Chapter nineteen Growth and development

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

Growth is defined as the irreversible increase in size and dry weight of an organism. The word
irreversible is used because growth is a permanent change. The distention of the stomach after a
meal cannot be considered as growth because it is not permanent. Growth is a characteristic of all
living things. Non-living things do not grow. Growth is brought about by three processes,
1. Cell division. The cells divide by mitosis to increase in number.
2. Cell elongation. The new cells produced in cell division elongate causing an increase in
the size of the organism.
3. Cell differentiation. The cells then undergo structural and physiological changes in order
to be suited for a particular function in the organism. During differentiation, the cells get
specialized to perform particular functions in the organism.
Development.
This is increase in complexity of an organism. After its birth, the baby grows to increase in size.
It also develops and becomes more complex in structure and functioning. Increase in height and
weight in a baby is growth but starting to walk, talk, and presence of teeth is development.
Growth and development occur co-currently within the organism.
Measurement of growth.
The rate of growth can be estimated by measuring a particular growth parameter over a period of
time. The parameter chosen should be suitable for that particular organism. In bacteria growth is
estimated by counting the number of cells in a given time. In man and other mammals growth is
estimated by measuring linear dimension and weight.
Two types of weight are recognized when estimating growth.
1. Flesh weight/mass.
This is the mass of a living organism including all its moisture content. It is an easy way to
estimate growth and it does not involve killing of the organism. On the other hand it gives crude
results.
2. Dry weight/mass.
This is the mass of an organism after all moisture is removed. This gives an accurate measure of
growth but it involves killing of the organism during dehydration. It is also not easy to carry out.
Growth curve.
This is a graph which shows the change of a given growth parameter with time. This graph is S-
shaped in most living organisms and it is called the sigmoid curve.

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The growth curve.

Growth
parameter
2 4
1 3

Time
The curve shows 4 phases.
1. Lag phase.
This is a period of slow growth. It is the first phase of growth where there are very few cells
dividing and the organism is getting used to the environment.
2. The exponential phase.
This is a phase of rapid growth. It is the second phase where the cells dividing are many and the
organism is used to the environment.
3. Decelerating growth phase.
This is a period where growth slows down. The deceleration in growth may be due to;
1. Competition for food, space and other resources.
2. The organism is preparing for reproduction.
3. The organism is aging.
4. The plateau phase. /stationary phase.
This is a period where there is no change in the growth parameter under investigation. At this
point the number of cells, which die is equal to those produced.
After the plateau, the growth decelerates in seasonal organism due to aging and dispersal. In
perennial organisms growth increases continuously.
Factors affecting growth in animals and plants.
1. Nutrients.
The availability of nutrients affects growth. All organisms require nutrients to build up new cells
and tissues. They also require energy to grow. The plants make their own food in photosynthesis
but also absorb nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, e.t.c from the soil to manufacture certain
components. Absence of these may hinder growth. Animals feed on already made food, which
they digest to obtain the nutrients necessary for growth.
2. Light.
Green plants require light to carry out photosynthesis in order to grow. Animals, fungi and
bacteria may not require light to grow but light affects their activities in different ways.

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3. PH
Some organisms grow under a narrow range of PH. When the PH changes, growth of the
organisms is affected. PH changes in the soil affect the absorption of minerals in the soil. PH also
affects the action of enzymes.
4. Temperature.
There is usually an optimum temperature for an organism in which growth occurs favorably.
Temperature affects the action of enzymes in the body; it affects germination of seeds and uptake
of water in plants. All these have a bearing in growth of plants and animals.
5. Accumulation of toxic wastes.
Through their metabolism, organisms produce toxic wastes. When these accumulate, they affect
the growth of organisms. Most organisms excrete these wastes and some convert them to less
toxic substances.
6. Hormones.
Hormones are also known to control growth in organisms. Such hormones are called growth
hormones/ growth substances. In humans, the human growth hormone and thyroxin control
growth while in plants growth is controlled by auxins.
7. Genes
Given all other conditions favorable, the final size to which an organism grows depends on genes
that are inherited from its parent. The genes also determine all the characteristics of that
organism.
Growth in flowering plants.
In plants growth does not take place allover the body of the plant but in particular regions called
meristems. Meristems are regions whose cells have the ability to divide and produce new cells.
There are three types of meristems in plants.
1. Apical meristems.
These are found at the growing tips that is shoot tip and root tips. They divide to produce new
cells and the plant increases in linear dimensions (height/length). This is called primary growth.
2. Lateral meristems.
These are found in the region of permanent tissue. They include the vascular cambium and cork
cambium. Their division results into increase in girth (circumference) of the plant and it is called
secondary growth.

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3. Intercalary meristems.
These are located at the base of the shoot of some monocot plants. It results into primary growth
in other areas other than the tips. Intercalary meristems allow regeneration of the plants
susceptible to damage e.g. grasses.
There are two types of growth in plants.
1. Primary growth.
This involves germination and the activity of the apical meristems to produce shoots and roots. It
results into increase in linear dimension.
Regions of growth in the shoot.

Region of cell Leaf primodium

division.
Apical meristem

Region of cell Lateral bud

elongation.

Region of cell
Phloem
differentiation.
Xylem
Region of
permanent tissue.

Regions of growth in the root.

Region of Xylem
permanent tissue

Region of cell Root hair

differentiation. Phloem
Region of cell
elongation.
Region of cell
division. Apical meristem
Root cap
Root cap.
This covers the tip of the root. It protects it from damage as the root grows through soil particles.
Region of cell division.
This is made up of meristematic cells (cells capable of dividing by mitosis to give rise to new
cells). The cells formed are parenchyma in nature. They are small, with no cell walls, spherical
and have numerous small vacuoles.

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Region of cell elongation.

In this region, the cells produced in the region of cell division absorb water and they elongate.
This results into increase in size of the root and shoot.
The region of cell differentiation.
In this region the cells undergo structural and physiological changes to suit themselves to various
functions in the root and shoot. The cells specialize to perform different functions. This region is
characterized by development of root hairs, xylem, phloem and other plant tissues in the root and
shoot.
The region of permanent tissue.
This is a region of fully developed cells and tissues. In this region all root and shoot tissues are
fully formed.
2. Secondary growth.
This occurs in woody dicot plants. It results from the activity of lateral meristems and causes a
plant to increase in girth. Secondary growth is also called secondary thickening. During
secondary growth, the vascular cambium divides to produce new phloem and xylem. The cork
cambium divides to produce new cork cells. The new xylem forms the wood. Secondary growth
provides more support to the plant, as it grows taller.
Seed germination.
Germination is the development of an embryo into a seedling under favorable conditions. There
are two types of germination.
1. Epigeal germination.
This is a type of germination where the hypocotyl elongates faster than the epicotyls pushing the
cotyledons above the ground. (hypocotyl is portion of radicle below the cotyledons). This type of
germination occurs in dicotyledonous plants.
2. Hypogeal germination
This is a type of germination where the epicotyl elongates faster than the hypocotyl pushing the
cotyledons below the ground. (Epicotyls are the region of radicle above the cotyledons). This type
of germination occurs in monocotyledonous plants.
During epigeal germination the seed absorbs water through the micropyle in a process called
imbibition. This softens the testa and makes the cotyledons to swell. The testa splits to allow the
radicle and plumule to emerge. The water hydrolyses the stored food reserves and the products
are passed from the cotyledons to the radicle and plumule where they are used for growth. The
radicle emerges first and the hypocotyls start to elongate pushing the cotyledons upwards. The

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cotyledons may turn green in some plants and can carry out photosynthesis. The cotyledons open
to allow out the plumule. The leaves are formed and they start to photosynthesize.
Diagrammatic illustration of epigeal germination.

During hypogeal germination, the seed absorbs water by imbibition. The radicle appears first
bursting its protective sheath called coleorhizae. The radicle produces fibrous roots, which absorb
water and anchor the plant. The protective plumule sheath (coleoptiles) opens to allow the
plumule out. The epicotyls elongate pushing the cotyledons below the ground.
Diagrammatic illustration of hypogeal germination.

Conditions necessary for germination.

Seeds are dispersed in a dormant state and they require favorable conditions to germinate. These
conditions are;
1. Water. Water is needed to hydrolyse food reserves, activate enzymes, to act as a medium in
which all enzymes act and a medium for transport of dissolved food substances.
2. Optimum temperature
There is an optimum temperature, which is favorable for a particular seed. Temperature affects
the activity of enzymes involved in germination. Below 0oC germination does not occur because
the enzymes are inactive and at very high temperatures the enzymes are denatured and
protoplasm is destroyed.
3. Air.
Air contains oxygen, which is necessary for respiration to provide energy. Seeds do not germinate
in cooled and boiled water because it contains no air.

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Experiments on germination.
Experiment to demonstrate the conditions necessary for germination.
Apparatus.
4 test tubes, Cotton wool, Seeds, Oil and Water.
Procedure.
1. Arrange four test tubes labeled 1-4
2. To test tube 1 add moist cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open. To test tube 2 add
dry cotton wool, seeds and leave test tube open. To test tube 3 add seeds, boiled cooled
water and a layer of oil. To 4 add seeds, moist cotton wool, ice and leave test tube open.
Leave all test tubes for 3 days.
Setup. Test Test
Test tube 3 Test
tube 2
tube 1 tube 4

Oil

Ice
- Warmth - No warmth
- Warmth
- Warmth - No air - Air
- Air
- Air - Water - Water
- Water
- No water
Observations
Seeds germinated in only test tube 1 and those in 2, 3 and 4 did not germinate.
Conclusion.
Air, water and warmth are necessary for germination.
Experiment to show that oxygen is necessary for germination.
Apparatus.
2 conical flasks, 2 corks, Water, Cotton wool, Seeds and Pyrogallic acid.
Procedure.
- 1. Pour some water in one conical flask and some alkaline pyrogallol in another conical
flask.
- Tie some seeds in wet cotton wool and suspend the cotton wool in the flasks using a
thread.

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- Fix the threads using a cork.

- Leave the set up for three days

Thread
Set up
Wet cotton Cork
wool
containing
seeds
Water
A
Pylogallic acid B

Observation
After a few days the seeds in B germinated while those in A did not germinate.
Conclusion.
Oxygen is necessary for germination.
Explanation
Alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from air in flask A thereby preventing germination.
Changes in dry weight of a germinating seed
E
D
Dry F
weight C

A
B

Time (weeks)

Description and explanation of the graph.

From point A-B, the dry weight of the seed decreases. This is because the stored food in food
reserves is hydrolyzed (broken down) to produce energy for germination.
From point B-C, the dry weight increases steadily and rapidly. This is because the seed has
produced leaves, which are carrying out photosynthesis. It makes food, which causes its dry
weight to increase.
From points C-D, the growth rate decreases. This is because the plant has matured and preparing
for flowering and fruiting.
From points D-E, the dry weight remains constant. The plant has produced fruits and no more
growth takes place.

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From point E-F, weight drops because the seed are dispersed, the plant leaves dry and fall off.
This causes a reduction in dry weight.
Change in total weight of a germinating seed.

D E F
Weight
B
A
C

Time

Explanation of the graph.

Most of the changes are similar to those in the graph showing changes of dry weight with time in
a germinating seed except that for dry weight, the weight of water in the seed is not considered.
For the total weight of the seed during germination, water is put into consideration.
The initial slight increase in weight from point A-B is due to imbibition (absorption) of water into
the seed. The other changes that follow in the subsequent points on the curve are similar to those
in the change of dry weight with time.
Seed dormancy.
This is a period of no growth in a seed where the metabolic activity of the seed is greatly reduced.
In this state, seeds cannot germinate even under favorable conditions.
Causes of dormancy.
1. Lack of adequate water and warmth.
2. Presence or absence of light, soil PH and germination inhibitors.
3. Hard impervious testa, which is impermeable to water.
4. Immaturity of embryo.
5. Presence of germination inhibitors e.g., abscisic acid.
Methods used to break seed dormancy
1. Providing suitable conditions for germination.
2. Passing seeds through guts of animals to weaken the seed coat by enzymes.
3. Alternating heat and cooling of seeds may result into cracking the seed coat.
4. Allowing the embryo time to mature.
5. Using growth promoters such as gibberellins.
Importance of seed dormancy.
1. It allows dispersal of seeds in time and space.

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2. It ensures that germination occurs in favorable conditions to allow the seedlings to grow.
3. It allows time for the embryo in a seed to fully mature.
4. It allows food storage in seeds and their preservation as food.
Growth and development in animals.
In animals growth occurs through out the body of the organism unlike in plants where growth is
localized in specific areas called meristems. Most animals grow continuously until they reach
maturity. This is called continuous growth. In Arthropods like insects growth is discontinuous,
i.e. there are periods of growth and no growth.
Growth and development in insects.
Insects have an exoskeleton which is rigid and prevents expansion of the insect during growth.
Before the insect grows, it sheds the exoskeleton in a process called moulting (ecdysis). Without
the exoskeleton, the insect expands and grows. A new exoskeleton then forms and growth ceases.
This kind of growth is referred to as intermittent growth or discontinuous growth. Successive
moults result into formation of a new form of the insect. This is called metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis has already been discussed under insects.
A graph showing intermittent growth in insects.

Change in Phase of growth

weight during moulting

Phase of no
growth.

Time
Growth and development in vertebrates.
After fertilization, the zygote undergoes three changes during its growth and development. These
changes are;
1. cleavage.
This is the mitotic division of the zygote to form a mass of cells. The zygote at this stage is called
a blastocyte.
2. Gastrulation.
This is the rearrangement of the cells into distinct layers. The outer cells make up a layer called
ectoderm. The cells in the middle make up a layer called mesoderm and the inner cells make up
the endoderm. From these layers the various organs and systems are formed.
3. Organogeny.
This is the formation of organs and organ systems.

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