CONCRETING TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES

(BCV405C)

MODULE - 1
Dr. Vinay Kumar B M
Professor & Head
Department of Civil Engineering
PES Institute of Technology and Management
Syllabus

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 TEXT BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

1. Concrete Technology by M. S. Shetty, S Chand, New Delhi-110055.

2. Concrete Technology by M. L. Gambhir, Tata McGraw-Hill.

3. IS 456, IS 269, IS 516, IS 1786, IS 1893, IS 12269, IS 9103, IS 8112

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 Concrete as Structural Material
• The most widely used construction material is concrete, commonly
made by mixing portland cement with fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, and water.

• Portland cement, water, sand, and coarse aggregate are proportioned

and mixed to produce concrete suited to the particular job for which it
is intended
 Three Primary Reasons

1. Possesses excellent resistance to water.

2. Ease with which structural concrete elements can be formed into

a variety of shapes and sizes.

3. Cheapest and most readily available material on the job.

 Definition of Cement

Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground

inorganic material which, when mixed with water,
forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of
hydration reactions and processes and which, after
hardening, retains its strength and stability even
under water.

-European standard (EN 197-1)

• is finely ground inorganic material

• is hydraulic binder. It sets and hardens by reacting chemically with

water and is able to harden under water.

• Setting and hardening is due to hydration reactions of compounds of

cement (mainly calcium silicates, also calcium aluminates and -
alumino ferites) with water. This is called hydraulic hardening.

• hardened cement paste (cement + water) is stable in water.

 History of Cement

• The Romans used lime concretes and developed

pozzolanic cements of lime and certain volcanic
earths.

• 1824, Joseph Aspdin from Leeds city - England,

produced a powder made from the calcined mixture
of limestone and clay.

• He called it "Portland Cement", because when it

hardened it produced a material similar to stones
from the quarries near Portland Island in UK.
• The German standard specification for Portland cement was drawn in
1877.

• The British standard specification was first drawn up in 1904.

• The first ASTM specification was issued in 1904.

• In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near Madras,

by the South India Industrial Ltd.
Between 1912 and 1913, the Indian Cement Co. Ltd., was
established at Porbander (Gujarat) and by 1914 this Company was
able to deliver about 1000 tons of Portland cement.
 RAW MATERIALS

• Calcareous Materials : Supplies Lime to cement, Lime Stone (65-

80% CaCO3 ), Chalk, Calcite, Alkali waste.
• It should contain less than 3.3% of MgO and 3-4% of SiO2 , Fe2O3,
and AlO2 combined.

• Argillaceous Materials : Supplies Silica, Alumina and Iron Oxide.

Clay, Marl, Shale, Blast Furnace Slag, sand etc.
• Here Silica provides strength, Alumina imparts quick setting, iron
provides color, strength and hardness.
• Gypsum: increases setting time

• Powdered Coal and Fuel Oil: For generating required temperatures.

Process of Manufacturing of Portland Cement
Approximate composition limits of oxides in
portland cement
Wet Process for Manufacturing of Cement
Dry Process for Manufacturing of Cement
Cement Clinkers
 Chemical Composition of Cement

*Also Known as Bogue’s Compounds

 Types of Cement

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 8. High Alumina Cement

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) 9. White Cement

3. Rapid Hardening Cement 10. Coloured cement

4. Quick setting cement 11. Air Entraining Cement

5. Low Heat Cement 12. Expansive cement

6. Sulphates resisting cement 13. Hydrographic cement

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

 Aggregates

• Aggregates generally occupy 65- 80% of a concrete’s volume.

 Why use aggregate
• Reduce the cost of the concrete – 1/4 - 1/8 of the cement price.

• Reduce thermal cracking – 100 kg of OPC produces about 12o C

temperature rise.

• Reduces shrinkage – 10% reduction in aggregate volume can double

shrinkage.

• High aggregate : cement ratio (A/C) desirable.

• Imparts unit weight to concrete

 Aggregate Classification
• Size: Coarse Aggregates & Fine Aggregates.

• Specific Gravity: Light Weight, Normal Weight and Heavy Weight

Aggregates.

• Availability: Natural Gravel and Crushed Aggregates.

• Shape: Round, Irregular, Angular and Flaky Aggregates.

• Texture: Smooth, Granular, Crystalline, honeycombed and Porous.

 Aggregate Classification : Size

Fine Aggregate
– Sand and/or crushed stone.
– < 4.75 mm.
– F.A. content usually 35% to 45% by mass
or volume of total aggregate.

Coarse Aggregate
– Gravel and crushed stone.
– >4.75 mm.
– Typically between 9.5 and 37.5 mm.
 Aggregate Classification : Specific Gravity

Normal-Weight Aggregate
• Most common aggregates ( Ex: Sand, Gravel,
Crushed stone)
• Produce normal-weight concrete 2200 to 2400
kg/m3

Lightweight Aggregate
• Expanded (Shale, Clay, Slate, Slag)
• Produce structural lightweight concrete 1350
to 1850 kg/m3
Heavyweight Aggregate

• Barite, Limonite, Magnetite, Hematite, Iron

• Produce high-density concrete up to 6400 kg/m3

• Used for Radiation Shielding

 Aggregate Classification : Availability

Natural Gravel

• River or seashore gravels; desert, seashore and

windblown sands.

• Rounded in nature.

• Fully water worn or completely shaped by attrition.

Crushed Aggregates.

• Crushed rocks of all types * Attrition is an erosional process. Rocks and

pebbles are carried in the flow of a river. They
• Angular in nature repeatedly knock into each other, which causes the
rocks to erode or to break.
Aggregate Classification : Shape
Aggregate Classification : Texture

*Surface texture depends on hardness, grain size,

pore structure, structure of the rock.
Pozzolanic or Supplementary Cementitious Materials

“ Pozzolanic materials are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous

materials, which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value,
but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide liberated on hydration, at
ordinary temperature, to form compounds, possessing cementitious
properties”.

- American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM)

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• During process of hydration of cement calcium hydroxide is formed as one
of the products of hydration.

• Calcium hydroxide has no cementitious value and it is soluble in water and

may be leached out by the percolating water.

• The siliceous or aluminous compound in a finely divided form react with the

calcium hydroxide to form highly stable cementitious substances. This

reaction is called pozzolanic reaction.

Pozzolan + Calcium Hydroxide + Water → C – S – H (Gel)

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• The reaction involves the consumption of Ca(OH)2 and not production
of Ca(OH)2.

• The reduction of Ca(OH)2 improves the durability of cement paste by

making the paste dense and impervious.

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 Classification of Pozzolanic Materials

Natural Pozzolans Artificial Pozzolans

• Clay and Shales • Fly ash

• Opalinc Cherts • Blast Furnace Slag

• Diatomaceous Earth • Silica Fume

• Volcanic Tuffs and • Rice Husk ash

Pumicites.
• Metakaoline

• Lime Powder.
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 Fly ash

“Fly ash is finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of

powdered coal and transported by the flue gases and collected by
electrostatic precipitator.”

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 ASTM classification

• Class F - Burning anthracite or bituminous coal, usually has less

than 5% CaO.

• Class C - Burning lignite or sub-bituminous coal, some fly ash may

have CaO content in excess of 10%.

• Fly ash, has to be tested in accordance with IS: 1727-1967.

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Chemical Composition

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 Silica fume

“ It is a product resulting from reduction of high purity quartz with coal

in an electric arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon
alloy”.

• Silica fume, also referred to as micro silica or condensed silica

fume, is an artificial pozzolanic admixture.

• It is extremely fine with particle size less than 1 micron and with an
average diameter of about 0.1.

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 Properties of silica fume

• Micro silica is initially produced as an ultra fine undensified

powder.

• At least 85% SiO2 content.

• Mean particle size between 0.1 and 0.2 micron

• Minimum specific surface area is 15000 m2/kg

• Spherical particle shape.

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 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)

“It is a non-metallic product consisting essentially of silicates

and alumina silicates of calcium and other bases, that is developed in
a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace”.

• The molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to form a

glassy sand like granulated material.

• Grounded to less than 45 micron will have specific surface of about

400-600m2/kg

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 Chemical composition

• Calcium oxide 30-45%

• Silicon dioxide 30-38%

• Aluminium oxide 15-25%

• Ferrous oxide 0.5-2.0

• Specific gravity 2.4

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 Rice Husk Ash

“ Is obtained by burning rice husk in a controlled manner without

causing environmental pollution.”

• Rice husk ash (RHA) essentially consist of amorphous silica (90%

SiO2), 5% carbon, and 2% K2O.

• The specific surface of RHA is between 4000– 10000 m2/kg.

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 Metakaolin

“Metakaolin is produced by the calcinations of pure or refined kaolinite

clay at a temperature between 650℃ to 850℃”.

• Once the burning process gets completed it is properly grinded to

achieve desired fineness to improve various strengths and property
parameters of cement mortar and concrete.

• Kaolin clay is the raw material for the Metakaolin.

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• Use of Metakaolin in concrete accelerates the initial setting time of concrete.

• It helps in development of the early age strength of concrete which allows

the early removal of formwork and thus enhances the production rate.

• Metakaolin consumes calcium hydroxide thereby preventing the reaction of

alkali-silica.

• Use of Metakaolin increases the resistance to sulphate attack, chemical

attack and freeze and thaw action.

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Chemical properties Physical properties
• Silica (SiO2): 51-53% • Physical Form: Powder

• Al2O3: 42-44% • Colour: Off white, Gray

• CaO: <20% • Specific Gravity: 2.40 to 2.60
• Fe2O3: <2.20% • Fineness: 8000-15000m2/kg.
• SO4: <0.5%
• K2O: <40%
• Loss of Ignition: <0.50 %

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 Composite cement
• It is a uniform mix of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and
blending materials such as silica fumes, fly ash, limestone and
slag to enhance its properties for different uses”.
 Characteristics of Blended Cement

• Improved workability and pumpability.

• Reduced water demand.

• Enhanced bleed control.

• Lower drying shrinkage and creep.

• Improved resistance to sulphate attack and chloride penetration.

• Reduced potential for Alkali Aggregate Reaction.

 Types of Blended Cement
As per American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification,
blended cement are classified in to 4 types:

1. Type IS (X), Portland-Slag Cement

2. Type IP (X), Portland-Pozzolan Cement

3. Type IL (X), Portland-Limestone Cement

4. Type IT, Ternary Blended Cement

 Type IS (X), Portland-Slag Cement

• Blends containing up to 70% slag cement are used for general

construction.

• Portland blast furnace cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement

with respect to fineness, setting time, soundness and strength.

• The heat of hydration of Portland blast furnace cement is lower than

that of ordinary Portland cement.
Advantages of PSC:

– Reduced heat of hydration.

– Refinement of pore structure.

– Reduced permeability.

– Increased resistance to chemical attack.

 Type IP (X), Portland-Pozzolan Cement

• Used for general construction, this blend can contain up to 50%

pozzolan. Fly ash is the most common pozzolan used in blended
cement.

Calcium hydroxide + Pozzolana + water → C – S – H (gel)

• Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers

greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than ordinary
Portland cement.
• It reduces the leaching of calcium hydroxide when used in hydraulic
structures.
 Type IL (X), Portland-Limestone Cement

Relatively new to the market, Portland-limestone cement contains

between 5% and 15% percent interground limestone.
 Type IT, Ternary Blended Cement

• Ternary cements are blends two complementary supplementary

materials such as fly ash, slag cement or silica fume.
 Advantages of Blended Cement
• It provides a finer texture than OPC when mixed and placed. So it
can be used for finishing and elevation works.

• The strength gained after 28 days is significantly stronger than

OPC, in both compressive and flexural stress.

• The permeability of blended concrete is low, due to which the life of

concrete is extended by reducing penetration of aggressive water
run-off compounds such as sulfates and chlorides when compared
to ordinary cement.
• Cracks occurred due to thermal stress by variation of temperature is
reduced by the use of blended cement.

• Reduced problems, related to Alkali-Silica Reaction by using a mix of

blended cement as either silica fume and slag, or silica fume and fly
ash.

• Blending material used are industrial by products, hence results in

reduced use of natural resources such as limestone, silica and clay.
 UltraFine
“ UltraFine is a low calcium alumino silicate mineral based
additive which is controlled for its particle size distribution to
achieve the high levels of reactivity”.

• Fineness and high reactivity of UltraFine attributes to

enhanced hydration process.

• Addition of UltraFine improves the particle packing of paste

components which ultimately leads to concrete with higher
strength and improved durability.
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 Areas of Application

• Medium to Ultra high strength concrete.

• High rise structures where pumping is a challenge.

• Precast concrete elements like tunnel segments, blocks, beams and

girders etc.

• Pre and post stressed concrete elements.

• High flow and good self compacting concrete.

• Shotcrete with improved adhesion and higher strength development.

• Structures where durability parameters are pre requisite.

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• High performance concrete with lower water to binder ratio.

• Temperature controlled mass concrete for raft and pile foundations.

• General residential and commercial building construction.

• Repair mortars, plasters and grouts.

• LEED/GREEN compliant sustainable construction.

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 Advantages

• Faster strength development at an early age in concrete.

• Improves pore structure in concrete leading to increased ultimate

strength and increased durability.

• Increased resistance against harsh environmental conditions.

• Maintains pH of concrete, helps protect steel reinforcement.

• Better rheology and pump ability in concrete compared to other micro

fine materials.

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• Reduces striking time of form work, helps quick rotation of form work.

• Better initial slump and increased slump retention without

increasing chemical admixtures.

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 Recycled Aggregates

“ Recycled aggregate can be generated from demolished construction

structure which comprises of broken members or components likes the
slab, beam, brick wall and others”.

• Since the quality data of these broken materials are often unknown, such
as water cement ratio, kind of admixtures, aggregate origins and
gradations, as well as the differentiation of its properties.

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The properties of RA are evaluated through several tests that
include

(i) flakiness and elongation,

(ii) water absorption and specific gravity,

(iii) aggregate crushing value and aggregate impact value

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IS 383 : 2016 Indian Standard COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE FOR
CONCRETE – SPECIFICATION (Third Revision)

i. Recycled Aggregate (RA) ‒‒ It is made from C & D waste which

may comprise concrete, brick, tiles, stone, etc.

ii. Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) ‒ It is derived from

concrete after requisite processing.
 Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) in concrete

• The recycled coarse aggregate will invariably have lower specific

gravity and higher absorption than the original aggregate, due to
the presence of cement paste in the recycled aggregate.

• The compressive strengths of recycled aggregate concrete are

lower than those of the same mix designs made with virgin
aggregate.

• Required compressive strengths can easily be met using

recycled coarse aggregates.
• Comparison of the results from the original and recycled gravel
mixes indicates some recycled mixes had higher flexural strength
than the original mixes.

• As with compressive strength, both were well above required levels.

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