co. of Aberdeen had two hundred
power-looms erected for linen manufacture. The power-loom has been in uninterrupted use in the
Broadford factory, Aberdeen, which then belonged to Maberly & Co., down to the present day, and that
firm may be credited with being the effective introducers of power-loom weaving in the linen trade.

The various operations connected with linen weaving, such as winding, warping, dressing, beaming
and drawing-in, do not differ in essential features from the like processes in the case of cotton weaving,
&c., neither is there any significant modification in the looms employed (see Weaving). Dressing is a
matter of importance in the preparation of linen warps for beaming. It consists in treating the spread
yarn with flour or farina paste, applied to it by flannel-covered rollers, the lowermost of which revolves
in a trough of paste. The paste is equalized on the yarn by brushes, and dried by passing the web over
steam-heated cylinders before it is finally wound on the beam for weaving.
 Linen fabrics are numerous in variety and widely different in their qualities, appearance and
applications, ranging from heavy sail-cloth and rough sacking to the most delicate cambrics,
lawns and scrims. The heavier manufactures include as a principal item sail-
Fabrics. cloth, with canvas, tarpaulin, sacking and carpeting. The principal seats of the
manufacture of these linens are Dundee, Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, Aberdeen
and Barnsley. The medium weight linens, which are used for a great variety of purposes, such as
tent-making, towelling, covers, outer garments for men, linings, upholstery work, &c., include
duck, huckaback, crash, tick, dowlas, osnaburg, low sheetings and low brown linens. Plain
bleached linens form a class by themselves, and include principally the materials for shirts and
collars and for bed sheets. Under the head of twilled linens are included drills, diapers and dimity
for household use; and damasks for table linen, of which two kinds are distinguished—single or
five-leaf damask, and double or eight-leaf damask, the pattern being formed by the intersection
of warp and weft yarns at intervals of five and eight threads of yarn respectively. The fine linens
are cambrics, lawns and handkerchiefs; and lastly, printed and dyed linen fabrics may be assigned
to a special though not important class. In a general way it may be said regarding the British
industry that the heavy linen trade centres in Dundee; medium goods are made in most linen
manufacturing districts; damasks are chiefly produced in Belfast, Dunfermline and Perth; and the
fine linen manufactures have their seat in Belfast and the north of Ireland. Leeds and Barnsley
are the centres of the linen trade in England.

Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting principally from the microscopic
structure and length of the flax fibre. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton
cloth; and, presenting a less “woolly” surface, it does not soil so readily, nor absorb and retain
moisture so freely, as the more spongy cotton; and it is at once a cool, clean and healthful
material for bed-sheeting and clothing. Bleached linen, starched and dressed, possesses that
unequalled purity, gloss and smoothness which make it alone the material suitable for shirt-fronts,
collars and wristbands; and the gossamer delicacy, yet strength, of the thread it may be spun into
fits it for the fine lace-making to which it is devoted. Flax is a slightly heavier material than
cotton, while its strength is about double.

As regards the actual number of spindles and power-looms engaged in linen manufacture, the
following particulars are taken from the report of the Flax Supply Association for 1905:—

Number of Number of
Spindles Power-looms
Country. Year. Year.
for Flax for Linen
Spinning. Weaving.
Austria-Hungary 1903 280,414 1895 3357
Belgium 1902 280,000 1900 3400
England and Wales 1905 49,941 1905 4424
France 1902 455,838 1891 18,083
Germany 1902 295,796 1895 7557
Holland 1896 8000 1891 1200
Ireland 1905 851,388 1905 34,498
Italy 1902 77,000 1902 3500
Norway .. .. 1880 120
 Russia 1902 300,000 1889 7312
Scotland 1905 160,085 1905 17,185
Spain .. .. 1876 1000
Sweden .. .. 1884 286

British Exports of Linen Yarn and Cloth.

1891. 1896. 1901. 1906

Weight of linen yarn in pounds 14,859,900 18,462,300 12,971,100 14,978
Length in yards of linen piece goods, plain,
bleached or unbleached 144,416,700 150,849,300 137,521,000 173,334
Length in yards of linen piece goods, checked,
dyed or printed, also damask and diaper 11,807,600 17,986,100 8,007,600 13,372
Length in yards of sail-cloth 3,233,400 5,372,600 4,686,700 4,251
Total length in yards of all kinds of linen cloth 159,457,700 174,208,000 150,215,300 190,957
Weight in pounds of linen thread for sewing 2,474,100 2,240,300 1,721,000 2,181

Authorities.—History of the trade, &c.: Warden’s Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern. Spinning:
Peter Sharp, Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning (Dundee); H. R. Carter, Spinning and Twisting of Long
Vegetable Fibres (London). Weaving: Woodhouse and Milne, Jute and Linen Weaving, part i.,
Mechanism, part ii., Calculations and Cloth Structure (Manchester); and Woodhouse and Milne,
Textile Design: Pure and Applied (London). (T. Wo.)

1 See Sir Arthur Mitchell’s The Past in the Present (Edinburgh, 1880).

2 The preparation of tow for spinning differs in essential features from the processes above described. Tow from
different sources, such as scutching tow, hackle tow, &c. differs considerably in quality and value, some being very
impure, filled with woody shives &c., while other kinds are comparatively open and clean. A preliminary opening and
cleaning is necessary for the dirty much-matted tows, and in general thereafter they are passed through two
carding engines called respectively the breaker and the finisher cards till the slivers from their processes are ready
for the drawing and roving frames. In the case of fine clean tows, on the other hand, passing through a single
carding engine may be sufficient. The processes which follow the carding do not differ materially from those
followed in the preparation of rove from line flax.

LINEN-PRESS, a contrivance, usually of oak, for pressing sheets, table-napkins and other linen
articles, resembling a modern office copying-press. Linen presses were made chiefly in the 17th and
18th centuries, and are now chiefly interesting as curiosities of antique furniture. Usually quite plain,
they were occasionally carved with characteristic Jacobean designs.
 LINER, or Line of Battle Ship, the name formerly given to a vessel considered large enough to take
part in a naval battle. The practice of distinguishing between vessels fit, and those not fit, to “lie in a
line of battle,” arose towards the end of the 17th century. In the early 18th century all vessels of 50
guns and upwards were considered fit to lie in a line. After the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) the 50-gun
ships were rejected as too small. When the great revolutionary wars broke out the smallest line of battle
ship was of 64 guns. These also came to be considered as too small, and later the line of battle-ships
began with those of 74 guns. The term is now replaced by “battleship”; “liner” being the colloquial
name given to the great passenger ships used on the main lines of sea transport.

LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839), Swedish medical-gymnastic practitioner, son of a minister,

was born at Ljunga in the south of Sweden in 1776. He studied divinity, and took his degree in 1797,
but then went abroad for some years, first to Copenhagen, where he taught modern languages, and
then to Germany, France and England. Pecuniary straits injured his health, and he suffered much from
rheumatism, but he had acquired meanwhile considerable proficiency in gymnastics and fencing. In
1804 he returned to Sweden, and established himself as a teacher in these arts at Lund, being
appointed in 1805 fencing-master to the university. He found that his daily exercises had completely
restored his bodily health, and his thoughts now turned towards applying this experience for the benefit
of others. He attended the classes on anatomy and physiology, and went through the entire curriculum
for the training of a doctor; he then elaborated a system of gymnastics, divided into four branches, (1)
pedagogical, (2) medical, (3) military, (4) aesthetic, which carried out his theories. After several
attempts to interest the Swedish government, Ling at last in 1813 obtained their co-operation, and the
Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, for the training of gymnastic instructors, was opened in Stockholm,
with himself as principal. The orthodox medical practitioners were naturally opposed to the larger claims
made by Ling and his pupils respecting the cure of diseases—so far at least as anything more than the
occasional benefit of some form of skilfully applied “massage” was concerned; but the fact that in 1831
Ling was elected a member of the Swedish General Medical Association shows that in his own country
at all events his methods were regarded as consistent with professional recognition. Ling died in 1839,
having previously named as the repositories of his teaching his pupils Lars Gabriel Branting (1799-
1881), who succeeded him as principal of the Institute, and Karl Augustus Georgii, who became sub-
director; his son, Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886), being for many years associated with them. All these,
together with Major Thure Brandt, who from about 1861 specialized in the treatment of women
(gynecological gymnastics), are regarded as the pioneers of Swedish medical gymnastics.
 It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of Ling’s system of medical gymnastics. A
Gymnastic Orthopaedic Institute at Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Åkerman, and after 1827
received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf Zander elaborated a medico-mechanical system of
gymnastics, known by his name, about 1857, and started his Zander Institute at Stockholm in 1865. At
the Stockholm Gymnastic Central Institute qualified medical men have supervised the medical
department since 1864; the course is three years (one year for qualified doctors). Broadly speaking,
there have been two streams of development in the Swedish gymnastics founded on Ling’s beginnings—
either in a conservative direction, making certain forms of gymnastic exercises subsidiary to the
prescriptions of orthodox medical science, or else in an extremely progressive direction, making these
exercises a substitute for any other treatment, and claiming them as a cure for disease by themselves.
Modern medical science recognizes fully the importance of properly selected exercises in preserving the
body from many ailments; but the more extreme claim, which rules out the use of drugs in disease
altogether, has naturally not been admitted. Modern professed disciples of Ling are divided, the
representative of the more extreme section being Henrik Kellgren (b. 1837), who has a special school
and following.

Ling and his earlier assistants left no proper written account of their treatment, and most of the
literature on the subject is repudiated by one set or other of the gymnastic practitioners. Dr
Anders Wide, M.D., of Stockholm, has published a Handbook of Medical Gymnastics (English
edition, 1899), representing the more conservative practice. Henrik Kellgren’s system, which,
though based on Ling’s, admittedly goes beyond it, is described in The Elements of Kellgren’s
Manual Treatment (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax, who before taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh
had passed out of the Stockholm Institute as a “gymnastic director.” See also the encyclopaedic
work on Sweden: its People and Industry (1904), p. 348, edited by G. Sundbärg for the Swedish
government.

LING1 (Molva vulgaris), a fish of the family Gadidae, which is readily recognized by its long body,
two dorsal fins (of which the anterior is much shorter than the posterior), single long anal fin, separate
caudal fin, a barbel on the chin and large teeth in the lower jaw and on the palate. Its usual length is
from 3 to 4 ft., but individuals of 5 or 6 ft. in length, and some 70 ℔ in weight, have been taken. The
ling is found in the North Atlantic, from Spitzbergen and Iceland southwards to the coast of Portugal. Its
proper home is the North Sea, especially on the coasts of Norway, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland,
it occurs in great abundance, generally at some distance from the land, in depths varying between 50
and 100 fathoms. During the winter months it approaches the shores, when great numbers are caught
by means of long lines. On the American side of the Atlantic it is less common, although generally
distributed along the south coast of Greenland and on the banks of Newfoundland. Ling is one of the
most valuable species of the cod-fish family; a certain number are consumed fresh, but by far the
greater portion are prepared for exportation to various countries (Germany, Spain, Italy). They are
either salted and sold as “salt-fish,” or split from head to tail and dried, forming, with similarly prepared
cod and coal-fish, the article of which during Lent immense quantities are consumed in Germany and
elsewhere under the name of “stock-fish.” The oil is frequently extracted from the liver and used by the
poorer classes of the coast population for the lamp or as medicine.

1 As the name of the fish, “ling” is found in other Teut. languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. Leng, Norw. langa, &c. It is
generally connected in origin with “long,” from the length of its body. As the name of the common heather, Calluna
vulgaris (see Heath) the word is Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. lyng, Swed. ljung.

LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on the 5th of February 1771 at
Winchester, where his father, of an ancient Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself as a
carpenter. The boy’s talents attracted attention, and in 1782 he was sent to the English college at
Douai, where he continued until shortly after the declaration of war by England (1793). He then lived as
tutor in the family of Lord Stourton, but in October 1794 he settled along with seven other former
members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham, where on the completion of his
theological course he became vice-president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained
priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chairs of natural and moral philosophy. In 1808
he accompanied the community of Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham, but in 1811, after
declining the presidency of the college at Maynooth, he withdrew to the secluded mission at Hornby in
Lancashire, where for the rest of his life he devoted himself to literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited
Rome, where he made researches in the Vatican Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII. created him doctor of
divinity and of canon and civil law; and in 1825 Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal in petto. He
died at Hornby on the 17th of July 1851.

Lingard wrote The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church (1806), of which a third and greatly
enlarged addition appeared in 1845 under the title The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon
Church; containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines, worship, revenues, and
clerical and monastic institutions; but the work with which his name is chiefly associated is A
History of England, from the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of the reign of
William III., which appeared originally in 8 vols. at intervals between 1819 and 1830. Three
successive subsequent editions had the benefit of extensive revision by the author; a fifth edition
in 10 vols. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life of the author by Tierney prefixed to vol. x.,
in 1854-1855. Soon after its appearance it was translated into French, German and Italian. It is a
work of ability and research; and, though Cardinal Wiseman’s claim for its author that he was “the
only impartial historian of our country” may be disregarded, the book remains interesting as
representing the view taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and learned,
Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century.
 LINGAYAT (from linga, the emblem of Siva), the name of a peculiar sect of Siva worshippers in
southern India, who call themselves Vira-Saivas (see Hinduism). They carry on the person a stone linga
(phallus) in a silver casket. The founder of the sect is said to have been Basava, a Brahman prime
minister of a Jain king in the 12th century. The Lingayats are specially numerous in the Kanarese
country, and to them the Kanarese language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are called
Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all India was returned as more than 2½ millions,
mostly in Mysore and the adjoining districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad.

LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pangasinán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about
110 m. N. by W. of Manila, on the S. shore of the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low and fertile island in the
delta of the Agno river. Pop. (1903) 21,529. It has good government buildings, a fine church and plaza,
the provincial high school and a girls’ school conducted by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool
and healthy. The chief industries are the cultivation of rice (the most important crop of the surrounding
country), fishing and the making of nipa-wine from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows abundantly
in the neighbouring swamps. The principal language is Pangasinán; Ilocano is also spoken.

LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, Baron (1819-1905), English civil servant,
was born in February 1819 at Birmingham, where his father, who came of an old Hertfordshire family,
with Royalist traditions, was in business. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won
the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores
(1840), was elected a fellow of Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor’s Latin Essay (1843)
and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking his degree in 1840, he became a student of Lincoln’s
Inn, and was called to the bar in 1847; but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an
appointment in the Education Office, and after a short period was chosen in 1849 to succeed Sir J. Kay
Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent official. He retained this position till 1869. The
Education Office of that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government grants to
local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless discrimination and rigid economy, qualities
which characterized his whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as vice-president
of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked congenially with him in producing the Revised
Code of 1862 which incorporated “payment by results”; but the education department encountered
adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in parliament which caused Lowe’s resignation,
founded (but erroneously) on an alleged “editing” of the school inspectors’ reports, was inspired by a
certain antagonism to Lingen’s as well as to Lowe’s methods. Shortly before the introduction of Forster’s
Education Act of 1870, he was transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this
office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a
tower of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best
recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say “No” so disagreeably that nobody
would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and
his undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the direction of parsimony. In
1885 he retired. He had been made a C.B. in 1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retirement he was
created Baron Lingen. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London County
Council, but he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of July 1905. He had married in 1852, but left no
issue.

LINGEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ems canal, 43 m. N.N.W. of Münster
by rail. Pop. 7500. It has iron foundries, machinery factories, railway workshops and a considerable
trade in cattle, and among its other industries are weaving and malting and the manufacture of cloth.
Lingen was the seat of a university from 1685 to 1819.

The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was united in the middle ages with the
county of Treklenburg. In 1508, however, it was separated from this and was divided into an upper and
a lower county, but the two were united in 1541. A little, later Lingen was sold to the emperor Charles
V., from whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain, who ceded it in 1507 to Maurice, prince of
Orange. After the death of the English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I., king of
Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to Hanover, only to be united again with Prussia
in 1866.

See Möller, Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Lingen (Lingen, 1874); Herrmann, Die
Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen durch die Krone Preussen (Lingen, 1902); and
Schriever, Geschichte des Kreiges Lingen (Lingen, 1905).
 LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French journalist and advocate, was
born on the 14th of July 1736, at Reims, whither his father, the assistant principal in the Collège de
Beauvais of Paris, had recently been exiled by lettre de cachet for engaging in the Jansenist controversy.
He attended the Collège de Beauvais and won the three highest prizes there in 1751. He accompanied
the count palatine of Zweibrücken to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to writing.
He published partial French translations of Calderon and Lope de Vega, and wrote parodies for the
Opéra Comique and pamphlets in favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in the ranks of the philosophes,
he soon went over to their opponents, possibly more from contempt than from conviction, the
immediate occasion for his change being a quarrel with d’Alembert in 1762. Thenceforth he violently
attacked whatever was considered modern and enlightened, and while he delighted society with his
numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused the fear and hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit.
He was admitted to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous pleaders of his century.
But in spite of his brilliant ability and his record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks which he
directed against his fellow advocates, especially against Gerbier (1725-1788), caused his dismissal from
the bar in 1775. He then turned to journalism and began the Journal de politique et de littérature,
which he employed for two years in literary, philosophical and legal criticisms. But a sarcastic article on
the French Academy compelled him to turn over the Journal to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad.
Linguet, however, continued his career of free lance, now attacking and now supporting the
government, in the Annales politiques, civiles et littéraires, published from 1777 to 1792, first at
London, then at Brussels and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780 he was arrested for
a caustic attack on the duc de Duras (1715-1789), an academician and marshal of France, and
imprisoned nearly two years in the Bastille. He then went to London, and thence to Brussels, where, for
his support of the reforms of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an honorarium of one thousand
ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state,
and to sue the duc d’Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of Louis XV., for fees due him for legal
services rendered some fifteen years earlier. He obtained judgment to the amount of 24,000 livres.
Linguet received the support of Marie Antoinette; his fame at the time surpassed that of his rival
Beaumarchais, and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly afterwards he visited the emperor at Vienna
to plead the case of Van der Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the Revolution he
issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau, who returned his ill-will with interest, calling him “the
ignorant and bombastic M. Linguet, advocate of Neros, sultans and viziers.” On his return to Paris in
1791 he defended the rights of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His last work was a defence
of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville d’Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and
summarily condemned to death “for having flattered the despots of Vienna and London.” He was
guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June 1794.

Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his attempted historical writing are
Histoire du siècle d’Alexandre le Grand (Amsterdam, 1762), and Histoire impartiale des Jésuites
(Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition to the philosophes had its
 strongest expressions in Fanatisme des philosophes (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and Histoire des
révolutions de l’empire romain (Paris, 1766-1768). His Théorie des lois civiles (London, 1767) is a
vigorous defence of absolutism and attack on the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is
Mémoire pour le comte de Morangies (Paris, 1772); Linguet’s imprisonment in the Bastille
afforded him the opportunity of writing his Mémoires sur la Bastille, first published in London in
1789; it has been translated into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and is the
best of his works though untrustworthy.

See A. Devérité, Notice pour servir à l’histoire de la vie et des écrits de S. N. H. Linguet (Liége,
1782); Gardoz, Essai historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet (Lyon, 1808); J. F. Barrière,
Mémoire de Linguet et de Latude (Paris, 1884); Ch. Monselet, Les Oubliés et les dédaignés (Paris,
1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin “Notice sur Linguet,” in the 1889 edition of Mémoires sur la Bastille; J.
Cruppi, Un avocat journaliste au 18e siècle, Linguet (Paris, 1895); A. Philipp. Linguet, ein
Nationalökonom des XVIII Jahrhunderts in seinen rechtlichen, socialen und volkswirtschaftlichen
Anschauungen (Zürich, 1896); A. Lichtenberger, Le Socialisme utopique (1898), pp. 77-131.

LINK. (1) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. länk, Dan. laenke; cognate with “flank,” and Ger.
Gelenk, joint), one of the loops of which a chain is composed; used as a measure of length in surveying,
being 1⁄100th part of a “chain.” In Gunter’s chain, a “link” = 7.92 in.; the chain used by American
engineers consists of 100 links of a foot each in length (for “link work” and “link motions” see Mechanics:
§ Applied, and Steam Engine). The term is also applied to anything used for connecting or binding
together, metaphorically or absolutely. (2) (O. Eng. hlinc, possibly from the root which appears in “to
lean”), a bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in the plural, applied to the ground bordering
on the sea-shore, characterized by sand and coarse grass; hence a course for playing golf. (3) A torch
made of pitch or tow formerly carried in the streets to light passengers, by men or boys called “link-
boys” who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands supporting a ring in which the link might be placed
may still be seen at the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful origin. It has been
referred to a Med. Lat. lichinus, which occurs in the form linchinus (see Du Cange, Glossarium); this,
according to a 15th-century glossary, meant a wick or match. It is an adaptation of Gr. λύχνος, lamp.
Another suggestion connects it with a supposed derivation of “linstock,” from “lint.” The New English
Dictionary thinks the likeliest suggestion is to identify the word with the “link” of a chain. The tow and
pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and then cut into sections or “links.”
 LINKÖPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of the district (län) of
Östergötland. Pop. (1900) 14,552. It is situated in a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm, and
communicates with Lake Roxen (½ m. to the north) and the Göta and Kinda canals by means of the
navigable Stångå. The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building with a beautiful south portal and
a Gothic choir, is, next to the cathedral of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an
altarpiece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), which is said to have been bought by John II. for twelve
hundred measures of wheat. In the church of St Lars are some paintings by Per Horberg (1746-1816),
the Swedish peasant artist. Other buildings of note are the massive episcopal palace (1470-1500),
afterwards a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1627, which
contains the valuable library of old books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college,
and collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the Östergötland Museum, with an art collection.
The town has manufactures of tobacco, cloth and hosiery. It is the headquarters of the second army
division.

Linköping early became a place of mark, and was already a bishop’s see in 1082. It was at a council
held in the town in 1153 that the payment of Peter’s pence was agreed to at the instigation of Nicholas
Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV. The coronation of Birger Jarlsson Valdemar took place in the
cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of Gustavus Vasa several important diets were held in the town. At
Stångåbro (Stångå Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the battle of Stångåbro (1598),
when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated the Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron
Market of Linköping marks the spot where Sigismund’s adherents were beheaded in 1600.

LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born at Wells, Somerset, and studied
music at Bath, where he settled as a singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774 he was
engaged in the management at Drury Lane theatre, London, composing or compiling the music of many
of the pieces produced there, besides songs and madrigals, which rank high among English
compositions. He died in London on the 19th of November 1795. His eldest son Thomas (1756-1778) was
a remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father; and he became a warm friend of
Mozart. His works, with some of his father’s, were published in two volumes, and these contain some
lovely madrigals and songs. Another son, William (1771-1835), who held a writership at Madras, was
devoted to literature and music and composed glees and songs. Three daughters were similarly gifted,
and were remarkable both for singing and beauty; the eldest of them Elizabeth Ann (1754-1792),
married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and thus linked the fortunes of her family with his career.
 LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, 1st Marquess of (1860-1908), British
administrator, was the son of the 6th earl of Hopetoun. The Hope family traced their descent to John de
Hope, who accompanied James V.’s queen Madeleine of Valois from France to Scotland in 1537, and of
whose great-grandchildren Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of Scotland, was ancestor of the
earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope settled in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch
bankers of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury, Kent. Sir Thomas’s son, Sir James Hope of
Hopetoun (1614-1661), Scottish lord of session, was grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Hopetoun in the
Scots peerage (1681-1742), who was created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd earl, was in 1809
made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl (1765-1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a
distinguished soldier, who for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry in 1814
before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of Linlithgow was bestowed on the 7th earl of
Hopetoun in 1902, in recognition of his success as first governor (1900-1902) of the commonwealth of
Australia; he died on the 1st of March 1908, being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his eldest son (b.
1887).

An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716, this being held by the
Livingstones, a Scottish family descended from Sir William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the
barony of Callendar in 1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone (d. c. 1450), and
other members of this family were specially prominent during the minority of King James II.
Alexander Livingstone, 7th Lord Livingstone (d. 1623), the eldest son of William, the 6th lord (d.
c. 1580), a supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a leading Scottish noble during the reign of
James VI. and was created earl of Linlithgow in 1600. Alexander’s grandson, George, 3rd earl of
Linlithgow (1616-1690), and the latter’s son, George, the 4th earl (c. 1652-1695), were both
engaged against the Covenanters during the reign of Charles II. When the 4th earl died without
sons in August 1695 the earldom passed to his nephew, James Livingstone, 4th earl of Callendar.
James, who then became the 5th earl of Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715; in 1716 he
was attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and he died without sons in Rome in April
1723.

The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641
upon James Livingstone, the third son of the 1st earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in
Germany and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone of Almond in 1633 by Charles
I., and eight years later the king wished to make him lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this,
however, Almond had acted with the Covenanters, and during the short war between England and
Scotland in 1640 he served under General Alexander Leslie, afterwards earl of Leven. But the
trust reposed in him by the Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640 from signing the “band of
Cumbernauld,” an association for defence against Argyll, or from being in some way mixed up
with the “Incident,” a plot for the seizure of the Covenanting leaders, Hamilton and Argyll. In
1641 Almond became an earl, and, having declined the offer of a high position in the army raised
by Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into England in 1644 and helped Leven to
capture Newcastle. In 1645 Callendar, who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in
1647 he was one of the promoters of the “engagement” for the release of the king. In 1648,
when the Scots marched into England, he served as lieutenant-general under the duke of
Hamilton, but the duke found him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously, and his
advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston. After this battle he escaped to Holland.
In 1650 he was allowed to return to Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was
imprisoned; he came into prominence once more at the Restoration. Callendar died on March
 1674, leaving no children, and, according to a special remainder, he was succeeded in the
earldom by his nephew Alexander (d. 1685), the second son of the 2nd earl of Linlithgow; and he
again was succeeded by his nephew Alexander (d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd earl of
Linlithgow. The 3rd earl’s son, James, the 4th earl, then became 5th earl of Linlithgow (see
supra).

LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Linlithgowshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 4279. It lies in a valley on the south side of a loch, 17½ m. W. of Edinburgh by the North
British railway. It long preserved an antique and picturesque appearance, with gardens running down to
the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the rising ground, but in the 19th century much of it was
rebuilt. About 4 m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540), where the Knights of St John
of Jerusalem had their chief Scottish preceptory. The parish kirk is built on the site of the nave of the
church of the establishment, but the ruins of the transept and of part of the choir still exist. Linlithgow
belongs to the Falkirk district group of parliamentary burghs with Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark.
The industries include shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of paper, glue and soap, and
distilling. An old tower-like structure near the railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of
the Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town house (erected in 1668 and restored in
1848 after a fire); the town hall, built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school, dating from
the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine fountains. The Cross Well in front of the town house, a
striking piece of grotesque work carved in stone, originally built in the reign of James V., was rebuilt in
1807. Another fountain is surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the patron-saint of the burgh.
Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin of its kind in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls
rise above the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into two nearly equal portions. In
plan it is almost square (168 ft. by 174 ft.), enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which
stands the ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected in front of Holyrood Palace by the
Prince Consort. At each corner there is a tower with an internal spiral staircase, that of the north-west
angle being crowned by a little octagonal turret known as “Queen Margaret’s Bower,” from the tradition
that it was there that the consort of James IV. watched and waited for his return from Flodden. The
west side, whose massive masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date in part from
the time of James III., who later took refuge in one of its vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger
part of the south and east side belongs to the period of James V., about 1535; and the north side was
rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI. Of James V.’s portion, architecturally the richest, the main apartments
are the Lyon chamber or parliament hall and the chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by a
drawbridge, was on the east side; above the gateway are still some weather-worn remains of rich
allegorical designs. The palace was reduced to ruins by General Hawley’s dragoons, who set fire to it in
1746. Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few yards to the south of the palace is the
church of St Michael, a Gothic (Scottish Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally excluding the apse,
by 62 ft. in breadth excluding the transepts), probably founded by David I. in 1242, but mainly built by
George Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld (1528-1536). The central west front steeple was till 1821 topped by
a crown like that of St Giles’, Edinburgh. The chief features of the church are the embattled and
pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway below, the nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in
the south transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including a window to the memory of
Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), the naturalist, who was born in the parish.

Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman Lindum) was made a royal burgh by David I. Edward I.
encamped here the night before the battle of Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301, and next year built
“a pele [castle] mekill and strong,” which in 1313 was captured by the Scots through the assistance of
William Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart. In 1369 the customs of Linlithgow yielded more than
those of any other town in Scotland, except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark to supply
the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of the Four Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a
charter of immunities in 1384. The palace became a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and
often formed part of the marriage settlement of their consorts (Mary of Guelders, 1449; Margaret of
Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503). James V. was born within its walls in 1512, and his
daughter Mary on the 7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassinated in the High
Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The university of Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from
the plague in 1645-1646; in the same year the national parliament, which had often sat in the palace,
was held there for the last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly burned here, and in 1745 Prince
Charles Edward passed through the town. In 1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its
claim to levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company.

LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian, a south-eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the

Firth of Forth, E. and S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire and N.W. by Stirlingshire. It has an
area of 76,861 acres, or 120 sq. m., and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very gradually from the
Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles from the Forth a valley stretches from east to west.
Between the county town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being Knock (1017 ft.), Cairnpapple,
or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue (said to be a corruption of Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills (832)
terminating eastwards in Binny Craig, a striking eminence similar to those of Stirling and Edinburgh,
Torphichen Hills (777) and Bowden (749). In the coast district a few bold rocks are found, such as
Dalmeny, Dundas (well wooded and with a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence of 559
ft. named Glower-o’er-’em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its summit a monument to General Adrian Hope,
who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and pursuing a north-easterly
direction, enters the Firth at Cramond after a course of 24 m., during a great part of which it forms the
boundary between West and Mid Lothian. Its right-hand tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another
portion of the line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached portion of
Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stirlingshire and then, following in the main a northerly
direction, passes the county town on the west and reaches the Firth about midway between
Grangemouth and Bo’ness, having served as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during rather more than the
latter half of its course. The only loch is Linlithgow Lake (102 acres), immediately adjoining the county
town on the north, a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep at the east end and 48 ft.
at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a species of roach) are abundant.
 Geology.—The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without exception to the Carboniferous
system. At the base is the Calciferous Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate
Hills and the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the Queensferry limestone, the
equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone of Edinburgh, and the Binny sandstone group with shales
and clays and the Houston coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series oil shales are found.
The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic lavas and tuffs—an interbedded volcanic group possibly
2000 ft. thick in the Calciferous Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. A peculiar
serpentinous variety of the prevailing rock is quarried at Blackburn for oven floors; it is known as
“lakestone.” Binns Hill is the site of one of the volcanic cones of the period. The Carboniferous
Limestone series consists of an upper and lower limestone group—including the Petershill, Index,
Dykeneuk and Craigenbuck limestones—and a middle group of shales, ironstones and coals; the
Smithy, Easter Main, Foul, Red and Splint coals belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous
Limestone the Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be traced from the mouth of the
Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is followed by the true coal-measures with the Boghead or
Torbanehill coal, the Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas coals of Armadale,
Torbanehill and Fauldhouse.

Climate and Agriculture.—The average rainfall for the year is 29.9 in., and the average
temperature 47.5° F. (January 38° F.; July 59.5° F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the
agriculture of which is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best land is found along the
coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture being
practically stationary (at about 22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop, but barley and
wheat are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and 300 acres are the most common. Turnips and
potatoes are the leading green crops. Much land has been reclaimed; the parish of Livingston, for
example, which in the beginning of the 18th century was covered with heath and juniper, is now
under rotation. In Torphichen and Bathgate, however, patches of peat moss and swamp occur,
and in the south there are extensive moors at Fauldhouse and Polkemmet. Live stock does not
count for so much in West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, though a considerable number of
cattle are fattened and dairy farming is followed successfully, the fresh butter and milk finding a
market in Edinburgh. There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are reared. The wooded
land occurs principally in the parks and “policies” surrounding the many noblemen’s mansions and
private estates.

Other Industries.—The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate, Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall,

Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny. There are important iron-works with blast furnaces at
Bo’ness, Kinneil, Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at these places. Coal-
mining is supposed to have been followed since Roman times, and the earliest document extant
regarding coalpits in Scotland is a charter granted about the end of the 12th century to William
Oldbridge of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked in connexion with the coal, and ironstone
employs many hands. Limestone, freestone and whinstone are all quarried. Binny freestone was
used for the Royal Institution and the National Gallery in Edinburgh, and many important
buildings in Glasgow. Some fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and Bo’ness is the principal
port.

Communications.—The North British Railway Company’s line from Edinburgh to Glasgow runs
across the north of the county, it controls the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich
mineral district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via Bathgate. The Caledonian
 Railway Company’s line from Glasgow to Edinburgh touches the extreme south of the shire. The
Union Canal, constructed in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the Forth and Clyde Canal near
Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the county, roughly following the N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The
Union Canal, which is 31 m. long and belongs to the North British railway, is carried across the
Almond and Avon on aqueducts designed by Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is conveyed
through a tunnel 2100 ft. long.

Population and Administration.—In 1891 the population amounted to 52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708,
showing an increase of 24.43% in the decennial period, the highest of any Scottish county for that
decade, and a density of 547 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke Gaelic only, and 575
Gaelic and English. The chief towns, with populations in 1901, are Bathgate (7549), Borrowstounness
(9306), Broxburn (7099) and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to parliament.
Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute
sits at Linlithgow and Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are academies
at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo’ness. The local authorities entrust the bulk of the “residue” grant to the
County Secondary Education Committee, which subsidizes elementary technical classes (cookery,
laundry and dairy) and science and art and technological classes, including their equipment.

History.—Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near Inveravon is an accumulation of shells—
mostly oysters, which have long ceased to be found so far up the Forth—considered by geologists to be
a natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries to be a kitchen midden. Stone cists have been discovered
at Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and elsewhere; on Cairnnaple is a circular structure of remote but
unknown date; and at Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The wall of Antoninus
lies for several miles in the shire. The discovery of a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is held
by some to be conclusive evidence that the great rampart terminated at that point and not at Carriden.
Roman camps can be distinguished at several spots. On the hill of Bowden is an earthwork, which J.
Stuart Glennie and others connect with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons of
Northumbria. The historical associations of the county mainly cluster round the town of Linlithgow
(q.v.). Kingscavil (pop. 629) disputes with Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour of being the birthplace
of Patrick Hamilton, the martyr (1504-1528).
 See Sir R. Sibbald, History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow
and Stirlingshire (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, Walks along the
Northern Roman Wall (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham,
Geology of the Lothians (Edinburgh, 1838).

LINNAEUS, the name usually given to Carl von Linné (1707-

1778), Swedish botanist, who was born on the 13th of May, O.S.
(May 23, N.S.) 1707 at Råshult, in the province of Småland, Sweden,
and was the eldest child of Nils Linnaeus the comminister, afterwards
pastor, of the parish, and Christina Brodersonia, the daughter of the
previous incumbent. In 1717 he was sent to the primary school at
Wexiö, and in 1724 he passed to the gymnasium. His interests were
centred on botany, and his progress in the studies considered
necessary for admission to holy orders, for which he was intended,
was so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to apprentice
him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate through Dr
Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed the belief that he
would yet distinguish himself in medicine and natural history, and
who further instructed him in physiology. In 1727 he entered the
university of Lund, but removed in the following year to that of
Upsala. There, through lack of means, he had a hard struggle until,
in 1729, he made the acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756),
professor of theology, at that time working at his Hierobotanicon,
which saw the light nearly twenty years later. Celsius, impressed
with Linnaeus’s knowledge and botanical collections, and finding him
necessitous, offered him board and lodging.

During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to

the establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This
was a review of Sébastien Vaillant’s Sermo de Structura Florum
(Leiden, 1718), a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon
examining the stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming
convinced of the paramount importance of these organs, he formed
the idea of basing a system of arrangement upon them. Another
work by Wallin, Γάμος φύτων, sive Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio
(Upsala, 1729), having fallen into his hands, he drew up a short
treatise on the sexes of plants, which was placed in the hands of the
younger Olaf Rudbeck (1660-1740), the professor of botany in the
university. In the following year Rudbeck, whose advanced age
compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed Linnaeus his
adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter began his
lectures. The academic garden was entirely remodelled under his
auspices, and furnished with many rare species. In the preceding
year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener,
which was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better
things.

In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the

Academy of Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of 4600 m.,
and the cost of the journey is given at 530 copper dollars, or about
£25 sterling. His own account was published in English by Sir J. E.
Smith, under the title Lachesis Lapponica, in 1811; the scientific
results were published in his Flora Lapponica (Amsterdam, 1737). In
1733 Linnaeus was engaged at Upsala in teaching the methods of
assaying ores, but was prevented from delivering lectures on botany
for academic reasons. At this juncture the governor of Dalecarlia
invited him to travel through his province, as he had done through
Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun to large
audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain there,
afterwards bishop of Åbo, strongly urged him to go abroad and take
his degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which means he could
afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly he left Sweden in
1735. Travelling by Lübeck and Hamburg, he proceeded to
Harderwijk, where he went through the requisite examinations, and
defended his thesis on the cause of intermittent fever. His scanty
funds were now nearly spent, but he passed on through Haarlem to
Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik Gronovius (1600-1762), who,
returning the visit, was shown the Systema naturae in MS., and was
so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to press at his own
expense. This famous system, which, artificial as it was, substituted
order for confusion, largely made its way on account of the lucid and
admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued almost
at the same time (see Botany). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw
after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J.
Burman (1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with
whom he stayed a twelvemonth. While there he issued his
Fundamenta Botanica, an unassuming small octavo, which exercised
immense influence. For some time also he lived with the wealthy
banker, G. Clifford (1685-1750), who had a magnificent garden at
Hartecamp, near Haarlem.

In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recommended

by Boerhaave to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have received him
coldly. At Oxford Dr Thomas Shaw welcomed him cordially; J. J.
Dillenius, the professor of botany, was cold at first, but afterwards
changed completely, kept him a month, and even offered to share
the emoluments of the chair with him. He saw Philip Miller (1691-
1771), the Hortulanorum Princeps, at Chelsea Physic Garden, and
took some plants thence to Clifford; but certain other stories which
are current about his visit to England are of very doubtful
authenticity.

On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing of his

Genera Plantarum, a volume which must be considered the starting-
point of modern systematic botany. During the same year, 1737, he
finished arranging Clifford’s collection of plants, living and dried,
described in the Hortus Cliffortianus. During the compilation he used
to “amuse” himself with drawing up the Critica Botanica, also printed
in the Netherlands. But this strenuous and unremitting labour told
upon him; the atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress
him beyond endurance; and, resisting all Clifford’s entreaties to
remain with him, he started homewards, yet on the way he
remained a year at Leiden, and published his Classes Plantarum
(1738). He then visited Paris, where he saw Antoine and Bernard de
Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden from Rouen. In September
1738 he established himself as a physician in Stockholm, but, being
unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to consult him; by
degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed naval physician
at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in June 1730 married
Sara Moræa. In 1741 he was appointed to the chair of medicine at
Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of botany. In the same year,
previous to this exchange, he travelled through Öland and Gothland,
by command of the state, publishing his results in Oländska och
Gothländska Resa (1745). The index to this volume shows the first
employment of specific names in nomenclature.
 Henceforward his time was taken up by teaching and the
preparation of other works. In 1745 he issued his Flora Suecica and
Fauna Suecica, the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen
years; afterwards, two volumes of observations made during
journeys in Sweden, Wästgöta Resa (Stockholm, 1747), and Skånska
Resa (Stockholm, 1751). In 1748 he brought out his Hortus
Upsaliensis, showing that he had added eleven hundred species to
those formerly in cultivation in that garden. In 1750 his Philosophia
Botanica was given to the world; it consists of a commentary on the
various axioms he had published in 1735 in his Fundamenta
Botanica, and was dictated to his pupil P. Löfling (1720-1756), while
the professor was confined to his bed by an attack of gout. But the
most important work of this period was his Species Plantarum
(Stockholm, 1753), in which the specific names are fully set forth. In
the same year he was created knight of the Polar Star, the first time
a scientific man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In 1755
he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with a
liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the
ground that whatever merits he possessed should be devoted to his
country’s service, and Löfling was sent instead. He was enabled now
to purchase the estates of Säfja and Hammarby; at the latter he
built his museum of stone, to guard against loss by fire. His lectures
at the university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal
number of students at Upsala was five hundred, but while he
occupied the chair of botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In
1761 he was granted a patent of nobility, antedated to 1757, from
which time he was styled Carl von Linné. To his great delight the
tea-plant was introduced alive into Europe in 1763; in the same year
his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was allowed to assist his father in
his professorial duties, and to be trained as his successor. At the age
of sixty his memory began to fail; an apoplectic attack in 1774
greatly weakened him; two years after he lost the use of his right
side; and he died on the 10th of January 1778 at Upsala, in the
cathedral of which he was buried.

With Linnaeus arrangement seems to have been a passion; he

delighted in devising classifications, and not only did he
systematize the three kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a
treatise on the Genera Morborum. When he appeared upon the
scene, new plants and animals were in course of daily discovery
in increasing numbers, due to the increase of trading facilities;
he devised schemes of arrangement by which these acquisitions
might be sorted provisionally, until their natural affinities should
have become clearer. He made many mistakes; but the honour
due to him for having first enunciated the principles for defining
genera and species, and his uniform use of specific names, is
enduring. His style is terse and laconic; he methodically treated
of each organ in its proper turn, and had a special term for
each, the meaning of which did not vary. The reader cannot
doubt the author’s intention; his sentences are business-like and
to the point. The omission of the verb in his descriptions was an
innovation, and gave an abruptness to his language which was
foreign to the writing of his time; but it probably by its
succinctness added to the popularity of his works.

No modern naturalist has impressed his own character with

greater force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued
them with his own intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an
atmosphere of enthusiasm, trained them to close and accurate
observation, and then despatched them to various parts of the
globe.
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