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WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Third Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chin, David A.
Water-resources engineering / David A. Chin. – 3rd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283321-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-283321-2 (alk. paper)
1. Hydraulics. 2. Hydrology. 3. Waterworks. 4. Water resources
development. I. Title.
TC160.C52 2014
627–dc23 2012018911

Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton

Executive Editor: Holly Stark
Editorial Assistant: Carlin Heinle
Executive Marketing Manager: Tim Galligan

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Marketing Assistant: Jon Bryant
Permissions Project Manager: Karen Sanatar
Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno

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Production Project Manager / Editorial Production Manager: Greg Dulles
Cover Photo: United States Bureau of Reclamation

© 2013, 2010, 2006, 2000 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without

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permission in writing from the publisher.
Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.

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The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the
development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and
publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation

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contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ing
ISBN: 0-13-283321-2

Pearson Education Ltd., London

Pearson Education Australia Pty. Ltd., Sydney
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Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong
Pearson Education Canada, Inc., Toronto
Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
Pearson Education—Japan, Tokyo
Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

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ww To Andrew and Stephanie.

“But those who hope in the Lord will renew their strength. They will soar on

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wings like eagles; they will run and not grow weary, they will walk and not be
faint.”

Isaiah 40:31
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Contents
Preface xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Water-Resources Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Design of Water-Resource Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Water-Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Water-Use Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Supporting Federal Agencies in the United States . . . . . . . . . . 7
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ww 2 Fundamentals of Flow in Closed Conduits

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.2 Single Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Steady-State Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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2.2.3.1 Energy and hydraulic grade lines . . .
2.2.3.2 Velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.3 Head losses in transitions and fittings
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2.2.3.4 Head losses in noncircular conduits .
2.2.3.5 Empirical friction-loss formulae . . .
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2.2.4 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Pipe Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Nodal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3.2 Loop Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Application of Computer Programs . . . . . . .
2.4 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.4.2 Pump Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ing .
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2.4.2.1 Commercially available pumps . . . .
2.4.2.2 System characteristics . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.3 Limits on pump location . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Multiple-Pump Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Variable-Speed Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3 Design of Water-Distribution Systems 70

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2 Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.1 Per-Capita Forecast Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1.1 Estimation of per-capita demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1.2 Estimation of population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.2 Temporal Variations in Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.3 Fire Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.4 Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Components of Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1 Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1.1 Minimum size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.1.2 Service lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.1.3 Pipe materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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vi Contents

3.3.2 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.3 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.4 Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.5 Fire Hydrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.6 Water-Storage Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 Performance Criteria for Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.1 Service Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.2 Allowable Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.3 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.4 Network Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5 Building Water-Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.1 Specification of Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.2 Specification of Minimum Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.3 Determination of Pipe Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

ww 4 Fundamentals of Flow in Open Channels

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . .
4.2.2.1 Darcy–Weisbach equation . .
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4.2.2.2 Manning equation . . . . . .
4.2.2.3 Other equations . . . . . . .
4.2.2.4 Velocity distribution . . . . .
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4.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . .
4.2.3.1 Energy grade line . . . . . .
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4.2.3.2 Specific energy . . . . . . . .
4.3 Water-Surface Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Profile Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.3.4 Computation of Water-Surface Profiles eer

4.3.2 Classification of Water-Surface Profiles
4.3.3 Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.3.4.3 Standard-step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.4.4 Practical considerations . . .
4.3.4.5 Profiles across bridges . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Design of Drainage Channels 166

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 Best Hydraulic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.2 Boundary Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.3 Cohesive versus Noncohesive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.4 Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2.5 Channel Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.6 Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.3 Design of Channels with Rigid Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.4 Design of Channels with Flexible Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4.1 General Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.4.2 Vegetative Linings and Bare Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.4.3 RECP Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.4.4 Riprap, Cobble, and Gravel Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4.5 Gabions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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Contents vii

5.5 Composite Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6 Design of Sanitary Sewers 211

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2 Quantity of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.1 Residential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.2 Nonresidential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.2.3 Inflow and Infiltration (I/I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.4 Peaking Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.3 Hydraulics of Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.3.1 Manning Equation with Constant n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.2 Manning Equation with Variable n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.3 Self-Cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.3.4 Scour Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

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6.3.5 Design Computations for Diameter and Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.3.6 Hydraulics of Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.4 System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.4.1 System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

w.E 6.4.2 Pipe Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.3 Depth of Sanitary Sewer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.4 Diameter and Slope of Pipes . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.5 Hydraulic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.6 Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.7 Pump Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.8 Force Mains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.9 Hydrogen-Sulfide Control . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.10 Combined Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Design Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.5.1.1 Manning’s n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1.2 Minimum slope for self-cleansing . .
6.5.2 Procedure for System Design . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7 Design of Hydraulic Structures

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7.2.1.1 Submerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.2.1.2 Unsubmerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.2.2 Design Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.3 Sizing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.2.3.1 Fixed-headwater method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.2.3.2 Fixed-flow method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.2.3.3 Minimum-performance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.4 Roadway Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.5 Riprap/Outlet Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.3 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.3.1 Free Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.3.2 Submerged Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.3.3 Empirical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.4 Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1 Sharp-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1.1 Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1.2 V-notch weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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7.4.1.3 Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

7.4.1.4 Other types of sharp-crested weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.4.2 Broad-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.4.2.1 Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.4.2.2 Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.4.2.3 Gabion weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.5 Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.1 Uncontrolled Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.2 Controlled (Gated) Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.5.2.1 Gates seated on the spillway crest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.5.2.2 Gates seated downstream of the spillway crest . . . . . . . 309
7.6 Stilling Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.1 Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.2 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.7 Dams and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.7.1 Types of Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

ww 7.7.2 Reservoir Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.7.2.1 Sediment accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.2.2 Determination of storage requirements . . . .
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w.E 7.7.3 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.7.3.1 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.3.2 Turbine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Probability and Statistics in Water-Resources Engineering
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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344

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8.2 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Discrete Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Continuous Probability Distributions . . . . . . . .
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8.2.3 Mathematical Expectation and Moments . . . . .
8.2.4 Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5 Common Probability Functions . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.5.2 Geometric distribution . . . . . . . . . .ing

8.2.5.1 Binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5.3 Poisson distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5.4 Exponential distribution . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5.5 Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . .
8.2.5.6 Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5.7 Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
8.2.5.8 Uniform distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.2.5.9 Extreme-value distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.2.5.10 Chi-square distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.3 Analysis of Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1 Estimation of Population Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1.1 Probability distribution of observed data . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1.2 Hypothesis tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.3.1.3 Model selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2 Estimation of Population Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2.1 Method of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2.2 Maximum-likelihood method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.3.2.3 Method of L-moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8.3.3 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.3.3.1 Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
8.3.3.2 Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
8.3.3.3 Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

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8.3.3.4 Log-Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

8.3.3.5 Extreme-value Type I distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
8.3.3.6 General extreme-value (GEV) distribution . . . . . . . . . 394
8.4 Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

9 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology I: Rainfall and Abstractions 401

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2.1 Measurement of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.2.2 Statistics of Rainfall Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.2.2.1 Rainfall statistics in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.2.2.2 Secondary estimation of IDF curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.2.3 Spatial Averaging and Interpolation of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.2.4 Design Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

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9.2.4.1 Return period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.2.4.2 Rainfall duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.2.4.3 Rainfall depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.2.4.4 Temporal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

w.E 9.2.4.5 Spatial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.5 Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.1 Rational estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.2.5.2 Statistical estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.3 World-record precipitation amounts . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.4 Probable maximum storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3 Rainfall Abstractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.2 Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.1 The infiltration process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.3.2 Horton model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.3 Green–Ampt model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.4 NRCS curve-number model . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.4 Rainfall Excess on Composite Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.4 Baseflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology II: Runoff

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10.2 Mechanisms of Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.3 Time of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1 Overland Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1.1 Kinematic-wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1.2 NRCS method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.3.1.3 Kirpich equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
10.3.1.4 Izzard equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
10.3.1.5 Kerby equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
10.3.2 Channel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
10.3.3 Accuracy of Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
10.4 Peak-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.1 The Rational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.2 NRCS-TR55 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
10.5 Continuous-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.1 Unit-Hydrograph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.2 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

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x Contents

10.5.3 Unit-Hydrograph Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

10.5.3.1 Snyder unit-hydrograph model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
10.5.3.2 NRCS dimensionless unit hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
10.5.3.3 Accuracy of unit-hydrograph models . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.4 Time-Area Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.5 Kinematic-Wave Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.5.6 Nonlinear-Reservoir Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
10.5.7 Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
10.5.8 Extreme Runoff Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
10.6 Routing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1 Hydrologic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1.1 Modified Puls method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1.2 Muskingum method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
10.6.2 Hydraulic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
10.7 Water-Quality Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
10.7.1 Event-Mean Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

ww 10.7.2 Regression Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7.2.1 USGS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.2.2 EPA model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11 Design of Stormwater-Collection Systems

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11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Street Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.3.1 Curb Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Grate Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.3.3 Combination Inlets . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Slotted Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Roadside and Median Channels . . . . . .
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11.5.1 Calculation of Design Flow Rates .
11.5.2 Pipe Sizing and Selection . . . . . .eer .
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11.5.4 Determination of Impervious Area
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11.5.6 Other Design Considerations . . .
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12 Design of Stormwater-Management Systems

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12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2 Performance Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.1 Quantity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.2 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.3 Design of Stormwater Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1 Storage Impoundments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1.1 Detention basins—Design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
12.3.1.2 Wet detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
12.3.1.3 Dry detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
12.3.1.4 Design of outlet structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.3.1.5 Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
12.3.2 Infiltration Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
12.3.3 Swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
12.3.3.1 Retention swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
12.3.3.2 Biofiltration swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
12.3.4 Vegetated Filter Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

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12.3.5 Bioretention Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

12.3.6 Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
12.3.6.1 General design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
12.3.6.2 Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
12.3.6.3 Design for water-quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
12.3.7 Subsurface Exfiltration Galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
12.4 Selection of SCMs for Water-Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.1 Nonstructural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.2 Structural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.3 Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
12.5 Major Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

13 Estimation of Evapotranspiration 624

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

ww
13.2 Penman–Monteith Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
13.2.1 Aerodynamic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.2 Surface Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.3 Net Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

w.E 13.2.3.1 Shortwave radiation . . .

13.2.3.2 Longwave radiation . . .
13.2.4 Soil Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13.2.5 Latent Heat of Vaporization . . . .
13.2.6 Psychrometric Constant . . . . . .
13.2.7 Saturation Vapor Pressure . . . . .
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13.2.8 Vapor-Pressure Gradient . . . . . .
13.2.9 Actual Vapor Pressure . . . . . . .
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13.2.10 Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Application of the PM Equation . . . . . .
13.4 Potential Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . .
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633
634
637
13.5 Reference Evapotranspiration . . . . . . .
13.5.1 FAO56-Penman–Monteith Method
13.5.2 ASCE Penman–Monteith Method eer .
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13.5.3 Evaporation Pans . . . . . . . . . .
13.5.4 Empirical Methods . . . . . . . . .
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644
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13.6 Actual Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
13.6.1 Index-of-Dryness Method . . . . .
13.6.2 Crop-Coefficient Method . . . . .
13.6.3 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7 Selection of ET Estimation Method . . . .
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651
653
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654
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

14 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology I: Governing Equations 656

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
14.2 Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
14.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
14.2.1.1 Empirical formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
14.2.1.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
14.2.1.3 Anisotropic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
14.2.1.4 Stochastic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
14.3 General Flow Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
14.4 Two-Dimensional Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.1 Unconfined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.2 Confined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
14.5 Flow in the Unsaturated Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696

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xii Contents

15 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology II: Applications 700

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2 Steady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.1 Unconfined Flow Between Two Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.2 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
15.2.3 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
15.2.4 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
15.2.5 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer with Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
15.2.6 Partially Penetrating Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
15.3 Unsteady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.1 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.2 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
15.3.3 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
15.3.4 Other Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4 Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4.1 Multiple Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

ww 15.4.2 Well in Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5 Method of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5.1 Constant-Head Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . .
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w.E 15.5.2 Impermeable Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5.3 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Saltwater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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750
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

16 Design of Groundwater Systems 771

En
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Design of Wellfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16.3 Wellhead Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas
16.3.2 Time-of-Travel Approach . . . . . . . . .
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774
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775

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16.4 Design and Construction of Water-Supply Wells .
16.4.1 Types of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2 Design of Well Components . . . . . . . .
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16.4.2.1 Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.2 Screen intake . . . . . . . . . . . ing
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779
779
16.4.2.3 Gravel pack . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.4 Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.5 Other considerations . . . . . . .
16.4.3 Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.4 Well Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16.5 Design of Aquifer Pumping Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.1 Pumping Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.2 Observation Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
16.5.3 Field Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
16.6 Design of Slug Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
16.7 Design of Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
16.8 Seepage Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

17 Water-Resources Planning 815

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.2 Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.3 Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
17.3.1 Compound-Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
17.3.1.1 Single-payment factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
17.3.1.2 Uniform-series factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

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17.3.1.3 Arithmetic-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

17.3.1.4 Geometric-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
17.3.2 Evaluating Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
17.3.2.1 Present-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
17.3.2.2 Annual-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
17.3.2.3 Rate-of-return analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
17.3.2.4 Benefit–cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

A Units and Conversion Factors 831

A.1 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
A.2 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832

B Fluid Properties 834

B.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834

ww B.2 Organic Compounds Found in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
834
836

w.E
C Statistical Tables
C.1 Areas Under Standard Normal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2 Frequency Factors for Pearson Type III Distribution . . .
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C.3 Critical Values of the Chi-Square Distribution . . . . . . .
C.4 Critical Values for the Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test Statistic
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D.1 Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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843

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D.2 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.2 Evaluation of Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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844
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D.2.2.1 Bessel function of the first kind of order n . . . . . . . .
D.2.2.2 Bessel function of the second kind of order n . . . . . .
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844
845

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D.2.2.3 Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order n . .
D.2.2.4 Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order n
D.2.2.5 Tabulated values of useful Bessel functions . . . . . . .
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845
845

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D.3 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.4 Exponential Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E Pipe Specifications
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848
849

850
E.1 PVC Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.2 Ductile-Iron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.3 Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
E.4 Physical Properties of Common Pipe Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

F Unified Soil Classification System 852

F.1 Definition of Soil Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
F.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Bibliography 854

Index 912

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to discover it. Columbus wrote to the emperor: 'Your Majesty
may be assured that as I know how much you have at heart the
discovery of the great secret of a strait, I shall postpone all
interests and projects of my own for the fulfilment of this great
object.' It was for the purpose of making this discovery that Gil
Gonzalez fitted out the expedition that resulted in the discovery
of Nicaragua.

The interest in the interoceanic communication was not

confined to the Spanish emperor, or his adventurous mariners.
It extended to the learned men of Spain, and seriously engaged
their attention. Francisco Lopez de Gomara, one of the earliest
writers on America, in his chapter on 'the possibility of a shorter
passage to the Moluccas,' in his work on the Two Indies,
published in 1551, says: 'The passage would have to be opened
across the mainland from one sea to the other, by whichever
might prove the most profitable of these four lines; viz., either
by the river Lagartos (Chagres), which, rising in Chagres, at a
distance of four leagues from Panamá, over which space of
territory they proceed in carts, flows to the sea-coast of Nombre
de Dios; or by the channel through which the lake of Nicaragua
empties into the sea; up and down which (the Rio San Juan)
large vessels sail; and the lake is distant only three or four
leagues from the sea; by either of these two rivers the passage
is already traced and half made. There is likewise another river
which flows from Vera Cruz to Tecoantepec, along which the
inhabitants of New Spain (Mexico) tow and drag barks from one
sea to the other. The distance from Nombre de Dios to Panamá
is seventeen leagues, and from the gulf of Urabá to the gulf of
San Miguel twenty-five, which are the two most difficult lines.'
Cortés was in favor of the first of these routes, Gil Gonzalez of
the second, and Pizarro of the third. Herrera, royal
historiographer of Spain, writing of the events of 1527, refers to
the routes via Nicaragua and Panamá, and the possibility of
other connections between the two oceans. Martin Behaim, a
geographer of Nuremberg, Germany, was probably the first who
suggested the possibility of a natural communication between
the Atlantic and Pacific. So Magellan stated in his memorial of
November 28, 1520, to the court of Valladolid, asking
permission to search for such a channel. It was granted, an
expedition was fitted out, and he discovered the Straits of
Magellan, bearing his name.

Soon after the discovery of Nicaragua by Gil Gonzalez, it

was declared and believed by many that there existed a
navigable channel, connecting Lake Nicaragua with the Pacific,
and that vessels would be enabled to pass from one ocean to
the other. But no systematic attempt was made to ascertain the
truth of this conjecture until 1529, when Pedrarias de Ávila,
then governor of Nicaragua, sent an expedition of soldiers and
Indians, under Martin Este, to explore lakes Nicaragua and
Managua; when they had penetrated into a province called
Voto, a little north of Lake Managua, they were attacked by a
large body of Indians, and compelled to return. They reported
that they saw from a mountain top a large body of water
(doubtless the gulf of Fonseca), which they supposed to be
another lake. Don Diego Machuca soon afterward fitted out
another expedition in the same year, which he accompanied and
commanded. It resulted in the discovery of the river San Juan
as the true outlet of the lakes. He sailed down that river to the
Atlantic. Machuca Rapids take their name from him.

Oviedo says that in 1540, at St Domingo,

OVIEDO'S
ACCOUNT.
he met Pedro Cora, a pilot who had been
attached to the expedition of Martin Este, and
subsequently to that of Captain Diego Machuca. He gives a long
and interesting account of the second expedition, as narrated to
him by Cora. Cora said that at the port of Nombre de Dios he
met with some old friends who had built a felucca and
brigantine on the shores of Lake Nicaragua at an expense of
several thousand dollars. Among them was Diego Machuca, who
had been commandant of the country of the Tenderí, and of the
district about Lake Masaya. They embarked on these vessels on
Lake Nicaragua for the purpose of exploring it. Captain
Machuca, with two hundred men, advanced along the shore,
keeping in sight of the boats, which were accompanied by
several canoes. After some days they entered the San Juan
River, and passed down to where its waters appeared to flow
into the sea. Being ignorant of their locality, they followed the
sea-coast in an easterly direction, and finally arrived at Nombre
de Dios, where the pilot Cora met them. They were arrested at
this place by Doctor Robles, who desired to found a colony at
the mouth of the San Juan River, and thus reap the benefit of
their labor and discoveries, 'as is the custom,' says Oviedo, 'with
these men of letters; for the use they do make of their wisdom
is rather to rob than to render justice.' For this outrage he was
deprived of his office. The pilot, though strongly importuned,
refused to tell Oviedo where the river emptied into the ocean.

Oviedo says: 'I do not regard the lakes as separate, because

they connect, the one with the other. They are separated from
the South Sea by a very narrow strip of land.... This lake
(Nicaragua) is filled with excellent fish. But what proves that
they are both one lake is the fact that they equally abound in
sea fish and turtles. Another proof is, that in 1529 there was
found in the province of Nicaragua, on the banks of this lake, a
fish never seen except in the sea, and called the sword-fish. I
have seen some of these fish of so great size that two oxen
attached to a cart could hardly draw them.... The one found on
the shores of this lake was small, being only about twelve feet
in length.... The water of the lake is very good and healthful,
and a large number of small rivers and brooks empty into it. In
some places the great lake is fifteen or twenty fathoms deep,
and in other places it is scarce a foot in depth; so that it is not
navigable in all parts, but only in the middle, and with barks
specially constructed for that purpose.... It has a large number
of islands of some extent, covered with flocks and precious
woods. The largest is eight leagues in circumference, and is
inhabited by Indians. It is very fertile, filled with deer and
rabbits, and named Ometepec, which signifies two mountains. It
formerly contained a population much more numerous than
now, divided into eight or ten villages. The mountain in this
island toward the east (Madeira) is lowest; the other
(Ometepec) is so high that its summit is seldom seen. I passed
a night at a farm belonging to a gentleman called Diego Mora,
situated on the mainland'—probably near the site of Virgin Bay.
'The keeper told me that during the two years he had been in
that place he had seen the summit but once, because it was
covered with clouds.'[XXXIV-59] There are many evidences that
the channel of the San Juan River was once much deeper and
freer from rapids and obstructions than it is at present. At one
time, sea vessels passed regularly up and down the river. It
would be impossible for them to do so now. The river is too
shallow, and the rapids are too many and difficult. In 1648 a
Spanish brig from Carthagena (de la Indias) arrived at Granada,
and discharged her cargo, reloaded, and started on her return.
On her voyage back, the river was found unnavigable at one
point, and the vessel returned to Granada; the cargo was taken
out, and the ship laid up, and finally broken to pieces. Thomas
Gage, an English monk, who visited Nicaragua in 1665, says
that vessels often arrived at Granada, from South America,
Spain, and Cuba, and reloaded and returned to those countries
by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua.

In 1781 Manuel Galisteo, by order of the Spanish

government, examined the country, and carefully surveyed a
route for a canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific. He
estimated the level of the lake above the Pacific to be one
hundred and thirty-four feet. The route selected by him was
from the mouth of the Rio Lajas in the lake to San Juan del Sur.
Early in the present century, a survey was made by an engineer
name Thompson, of which we have no details, further than that
he adopted the report made by Galisteo.

In 1837 Mr Baily was employed by the federal government

of Central America, and made a careful survey of a route for the
canal. He spent much time and a considerable sum of money in
making the surveys, but was never paid for his services. Dr
Andreas Örsted, of Copenhagen, made a survey in 1848, and
published a map of the country. He selected the bay of Bolaños,
thirteen and a half miles from Lake Nicaragua, as the Pacific
terminus of the canal. In 1851 Colonel Childs, an Englishman,
made a thorough survey and estimate of the whole work. He
selected Brito as the Pacific terminus. According to his
estimates, the actual length of water navigation, including the
San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, would be one hundred and
ninety-four and one half miles. He submitted his plan and
surveys to the British government, by which it was referred to
James Walker and Edward Aldrich, royal engineers, who
reported unfavorably. The plan and reports were then laid
before a committee of English capitalists, with the purpose of
raising the necessary capital for the work. But after a careful
investigation, the committee declined to recommend the
enterprise, believing it would be unprofitable, and more for the
benefit of the United States than of Great Britain. This survey,
and the action of the British government upon it, furnish strong
confirmation of the general opinion, as to the purpose of that
government, in seizing Greytown and the bay of Fonseca. A
survey was made in 1850 by the Central American Transit
Company.

After the independence of the Central American states had

been established, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, afterward
governor of Nicaragua, represented to the federal congress, in
July 1823, the urgent necessity for opening the canal without
delay. But no action was then taken in the matter. During the
next year several propositions relative to the construction of the
canal were made to the federal government by parties in
Europe. Barclay & Co., of London, made a proposition, on the
18th of September, 1824, to open a canal, between the Atlantic
and Pacific, by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua,
at their own cost, if the government would assist them in
certain particulars. On the 2d of February, 1825, Charles Bourke
and Matthew Llanos addressed a communication to the
government, stating that in the preceding December they had
sent an armed brig with a party of engineers to Greytown, to
survey the route, and praying that they might be granted: 1. An
exclusive proprietorship and control of the canal; 2. An exclusive
right to navigate the lakes and dependent waters by steam; 3.
Free permission to use all natural products of the country
necessary for the work; 4. Exemption from duty for the goods
and materials introduced by the company during the pendency
of the work. They offered to pay the government twenty per
cent on the tolls received, and to surrender the work at the end
of a certain number of years.

On the 8th of February, 1825, Don

MR. CLAY'S
ASSURANCE.
Antonio José Cañas, then minister from the
federal government to the United States,
addressed a communication to Henry Clay, then secretary of
state, upon the subject of the canal, soliciting the coöperation of
our government in the work, upon the ground that 'its noble
example had been a model and protection to all the Americas,'
and entitled it to a preference over any other nation in the
'merits and advantages of the proposed undertaking.' He
proposed by means of a treaty to effectually secure its
advantages to the two nations. Mr Clay instructed Colonel John
Williams, U. S. chargé d'affaires in Central America, to assure
that government of the great interest taken by the United States
in an undertaking 'so highly calculated to diffuse a favorable
influence on the affairs of mankind,' and to carefully investigate
the facilities afforded by the route, and transmit the intelligence
acquired to our government. Colonel Williams never made any
report of his action under these instructions.

During the year 1825, many other propositions for the

construction of the canal were received by the federal
government from Europe. The attention of the government was
thus strongly attracted to the importance and value of the
proposed canal, both as affording a considerable revenue to the
government, and aiding in the settlement of the country, and
development of its resources. In June 1825, the federal
congress passed a decree defining the terms and conditions
upon which the canal might be constructed. Another decree,
published at the same time, fixed the period of six months for
receiving proposals for the work. The time was much too short,
and but few offers were received. Among them was one from
Mr Baily, the surveyor, as agent for the English house of Barclay,
Herring, Richardson, & Co., which was conditional, and one from
Charles Beninske for Aaron H. Palmer, of New York, which was
accepted. The contractors, under the name of 'The Central
American and United States Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company,'
agreed to open a canal through Nicaragua, which should be
navigable for large ships, and to deposit two hundred thousand
dollars in the city of Granada, within six months, for the
preliminary expenses of the work; to erect fortifications for its
protection; and to commence work within one year. The
contractors were to receive two thirds of the tolls from the canal
until they had been reimbursed for the full cost of the work,
with ten per cent interest; afterwards to have one half of the
proceeds for seven years, with the right to introduce steam-
vessels. The government agreed to place at their disposal all the
documents in its possession relating to the canal; to furnish
laborers at certain wages; and to permit the cutting and use of
the timber in the country. If the canal was not completed, all
the work done was to be forfeited to the government. This
contract was dated June 14, 1826. The contractors had not
sufficient capital for the construction of the canal, and failing to
obtain it in New York, addressed a memorial to the United
States congress, praying the assistance of the government in
their work, which they represented to be of national
importance. The memorial was referred to a committee, but
never reported on. The enterprise excited considerable attention
in New York, and the grant obtained from the federal
government of Central America was believed to be valuable. Mr
Palmer executed a deed of trust to De Witt Clinton, Stephen Van
Renssalaer, C. D. Clinton, Phillip Hone, and Lynde Catlin,
constituting them directors of the company which was being
organized for the construction of the canal. Mr Palmer went to
England in 1827, and endeavored, but without success, to
obtain the coöperation of English capitalists. All his efforts were
ineffectual, the necessary capital could not be raised, and the
enterprise was abandoned. Mr Clay, then secretary of state,
earnestly advocated the construction of the canal, believing it
would be of great advantage to this country.

In 1828 an association of capitalists in the Netherlands,

under the patronage of the king of Holland, undertook the
construction of the canal. In 1829 the king sent General Verveer,
as plenipotentiary to Guatemala, with special instructions
relative to the canal. In October of the same year,
commissioners were appointed by the federal government to
confer with General Verveer, and on the 24th of July, 1830, they
agreed upon a plan, which was to be laid before the federal
congress for its approval. The conditions were much the same
as in the contract with Mr Palmer. The revolution in Belgium,
and the separation of Holland, terminated this enterprise. The
federal congress had been stimulated to greater anxiety for the
construction of the canal by these various proposals and
contracts, and believing that there was more likelihood of its
being made by the Dutch company than any other, in 1832
made ineffectual efforts to renew negotiations with Holland for
reviving that company, and enabling it to complete its contract.
 In the mean time, the efforts and representations of Mr
Clay, De Witt Clinton, and other distinguished men had
awakened public interest in the people and government of the
United States in the proposed canal, and convinced them that it
was important that our government should, if possible, control
the work, and reap the benefits and advantages which it was
believed would result to our commerce from it. On the 3d of
March, 1835, the United States senate adopted a resolution,
requesting the president to consider the expediency of opening
negotiations with the Central American states and New Granada
for protecting by treaty stipulations companies undertaking to
open a canal across the Isthmus, connecting the two oceans,
and of securing its free and equal navigation to all nations. By
virtue of this resolution, President Jackson appointed Charles
Biddle, and directed him to go to San Juan del Norte, and
thence across the Isthmus to the Pacific, by the proposed route;
to proceed to Guatemala, the capital, and with the aid of Mr De
Witt Clinton, U. S. chargé d'affaires, obtain all public papers,
and copies of the laws passed, and all papers and information
relating to the canal. He was also to go to Panamá, and
ascertain all about that route. Mr Biddle did not go to Nicaragua,
and died soon after his return to the United States. His mission
was a failure.

The government of Central America now

ACTION OF THE
GOVERNMENT.
determined to survey the route for the canal,
and thus demonstrate to the world its
practicability. In 1837 President Morazan employed Mr John
Baily to survey the route, which he did, as already stated. In
1838 a convention between Nicaragua and Honduras authorized
Peter Bouchard to make an agreement in France for the
organization of a company to construct the canal. He did not
succeed in accomplishing anything. Don Jorge Viteri, bishop of
San Salvador, was sent as ambassador to Rome, and make like
efforts, but without success. In the same year, a company of
Americans in New York and New Orleans sent Mr George
Holdship to Central America. He made a contract with
Nicaragua, which had seceded from the federal republic, for the
construction of a canal, the establishment of a bank, and the
introduction of colonists. This scheme was extensive, but
amounted to nothing, as the enterprise was soon abandoned.

In 1838, Aaron Clark, Herman Leroy, William A. Duer,

Matthew Carey, and William Radcliff, citizens of New York and
Philadelphia, addressed a memorial to congress, representing
the necessity for the opening of the interoceanic canal. It was
referred to a committee, of which Hon. Charles F. Mercer was
chairman, who, upon the 2d of March, 1839, reported upon it,
recommending the following resolution, which was adopted:

'Resolved, That the president of the United States be

requested to consider the expediency of opening or continuing
negotiations with the governments of other nations; and
particularly with those the territorial jurisdiction of which
comprehends the Isthmus of Panamá, and to which the United
States have accredited ministers or agents, for the purpose of
ascertaining or effecting a communication between the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, by the construction of a ship-canal; and of
securing forever, by suitable treaty stipulations, the free and
equal rights of navigating such canal to all nations, on the
payment of reasonable tolls.' The president and senate, acting
under this resolution, negotiated and made a treaty between
the United States and New Granada, by which our government
guaranteed the neutrality of the Isthmus, and New Granada
conceded a free transit across it. The Panamá Railroad Company
was organized by virtue of this treaty; and, as we all know, the
existing railroad across the Isthmus was built by them; with
what labor, and cost in money and human life, it is foreign to
our purpose to inquire.

Between the years 1838 and 1844, Central America was

distracted by civil wars, and all action relative to the canal was
suspended. In 1844, Don Francisco Castellon, minister from the
republic of Nicaragua to France, made a contract with a Belgian
company, acting under the patronage of the king of Belgium, for
the construction of the canal. But this contract was as
unsuccessful as its predecessors. In 1846, Mr Marcoleta,
Nicaraguan chargé d'affaires to Belgium, made a contract with
Louis Napoleon (the present French emperor), then a prisoner
at Ham, for its construction. With his characteristic vanity, he
stipulated that it should be called 'Canal Napoleon de
Nicaragua.' Napoleon wrote and published a pamphlet in
London, upon the subject, and made a feeble attempt to
awaken the attention of capitalists, but without success. His
pamphlet had only a limited circulation, but was afterward
republished by M. Belly. On the 16th of February, 1849, William
Wheelright made a proposition in behalf of an English company
for the construction of the canal, but it was not acted upon.

On the 14th of March, 1849, Mr D. T. Brown, in behalf of

certain citizens of New York, and General Muñoz, commissioner
for Nicaragua, entered into a contract for the construction of a
canal, but it was neither ratified by the executive of that
republic nor by the company in New York, within the stipulated
time. The seizure of Greytown by the English, in 1848, and the
pretext of a Mosquito protectorate, were rightly regarded by the
Nicaraguan government and our own, as directed to obtaining
command and permanent control and dominion over the only
possible route for an interoceanic canal.
 On the 21st of June, 1849, Mr Hise, U. S. chargé d'affaires
to Nicaragua, concluded a convention with commissioners
appointed by that republic, giving the United States a perpetual
right of way through that republic, of erecting forts, and
protecting the transit. This convention was not approved by our
own government, or by that of Nicaragua. On the 4th of March,
1850, General Taylor was inaugurated president of the United
States, and soon after sent Mr E. G. Squier to Central America
to supersede Mr Hise, as chargé d'affaires to Guatemala, with
special commissions to the other states of Central America,
"with full power to treat with them separately on all matters
affecting their relations with this republic." Upon his arrival in
Nicaragua, Mr Squier found an agent of Cornelius Vanderbilt,
and others of New York, who was endeavoring to obtain a grant
from that government for the construction of a canal. The
government was at first indisposed to listen to his overtures,
until assured by Mr Squier that the United States government
would guarantee any charter, not inconsistent with our public
policy, that might be granted by Nicaragua.

On the 27th of August, 1850, a contract was signed

between the government of Nicaragua and the agent of the
New York company, and afterward ratified on the 23d of
September following, containing the following provisions, viz.:

1. That the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal

Company may construct a ship-canal, at its own expense, from
San Juan to Realejo, or any other point within the territory of
Nicaragua, on the Pacific, and make use of all lands, waters, or
natural materials of the country for the enterprise.

2. The canal shall be large enough to admit vessels of all

sizes.
 3. The grant is for eighty-five years from the completion of
the work; the surveys to be commenced within twelve months;
the work to be completed within twelve years, unless
interrupted by unforeseen events. If not completed within the
stipulated time, the charter will be forfeited, and all work done
shall revert to the state. At the end of eighty-five years the
canal shall revert to the state; the company, nevertheless, shall
receive fifteen per cent annually of the net profits for ten years
thereafter, if the entire cost of the canal does not exceed twenty
million dollars; but if it does, then it shall receive the same
percentage for twenty years thereafter.

4. The company to pay the state ten thousand dollars per

annum, during the progress of the work, and to give it two
hundred thousand dollars of the capital stock, and to pay twenty
per cent of the net profits for twenty years, and twenty-five per
cent thereafter.

5. The company to have the exclusive

FURTHER
CONTRACT
right to navigate the interior waters of
PROVISIONS. Nicaragua by steam, and within twelve years
to open any land or other route, by means of
transit or conveyance across the state, and pay ten per cent of
the net profits of such transit to the state, and transport on
such transit, and the canal, when finished, the officers and
employés of the republic free of charge.

6. The canal to be open to the vessels of all nations.

7. The contract and the rights and privileges conceded by it

to be held inalienably by the individuals composing the
company.

8. All disputes shall be settled by commissioners appointed

in a specified manner.
 9. All machinery and other articles introduced by the
company into the state, for its own use, to enter free of duty;
and all persons in its employ to enjoy all the privileges of
citizenship, without being subject to taxation or military service.

10. The state concedes to the company, for purposes of

colonization, eight sections of land, on the line of the canal, in
the valley of the river San Juan, each six miles square, and at
least three miles apart, with the right of alienating the same
under certain reservations. All settlers on these lands to be
subject to the laws of the republic, being, however, for ten years
exempt from all taxes and from all public service so soon as
each colony shall contain fifty settlers.

On the same day Mr Squier negotiated a treaty with

Nicaragua, which provided that citizens, vessels, and
merchandise of the United States should be exempt from duty
in the ports of Nicaragua; and that citizens of the United States
should have a right of way through the republic. The
government of the United States agreed to protect the company
in the full enjoyment of its rights from the inception to the
termination of its grant. The rights, privileges, and immunities
granted to the government and citizens of the United States
shall not accrue to any other government, unless it first enter
into the same treaty stipulations with Nicaragua as the United
States has done. This treaty was ratified by the Nicaraguan
legislative chambers on the 23d of September following, but
was not acted upon by the United States senate, to which it was
sent by President Taylor. This treaty was opposed by the British
minister at Washington, who energetically exerted himself to
secure its defeat.

The Clayton-Bulwer treaty between the United States and

England guaranteed the neutrality of the canal, and both
governments agreed to protect any company undertaking the
work. The object of our government in this convention was to
put an end to the Mosquito protectorate.

In August 1850 the company sent a party of engineers from

New York to Nicaragua to survey a route from Lake Nicaragua to
the Pacific, near the line taken by Galisteo and Baily. Soon
afterwards the steamer Director was sent from New York to
Lake Nicaragua, and smaller boats were sent to the San Juan
River. A new road was opened to the Pacific from Virgin Bay on
the lake to San Juan del Sur. A line of steamers was established
from New York to Greytown, and from San Juan del Sur to San
Francisco.

The new contract made with United States citizens, and

ratified and enforced by treaty with our own government, was
not consistent with the wishes or policy of Great Britain, but the
generosity of our government in throwing open the proposed
canal to all nations disarmed hostile criticism, and deprived
Europe of any pretext for opposition or protest. It quickened
England into new energy, in the assertion of her claims under
the Mosquito protectorate. On the 15th of August, 1850, the
British consular representative in Central America addressed a
note to the Nicaraguan government, in which he stated the
boundary claimed by his government as follows: 'The
undersigned, her Britannic Majesty's chargé d'affaires in Central
America, with this view, has the honor to declare to the minister
of foreign relations of the supreme government of Nicaragua,
that the general boundary line of the Mosquito territory begins
at the northern extremity of the boundary line between the
district of Tegucigalpa in Honduras, and the jurisdiction of New
Segovia; and after following the northern frontiers of New
Segovia it runs along the south-eastern limits of the district of
Matagalpa and Chontales, and thence in an easterly course,
until it reaches the Machuca Rapids, to the river San Juan.' If
this boundary line had been allowed, as claimed, it would have
placed the only possible route for the proposed canal in the
occupation and control of Great Britain. Daniel Cleveland's
Across the Nicaragua Transit, MS., 118-42.
 INDEX.

Aa, P. V., works of, ii. 745-6.

Abibeiba, Cacique, domain of, invaded, 1512, i. 352.

Ábrego, F., bishop of Pan., 1569-74, ii. 474-5.

Acajutla, battle of, 1524, i. 670-3.

Acala, province, Dominicans in, 1550-5, ii. 360; invasion of, ii.
365.

'Accessory Transit Company,' mention of, iii. 341-2; iii. 667-8.

Acla, name, i. 418; founding of, 1515, i. 418; massacre at,

1516, i. 441; town of, laid out, i. 441; abandoned, ii. 396.

Acosta, J., 'Compendio,' ii. 62.

Agriculture, in Cent. Amer., iii. 650-5.

Aguado, J., commissioner of inquiry, 1494, i. 176.

Aguilar, E., president of Salv., 1846, iii. 291-2.

Aguilar, Friar G. de, shipwreck, etc., of, 1512, i. 350; rescue,
1519, i. 350.

Aguilar, G. de, bravery of, i. 688-9.

Aguilar, M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; mission of, 1828, iii. 180;
jefe of C. R., 1837-8, iii. 183.

Aguilar, V., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; vice-president of C. R.,

1859, iii. 373.

Ahuachapan, siege of, 1876, iii. 403-5.

Ahzumanche, Prince, death of, i. 637.

Aillon, L. V. de, exped. of, 1520, i. 138; 1523, i. 142-3.

Alarcon, H. de, exped. of, 1540, i. 153.

Albites, D. de, mission to Nicuesa, 1510, i. 331-3; exped. of,

1515, i. 404-5; battle with Darien Indians, 1516, i. 425;
further expeditions, i. 429-30, 471; founds Nombre de Dios,
i. 471; in command at Natá, i. 508; gov. of Hond., 1532, ii.
155; death, ii. 155.

Albuquerque, A. de, voyage of, 1503, i. 121.

Alcaine, M., intercession of, 1855, iii. 261.

Alcalde, office of, i. 297-8.

Alcántara, M. de, death of, ii. 41.

Alcazaba, S. de, exped. of, 1534, i. 150.

Alcedo y Herrera, D. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 584.

Alderete, ——, gov. of Pan., 1725-30, ii. 583.

Alfaro, F., revolt of, 1842, iii. 219.

Alfaro, J. M., jefe of C. R., 1842, iii. 224, 226; 1846, iii. 227-8.

Almagro, D. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; character,

etc., of, ii. 3-4; Pizarro's exped. to Peru, ii. 4-8, 19, 35-40;
death, ii. 40.

Almagro, D. de jun., assassination of Pizarro, ii. 40-1; execution

of, ii. 42.

Almansa, F., mention of, iii. 38.

Altamirano, Friar D., advice to Cortés, i. 580-1.

Altamirano, J. C., bishop of Guat., 1611-15, ii. 664.

Alvarado, D. de, exped. of, 1530, ii. 121.

Alvarado, G. de, battle of Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673; capture of

Mixco, 1525, i. 687; conquest of the Mames, 1525, i. 695-
702; revolt caused by, ii. 79-80.

Alvarado, J. de, gov. of Guat., 1527, ii. 95, 104-5; executor of P.

de Alvarado, ii. 207-8.

Alvarado, P. de, conquest of Guat., 1522-4, i. 617-62; of

Itzcuintlan, 1524, i. 663-5; invasion of Salv., i. 669-76; the
Cackchiquel revolts, 1525-6, i. 681-92; ii. 74-85; conquest
of the Mames, i. 695-702; exped. to Peru, ii. 38-9, 122-30;
return to Mex., ii. 85-6; trial of, ii. 100-4; marriage, ii. 102;
return to Guat., 1530, ii. 116-17; residencia, etc., of, ii. 131-
2; exped. to Hond., 1535-6, ii. 160-5; 1539, ii. 296-9;
departs for Spain, ii. 165; crown grant to, 1538, ii. 203;
 exped. of, 1539-41, ii. 203-7; death, ii. 207; will, ii. 207-9;
character, ii. 209-11; offspring, ii. 211-12.

Álvarez, Gen. M., capture, etc., of Walker, 1860, iii. 364.

Alzayaga, J. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 685-6.

Alzuru, Col, revolt, etc., of, 1831, iii. 514.

Amar y Borbon, A., viceroy of New Gran., 1803, iii. 491.

Amatique Bay, discovery of, ii. 650.

Amedzaga, J. H. de, gov. of Pan., 1711-16, ii. 583.

America, aborigines of, i. 59-68; sighted by Biarne, 986, i. 76;

discovery of claimed by Arabs, 1147, i. 78; name of, i. 291-
2.

'American Coast Pilot', ii. 758.

Amézqueta, B. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 686-7.

Anacaona, Queen, execution of, i. 259-60.

Añaquito, battle of, 1546, ii. 254.

Andagoya, P. de, exped. to Birú, 1522, i. 139, 502-3; joins

Pedrarias, i. 391; works, etc., of, i. 503-4; ii. 247.

Andrés, Cacique, guide to Sharp's exped., 1680, ii. 520-3.

Angel, Doña M., imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 697-701.

Angulo, Father, bishop of Vera Paz, 1559, ii. 374.

Añino, U., gov. of Pan., 1854, iii. 518; protest of, iii. 518-19.
Aniñon, F. de, memorial of, ii. 398-9.

Anson, Capt. G., exped. of, 1739-44, ii. 592-3.

Antigua, founded by Enciso, 1510, i. 327-8; Balboa in command

at, i. 328-30, 338-57; Nicuesa at, i. 334-5; factions in, i.
338-40; growth of, i. 341; prosperity of, i. 385; ranked as a
city, 1514, i. 391; scarcity at, i. 396; Indian outbreaks near,
1522, i. 476; abandoned, 1521-4, i. 499.

Antonelli, Surveyor J. G., rept of, ii. 399.

Apaneca, battle of, 1876, iii. 403-4.

Apochpalon, Cacique, meeting with Cortés, etc., 1524, i. 547-50,

557.

'Appendix to Sharp's South Sea Waggoner,' MS., ii. 758.

Aquino, A., revolt of, 1833, iii. 168.

Arada, battle of, 1850, iii. 279-80.

Arana, Licentiate T. I. de, rept of, ii. 707.

Aransivia y Sasi, S. de, gov. of Nic., 1721, ii. 607.

Arbolancha, P. de, Balboa's envoy to Spain, 1514, i. 384-5; delay

of, i. 392; reception, i. 393.

Arce, M. J., imprisonment of, iii. 20; defeats Padilla, iii. 58;
president of Nic., 1825, iii. 80; rule, iii. 82-94; 'Memoria,' iii.
107; defeat of, 1832, iii. 113; pacification of Nic., 1825, iii.
172; invasion of Salv., 1844, iii. 190-1.

'Archives of the Indies,' i. 195-6.

Arellano, J. R. de, bishop of Guat., 1601, ii. 663-4.

Argüello, F. de, aids Balboa, i. 441, 450; execution of, 1517, i.

457-9.

Argüello, J., vice-jefe of Nic., 1825, iii. 173; contest with Cerda,
iii. 174.

Aguilar, V., execution of Mora, 1860, iii. 376; death of, iii. 376.

Arias, C., provis. president of Hond., 1872-4, iii. 457-60.

Arias, G., exped. of, 1529, ii. 109.

Aristocrats, attitude, etc., of, in Guat., 1848, iii. 274-6, 281.

Ariza, Don A. de, 'Comentas,' ii. 481; gov. of Pan., 1774, ii. 582.

Ariza y Torres, Capt. R., revolt of, 1823, iii. 72-3.

Aizpuru, Gen. R., revolt of, 1873, iii. 538; revolution of, 1875, iii.
541-2; 1878, iii. 543; president of Pan., iii. 542; occupation
of Pan., 1885, iii. 554; arrest, etc., of, iii. 554-5.

Armies, of Cent. Amer., iii. 645-9.

Arosemena, M., works, etc., of, iii. 489.

Arrazola, affair at, 1827, iii. 91.

Arteaga, B. de, storming of Mixco, 1525, i. 691.

Arteaga y Avendaño, J. de, bishop of Chiap., etc., 1538, ii. 330;

death, ii. 330.

Arzú, Brigadier M., exped. of, 1822, iii. 60-1; operations of,
1828, iii. 94.
Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, see Congress, Central
American.

Aspinwall, see Colon.

Astaburuaga, F. S., 'Repúblicas de Centro-América,' iii. 361.

Atahualpa, Inca, Pizarro's invasion, ii. 19-20; capture, etc., of, ii.
21-32; ransom, ii. 32-6; execution, ii. 36-8.

Atiquipac, Alvarado at, 1524, i. 666.

Atitlan, enslavement of natives in, ii. 234-5.

Atlacatl, King, submission of, 1524, i. 674.

Audiencias, description of, i. 270-3.

Audiencia of the Confines, establd. 1543, ii. 241; jurisd. ii. 241;
personnel, ii. 301; seat of the, ii. 301, 310, 370, 400; iii.
326; dispute with Las Casas, etc., ii. 303-7; dissensions,
1696-1702, ii. 661-3.

Audiencia of Los Reyes, establd. 1543, ii. 241; jurisd. ii. 241.

Audiencia of Panamá, establd. 1533, ii. 57; jurisd., etc., ii. 57-8,
585; abolished, 1533, ii. 241; reëstabld. ii. 464.

Audiencia of Santo Domingo, establd. 1526, i. 269; personnel, i.

269-70; jurisd. i. 270.

Aury, Commodore, capture of Trujillo, 1820, iii. 24-5.

Ávalos, J. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 571-2.

Avendaño, Father A. de, mission to the Itzas, 1695, ii. 689-90.

Avendaño, D. de, president of Guat., 1642-9, ii. 653.

Aycinena, M., jefe of Guat., 1827, iii. 150-2.

Aycinena, P., acting president of Guat., 1865, iii. 413.

Ayora, J. de., exped. of, 1514, i. 396-402; outrages of, i. 399-

402; escape, i. 402.

Ayuntamientos, functions, etc., of, iii. 8-10; votes of on union

with Mex., 1821, iii. 53-4.

Ayza, J. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 608.

Azmitia, J. A., cabinet minister, 1845, iii. 268-9, 272.

Bacalar, fort built at, ii. 625.

Bachicao, H., exped. to Pan., ii. 254-5.

Bachiller, definition, etc., of word, i. 297.

Badajoz, Capt. G. de, joins Pedrarias' exped. 1514, i. 390;

exped. of, 1515, i. 412-17; defeat, i. 415-17; meeting with
Espinosa, i. 420-1.

Badillo, J. de, exped., etc., of, 1537, ii. 54-7.

Balboa, V. N. de, character, i. 324, 454-5; early career, i. 324-5;

gov. of Antigua, i. 329-30, 338-56; diplomacy, etc., of, i.
338-40; exped. against Careta, i. 354-6; visit to Comagre, i.
347-9; Panciaco's story, i. 347-8; exped. to Dabaiba, 1512,
 i. 351-2; defeats confederated tribes, i. 353; charges
against, i. 356-7; crosses the Isthmus of Darien, i. 358-74;
defeats Porque, i. 363-4; discovers the South Sea, etc.,
1513, i. 129, 364-73; encounter with Chiapes, i. 369; canoe
voyage of, i. 374-5; Tumaco's story, etc., i. 375-7; return to
Antigua, i. 378-84; pacifies Teoca, i. 378; cruelty to Poncra,
i. 379-80; Pocorosa's statement, i. 381; captures
Tubanamá, i. 381-3; sickness at Comagre, i. 383; spoils of
exped., i. 384-5; superseded by Pedrarias, 1514, i. 393-4;
trial of, i. 395; exped., 1515, i. 406-7; feud with Dávila, i.
432-3, 437; capt.-gen. of Coiba and Pan., i. 435; betrothal,
i. 439; reëstablishes Acla, 1516, i. 441; ship-building on the
Balsas, 1517, i. 441-5; at the Pearl Islands, i. 445-52; fate
of, forecast, i. 447-8; arrest of, i. 452-3; trial, i. 456-7;
execution, 1517, i. 457-9.

Balsas, Rio de las, ship-building on the, 1517, i. 442-5.

Barahona, Admiral J. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7.

Barbacoas, Morgan at, 1671, ii. 499.

Barillas, M. L., president of Guat., 1886, iii. 451-2; cabinet, iii.

452.

Barker, A., exped. to Hond., 1576, ii. 637-8.

Barranco, ——, bishop of Hond., 1811-19, iii. 631.

Barrientos, Vicar P. de, mention of, 1576, ii. 374.

Barriere, P., proceedings of, iii. 45.

Barrionuevo, Capt. F. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 46, 51.

Barrios, Gen. G., defence of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; at San Miguel,
iii. 201; operations of, 1857, iii. 300; pronunciamiento, etc.,
 of, iii. 301; coup d'état, iii. 302; president of Salv., iii. 302;
operations, 1863, iii. 304-6; besieged at San Salv., iii. 306;
capture and execution, 1865, iii. 307.

Barrios, J. R., revolution of, 1871, iii. 419-24; president of Guat.,

1873-85, iii. 429-49; invasion of Salv., 1876, iii. 402-5;
1885, iii. 409-10; efforts for confed. of Cent. Amer., 1883-5,
iii. 442-9; quarrel with Soto, 1883, iii. 467-8; character, iii.
431-2; attempted assassination of, iii. 443-4; death, 1885,
iii. 410, 449.

Barrios y Leal, president of Guat., 1688-95, ii. 659-61; exped. of,

1695, ii. 682-4; death, ii. 685.

Barroeta, R., vice-president of C. R., 1872, iii. 381-2.

Barrundia, J. F., imprisonment, etc., of, iii. 18-19; revolutionary

measures, iii. 33, 86-7; jefe of Guat., 1824, iii. 146; rule, iii.
146-8; president, 1829, iii. 102; rule, iii. 102-12;
negotiations with Carrera, iii. 129-30.

Baskerville, Sir T., defeat of, 1595, ii. 422.

Bastidas, R. de, exped., etc., of, 1500-2, i. 114, 183-94; biog., i.

195.

Battles, Tonalá, 1524, i. 628; Xelahuh, 1524, i. 639-41; Acajutla,

1524, i. 670-3; Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673-4; Iztapa, 1524, ii.
216-17; Canales, 1526, ii. 83; Patinamit, 1526, ii. 84;
Panamá, 1671, ii. 504-6; Villanueva, 1838, iii. 135-6; Arada,
1850, iii. 279-80; Santa Ana, 1871, iii. 395-6; Apaneca,
1876, iii. 403-4; Pasaquina, 1876, iii. 404; Naranjo, 1876,
iii. 462.

Bay Islands, colony of, establd. 1850, iii. 319.

Bayano, ——, campaign of, ii. 387-8.

Bazan, J. de V., gov. of Pan., ii. 479; rule, ii. 479-80.

Beatriz, Doña, grief of, ii. 311-12; gov. of Guat., 1541, ii. 312-
13; death, ii. 317.

Becerra, F., exped. of, destroyed, 1515, i. 403.

Behaim, M., map of globe, 1492, i. 93.

Belen River, Columbus at, 1503, i. 218-19.

Belen, village, Nicuesa's exped. at, 1510, i. 305-6.

Belgium, colonization scheme in Guat., iii. 589-90.

Belize, origin of name, ii. 624; woodcutters in, ii. 624-35;

Figueroa's exped. to, ii. 624-8; map, ii. 627; English claims,
ii. 629-31; treaties concerning, ii. 632-4; O'Neill's exped. to,
1798, ii. 635; iii. 314; rights of settlers in, iii. 313-14;
commerce, etc., of, iii. 317.

Belly, F., works of, iii. 263.

Benalcazar, Capt. S. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391;

conquest of Peru, ii. 15, 26, 38-9.

Bienvenida, Friar L. de, mission to C. R., 1540, ii. 185.

Benzoni, G., exped. to C. R., 1545, ii. 192-9; works, etc., of, ii.
232-3.

Berenger, 'Collection,' ii. 751-2.

Berlanga, Friar T. de, alleged miracle, etc., of, 1537, ii. 59.

Bermejo, J., the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 274-86; defeat at

Pan., ii. 284-6; death, ii. 286.
Berrospe, G. S. de, president of Guat., 1696-1701, ii. 661-2.

Betanzos, D. de, convent founded by, 1529, ii. 135-6.

Betanzos, Father P. A. de, labors of, 1555-70, ii. 432-3.

Bethlehemites, in Guat., ii. 666-7.

Biamonte y Navarra, J. B. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 480.

Birú, Andagoya's exped. to, 1522, i. 502-3.

Birues, de, exped. of, 1515, i. 407.

Blanco, M., pronunciamiento of, 1868, iii. 378.

Blewfields, population, etc., of, 1847, iii. 249.

Bobadilla, Commissioner F. de, proceedings of, at Española,

1500-2, i. 180-1, 248-9; enslavement of natives, i. 266.

Bobadilla, Friar F. de, labors of, in Nic., ii. 184-5.

Bobadilla, J. F., gov. of C. R., 1780, ii. 622.

Bogran, Gen. L., president of Hond., 1883, iii. 468.

Bolivar, S., congress at Pan., 1826, iii. 511-12; at Angostura, iii.

513.

Bonnycastle, R. H., 'Spanish America,' iii. 248.

Bordone, B., map of, 1528, i. 144.

Borland, S., U. S. minister, interference of, iii. 255.

Bosch, L. van der, writings of, ii. 745.

Botello, L., execution of, 1517, i. 457-9.

Boucher, G., 'Bibliothèque Universelle,' ii. 760.

Bourbourg, B. de, 'Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique,' i.

201.

Bradley, Capt., foray on the Hacha, 1670, ii. 491; captures San
Lorenzo, ii. 494-6.

Brigantine, picture of, i. 189.

Briones, Capt., exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 525; treachery of, i.

526; Olid's assassination, i. 531-3; execution of, i. 534.

Briones, J. A. L. de, gov. of Nic., 1744, ii. 607.

Buccaneering, origin of, ii. 451-3.

Buccaneers, name, ii. 452; mode of life, ii. 454-6; excesses,

etc., of, ii. 489-90.

Buena Esperanza, founding of, 1535, ii. 157; abandoned, 1536,

ii. 161-2.

Buitrago, P., director of Nic., 1841-3, iii. 238-9.

Bure, G. F. de, 'Bibliographique Instructive,' ii. 760.

Burnaby, Sir W., mission to Belize, ii. 630.

Burney, J., works of, ii. 753.

Bustamante y Guerra, Gen. J., capt.-gen. of Guat., 1811, iii. 6;

biog., iii. 6-7; rule, iii. 6-21.
 C

Caballon, Licentiate J. de, defeats Gaitan, 1554, ii. 425; exped.

of, 1560-2, ii. 425-6.

Caballos, Puerto de, name, i. 519; L'Olonnois' raid on, ii. 458.

Cabañas, T., siege of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; at San Miguel, iii. 201;
defeat at Quelepa, iii. 202; president of Hond., 1852-5, iii.
321-2; character, etc., iii. 321.

Cabello, D., gov. of Nic., 1766, ii. 608.

Cabezas Islands, Drake at, ii. 407-8, 414, 416.

Cabezas, R., jefe of Guat., 1830, iii. 153; biog., iii. 153-4.

Cabot, J., voyage of, i. 98-9.

Cabot, S., voyages of, i. 98-9, 108-9, 143.

Cabral, P. A., voyage of, 1500, i. 113-14.

Cabrera, P., surprised by Verdugo, ii. 263.

Cáceres, Capt., captures Lempiras's stronghold, 1537, ii. 291-2;

treachery of, ii. 291-2.

Cackchiquel, map of, i. 629.

Cakchiquels, power, etc., of the, i. 621; subjugation, 1524, i.

652-7; revolt of the, 1524-5, i. 681-92; 1526, ii. 79-85;
1534, ii. 130.

Cacos, party, iii. 26-7; revolutionary movements, iii. 33; policy,

iii. 42-3.
Caibil Balam, Cacique, submission of, 1525, i. 702.

Caicedo, J. de, mention of, i. 333.

Calancha, J. L., president of Pan., 1864-5, iii. 533.

Cáldas, S. A. A. R. de, president of Guat., 1667-70, ii. 658-9.

Cáldas, President, 'Copia de Carta,' ii. 761-2.

Calderon, A., bishop of Pan., ii. 475.

Calimaya, Conde S. de, president of Guat., 1654, ii. 657.

Calvo, B., gov. of Pan., 1856, iii. 527-8.

Camachire, Cacique, torture, etc., of, ii. 194-5.

Cámara y Raya, bishop of Pan., 1614, ii. 477-8.

Camargo, A. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 151.

Camargo, M. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607.

Cambranes, F., bishop of Guat., ii. 378.

Campbell, Capt., the Scots' colony, ii. 578-9.

Campo, R., president of Salv., 1856, iii. 300-2.

Campoy, F. de P., bishop of Hond., 1841, iii. 631.

Camus, A. G., works of, ii. 760.

Can, M. F., embassy of, 1695, ii. 689.

Cana, sack of, ii. 586.

Canales, battle of, 1526, ii. 83.

Cañas, A. J., minister to U. S., 1825, iii. 81.

Cañas, J., ruler of Salv., 1840, iii. 143.

Cañas, Gen. J. M., mention of, iii. 345-6; execution of, iii. 376.

Cancer, Friar L., labors in Vera Paz, etc., ii. 353-5; exped. to
Flor., ii. 355-6; martyrdom, 1549, ii. 356; biog., ii. 357.

Cancuc, revolt at, 1712, ii. 697-704.

Candia, P. de, conquest of Peru, ii. 11, 13.

Cano, Friar A., mission of, 1685, ii. 680.

Capac, M., inca of Peru, ii. 38; revolt of, ii. 39; defeat of, ii. 40.

Carabajal, D. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7.

Caravel, picture of, i. 187.

Carbajal, Friar A. de, bishop of Pan., 1605-11, i. 476-7.

Carbajal, R. de, mission to Pan., ii. 256-7; gov. of Pan., 1779, ii.
584.

Cárcamo y Rodriguez, bishop of Salv., iii. 632.

Cárdenas, A., president of Nic., 1883, iii. 485.

Cárdenas, Father T. de, bishop of Vera Paz, 1565, ii. 374-5.

Cardona, J. de L., founds Quezaltenango, 1524, i. 638.

Careta, Cacique, capture, etc., of, 1511, i. 343-6; friendship for

Balboa, i. 359, 399; cruel treatment of, i. 399-400.
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