Introduction to CHEMICAL BONDING

In 1916, an American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis

proposed that chemical bonds are formed between atoms
because electrons from atoms interact with each other.

Lewis had observed that many elements are most stable

when they contain eight electrons in their valence shell.
He suggested that atoms with fewer than eight valence
electrons bond together to share electrons and complete
their valence shells.

While some of Lewis’ predictions have since been proven

incorrect (he suggested that electrons occupy cube-
shaped orbitals), his work established the basis of
chemical bonding.

Meaning of Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding refers to the formation of a chemical
bond between two or more atoms, molecules or ions to
give rise to a chemical compound. These bonds keep the
atoms together in the resulting compound.

A chemical bond is the result of an attraction between

atoms or ions. The type of bond that a molecule contains
will determine its physical properties such as electrical
and thermal conductivity, melting point, solubility and
hardness.

The two major types of chemical bonds are:

Covalent or molecular bond

Ionic or electrovalent bond
Other types of bonds include

Coordinate covalent bond

Metallic bond
Hydrogen bond
The attractive forces between molecules in a liquid can
be characterized as Van der Waals bonds.

Types of Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic Bond: Ionic bonding is a type of chemical
bonding that involves the transfer of electrons from
one atom or molecule to another. Here, an atom
loses an electron which is in turn gained by another
atom. The atom that loses an electron develops a
positive ion and is known as a cation, while, the atom
that loses an electron to develop a negative charge is
known as an anion. The ionic bond gains strength
from the difference in charge between the two
 atoms, i.e. the greater the charge
disparity/electronegativity difference between the
cation and the anion, the stronger the ionic bond.
Example of compounds exhibiting ionic bonds is
NaCl, MgO, CaCl2, etc.

2. Covalent Bond: Covalent bond indicates the sharing

of electrons between atoms. Examples of compounds
with covalent bonding are CO, Ibr, etc. Compounds
that contain carbon (also called organic compounds)
commonly exhibit this type of chemical bonding (E.g,
CH4, C2H6, etc).

3. Polar Covalent Bond: In polar covalent chemical

bonding, unlike non-polar covalent bonding,
electrons are shared unequally since the more
electronegative atom pulls the electron pair closer to
itself and away from the less electronegative atom. A
difference in charge arises in different areas of the
atom due to the uneven spacing of the electrons
between the atoms. One end of the molecule tends
to be partially positively charged and the other end
tends to be partially negatively charged. An example
of a polar covalent bond is the water molecule.

4. Hydrogen Bond: Hydrogen bonding is a weaker

form of chemical bonding. It is a type of polar
 covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen
wherein the hydrogen develops a partial positive
charge. This implies that the electrons are pulled
closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom. This
creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted
to the negative charges of any neighbouring atom.
Examples of compounds exhibiting hydrogen bonds
are H2O, HF, NH3, etc.

Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons
between atoms. The pair of electrons participating in this
type of bonding is called shared pair or bonding pair. A
covalent bond is also called a molecular bond.

Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms to obtain an

octet configuration. When elements share their electrons,
they do not become positive or negative. Since the
elements are neither gaining nor sacrificing electrons, no
ions are formed by covalent bonding.

Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent bond in the

diatomic hydrogen molecule. The halogens such as
chlorine also exist as diatomic gases by forming covalent
bonds. Nitrogen and oxygen also exhibit covalent bonding
in forming diatomic molecules.
In a covalent bond, electrons can be shared between
atoms of the same kind such as Fl2, H2, N2, O2, etc. or
atoms of different kinds such as H2O, NH3, CH4, etc.
Examples of compounds with covalent bonding are CO,
Ibr, etc. Compounds that contain carbon (also called
organic compounds) commonly exhibit this type of
chemical bonding (E.g, CH4, C2H6, etc.).

Based on the number of shared electron pairs, there are

three types of covalent bonds. They are:

Single covalent bond

Double covalent bond
Triple covalent bond

Formation of Hydrogen & Chlorine Molecule

Covalent Bonding in Hydrogen

A single hydrogen atom has one electron, hence, it will

remain unstable until it obtains one more electron. The
hydrogen atom shares its single valence atom with
another hydrogen atom. Both hydrogen atoms have two
(shared) electrons in the outer shell, therefore, it
becomes a stable hydrogen molecule H2.
Covalent Bonding in Chlorine
Two chlorine atoms could both achieve stable structures
by sharing their single unpaired electron. The two
chlorine atoms are said to be joined by a covalent bond.
The reason that the two chlorine atoms stick together is
that the shared pair of electrons is attracted to the
nucleus of both chlorine atoms.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

According to the electronic configuration of carbon, it
needs to gain or lose 4 electrons in order to become
stable.
Carbon cannot gain 4 electrons to become C4- because it
will be extremely difficult for 6 protons to hold 10
electrons in the resulting atoms. This will make it
unstable.
Also, carbon cannot lose 4 electrons to become C4+
because it will require a large amount of energy and the
resulting atom will have only 2 electrons held by proton.
This will also make it unstable.

Due to these reasons, carbon cannot gain or lose

electrons to obtain an octet configuration, hence, it
shares electrons with other carbon atoms or atoms of
other elements to form a covalent bond.
Formation of Methane & Carbon Dioxide
- Methane: One atom of carbon combines with 4 atoms
of hydrogen to form a molecule of methane CH4. All
the hydrogen atoms have only one electron in their
outermost shell and carbon has 4. Carbon shares
each of its 4 electrons with one atom of carbon. This
makes carbon obtain a complete octet and all 4
hydrogen atoms also obtain a complete duplet.

- Carbon dioxide: One atom of carbon combines with

two atoms of oxygen to form a carbon dioxide
molecule CO2. Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer
shell while oxygen has 6 atoms in its outer shell.
Carbon shares two of its atom with each atom of
oxygen and all the atoms obtain their octet
configuration.

Other Examples of Covalent Bonding

1)Covalent Bonding in Ammonia NH3

2)Covalent Bonding in Water H2O

3)Covalent Bonding in Hydrogen Chloride HCl
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
Covalent or molecular compounds contain atoms held
together by covalent bonds. Some of the characteristics
of covalent compounds include:

They have relatively low melting points and boiling

points.
They usually have lower enthalpies of vaporization and
fusion than ionic compounds.
They tend to be soft and relatively flexible.
They are poor conductors of electricity and heat.
Most covalent compounds are flammable and burn readily
with the addition of heat.
They form huge structures where a huge number of
atoms are held together.
Little energy is required to separate the molecules of
covalent compounds.
They are often gases or volatile liquids. This is because
the forces of attraction between the molecules are weak.
Covalent compounds are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents.
Ionic Bond
Ionic or electrovalent bond is a type of chemical bonding
that involves the transfer of electrons from one the less
electronegative atom (metals) to the more
electronegative element (non-metals). In this case, one of
the atoms loses an electron which is gained by the other
atom.

The positively and negatively charged ions are

aggregated in an ordered arrangement called the crystal
lattice which is stabilized by the energy called the Lattice
enthalpy.

Ionic bonds usually form between a metal cation and a

non-metal anion. It results from an electrostatic attraction
between ions that have opposite charges i.e. cations and
anions. This implies that ionic bonds lead to much higher
electrical conductivity and higher melting points than
covalent bonds.

Conditions for the formation of an ionic bond

Low ionization energy of the atom forming the cation.

High electron gain enthalpy of the atom forming the
anion.
High negative lattice enthalpy of the crystal formed.
Formation of Sodium Chloride
Sodium (2,8,1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble
gas structure (2,8). If it gives away the valence electron,
it becomes more stable. Chlorine (2,8,7) has 1 electron
short of a stable noble gas structure (2,8,8). If it gains an
electron, it becomes more stable. Therefore, if a sodium
atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom, both become
more stable.

Sodium has lost an electron so it no longer has equal

numbers of electrons and protons. Since it has one more
proton than electrons, it has a charge of 1+. Chlorine has
gained an electron so it now has one more electron than
protons, therefore, it has a charge of 1-.

If electrons are lost from an atom, positive ions called

cations are formed.
If electrons are gained by an atom, negative ions called
anions are formed.
The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by
the strong electrostatic attractions between the positive
and negative charges. One sodium atom provides the
extra electron for one chlorine atom. Therefore, they
combine together in a ratio of 1:1. Hence, the formula is
NaCl.

Formation of Magnesium Oxide

Magnesium has two valence electrons while oxygen has
6. Magnesium gives its 2 electrons to oxygen and both
become stable.

Mg – 2e → Mg2+

O + 2e- → O2-

Magnesium oxide is held together by a very strong

attraction between the ions. The ionic bonding is stronger
than in sodium chloride because this time you have 2+
ions attracting 2- ions. The greater the charge, the
greater the attraction.

The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.

Formation of Calcium Chloride

In the formation of calcium chloride, two chlorine atoms
are needed to use up the two outer electrons in the
calcium atom. The formula of calcium chloride is CaCl2

Properties of Ionic Compounds

They are generally formed between metals and non-
metals. E.g. NaCl (Na is a metal while Cl is a non-metal).
Ionic compounds have high boiling and melting points
due to the strong bond between the ions.
They are very strong and require a lot of energy to break.
They exist as solids at room temperature, arranged in an
orderly manner to form crystals.
The electrostatic forces of attraction are strong.
They are brittle and break into small pieces easily.
They have higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization
than covalent compounds.
They are good conductors of electricity because the ions
are free to move about when in a liquid state or solution.
They are soluble in polar solvents such as water and
ethanol while they are insoluble in non-polar solvents
such as oil, petrol, benzene, kerosene, etc.
Co-ordinate Covalent Bond
In the formation of a simple covalent bond, each atom
supplies one electron to the bond but this is not always
the case.

A co-ordinate covalent bond, also called a dative covalent

bond, is a special case of covalent bond. It is formed by
the mutual sharing of electrons between the two atoms
but the shared pair of electrons are contributed only by
one of the two atoms, the other atom simply participates
in sharing.
The atom which donates an electron pair for sharing is
called the donor and it must have already completed its
octet. On the other hand, the atom which accepts the
electron pair in order to complete its octet is called an
acceptor.

Examples of molecules and polyatomic ions with

co-ordinate covalent bonds are:

Hydronium ion
Ammonium ion
SO2 molecule
Carbon (II) oxide
Reaction of Ammonia & Hydrogen Chloride
The reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride is
an example of co-ordinate covalent bond. When both
gases react, ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the
transfer of a hydrogen ion from the hydrogen chloride to
the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.

When the ammonium ion NH4+ is formed, the fourth

hydrogen is attached by a dative covalent bond, because
only the hydrogen’s nucleus is transferred from the
chlorine to the nitrogen. The hydrogen’s electron is left
behind on the chlorine to form a negative chloride ion.
Once the ammonium ion has been formed it is impossible
to tell any difference between the dative covalent and the
ordinary covalent bonds.

In simple diagrams, a co-ordinate bond is shown by an

arrow. The arrow points from the atom donating the lone
pair to the atom accepting it.

Metallic Bond
The attractive force which binds various metal atoms
together is called a metallic bond. They hold atoms
together in a metal.

A metallic bond is neither a covalent bond nor an ionic

bond because neither of these bonds is able to explain
the known properties of metals. For example, neither
ionic nor covalent compounds conduct electricity in the
solid state but metals are very good conductors of
electricity.

Factors Influencing the Formation of Metallic Bond

The factors that influence the formation of metallic bonds
include:
The atomic size of the element should be large.
The number of vacant orbitals in the valence shell should
be large.
The number of valence electrons should be small.
The element should have low ionization energy.
The element should have a low electron affinity.
Electron Gas Model
The electron gas model or electron sea model is the
simplest model that explains the properties of metals. It
was proposed by Lorentz. The main features of the model
include:

A metal atom is supposed to consist of two parts; the

valence electrons and the remaining part (the nucleus
and inner shells) which is called a kernel.
The metallic crystal consists of crystal packed metal
atoms in three dimensions. The kernels of metal atoms
occupy fixed positions called lattice sites while space
between the kernels is occupied by valence electrons.
Due to smaller ionization energy, the valence electrons of
metal atoms are not held by the nucleus very firmly.
Therefore, they can leave the field of influence of one
kernel and enter the field of influence of the other. This
movement can take place through the vacant valence
orbitals. Thus, the valence electrons are not localised but
are mobile or delocalised. The movement of electrons in a
metallic crystal is just like gas molecules, hence, the
model is called an electron gas model.
The simultaneous force of attraction between the mobile
electrons and the positive kernels is responsible for
holding the metal atoms together and is known as a
metallic bond.

Properties of Metal
Electrical Conductivity
This is the ability of a substance to allow a charge to
move through it. Since the movement of electrons is not
restricted in the electron sea, any electric current passed
through the metal passes through it. When a potential
difference is introduced to the metal, the delocalized
electrons start moving towards the positive charge. This
is the reason why metals are very good conductors of
electric current.

Thermal Conductivity
This is the measure of a material’s ability to conduct or
transfer heat. On heating a part of the metal, the kinetic
energy of the electrons in that region increases. These
energetic electrons move rapidly to the cooler parts and
transfer their kinetic energy by means of collisions with
other electrons. This way, the heat travels from hotter to
cooler parts of the metals.
Metallic Lustre
When light falls on the surface of the metal, the free
electrons absorb the photons of light and are set into
vibrations. These vibrating electrons immediately emit
energy and become a source of light. Thus, incident light
appears to be reflected from the surface of the metal.
Consequently, the metallic surface acquires a shining
appearance which is referred to as metallic lustre.

Malleability & Ductility

When an ionic crystal is beaten with a hammer, it
shatters into many smaller pieces. This is because the
atoms in the crystals are held together in a rigid lattice
that is not easily deformed. The introduction of a force
(from the hammer) causes the crystal structure to
fracture, resulting in the shattering of the crystal. In the
case of metals, the sea of electrons in the metallic bond
enables the deformation of the lattice. Therefore, when
metals are beaten with a hammer, the rigid lattice is
deformed and not fractured. This is why metals can be
beaten into thin sheets. Since these lattices do not
fracture easily, metals are said to be highly ductile.

High Melting & Boiling Points

As a result of powerful metallic bonding, the attractive
force between the metal atoms is quite strong. A large
amount of energy is required to overcome this force of
attraction. This is the reason why metals tend to have
high melting and boiling points. The exceptions to this
include zinc, cadmium and mercury.

Metallic Bonding in Sodium

Sodium has the electronic structure 1s22s22p63s1. It
contains one electron in its valence shell.

When sodium atoms come together, the electron in the

3s atomic orbital of one sodium atom shares space with
the corresponding electron on a neighbouring atom to
form a molecular orbital. The electrons can move freely
within these molecular orbitals, therefore, each electron
becomes detached from its parent atom. The electrons
are said to be delocalised.

The metal is held together by the strong forces of

attraction between the positive nuclei and the delocalised
electrons. This is sometimes described as “an array of
positive ions in a sea of electrons”.

Each positive centre in the diagram represents all the rest

of the atom apart from the outer electron, but that
electron has not been lost; it may no longer have an
attachment to a particular atom, but it’s still there in the
structure. Therefore, sodium metal is written as Na- not
Na+.
Metallic Bonding in Magnesium
Magnesium has the outer electronic structure 3s2. Both of
these electrons become delocalised so the “sea” has
twice the electron density as it does in sodium.

Each magnesium atom has 12 protons in the nucleus

compared with sodium’s 11. In both cases, the nucleus is
screened from the delocalised electrons by the same
number of inner electrons. This implies that there will be
a net pull from the magnesium nucleus of 2+, but only
1+ from the sodium nucleus.

Hence, not only will there be a greater number of

delocalised electrons in magnesium, but there will also be
a greater attraction for them from the magnesium nuclei.

Magnesium atoms also have a slightly smaller radius than

sodium atoms, therefore, the delocalised electrons are
closer to the nuclei.

Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular force that arises
when hydrogen and any strongly electronegative
elements such as nitrogen, fluorine and oxygen are
covalently bonded. They tend to pull the shared electrons
of covalent bonds towards themselves which results in
the formation of dipole where the hydrogen atom is
partially positive while the nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine is
partially negative.

Hydrogen bonding differs from other uses of the word

“bond” since it is a force of attraction between a
hydrogen atom in one molecule and a small atom of high
electronegativity in another molecule. That is, it is an
intermolecular force.

If the hydrogen is close to another atom such as oxygen,

fluorine or nitrogen in another molecule, then there is a
force of attraction termed a dipole-dipole interaction. This
attraction or “hydrogen bond” can have about 5% to 10%
of the strength of a covalent bond.

Note: Hydrogen bond is weak.

Hydrogen bonding has a very important effect on the

properties of water and ice. It is also important in proteins
and nucleic acids. The “unzipping” of DNA is a breaking of
hydrogen bonds which help to hold the two strands of the
double helix together. Hydrogen bond is also responsible
for the solubility of some organic compounds such as
sugar and ethanol in water.

Van der Waal’s Force

Van der Waal’s force is the type of force that arises in
gases which are diatomic and non-polar molecules such
as nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine. They are intermolecular
attractions and not real bonds.

Van der Waal’s force increases with an increase in the

number of electrons. They are stronger in iodine (solid at
room temperature) than in bromine (liquid at room
temperature) and less in chlorine (gas at room
temperature).

Van der Waal’s force is very weak when compared with

ionic and covalent bonds. However, they are important in
the liquefaction of gases and the formation of molecular
lattices in iodine and naphthalene crystals.

Characteristics of Chemical Bonding

1. Bond Length: This is the equilibrium distance
between the centres of the nuclei of two bonded
atoms. At equilibrium distance, the atoms keep on
vibrating about their mean position. It is expressed in
 terms of an angstrom (A0) or a picometer (pm). It is
determined experimentally by x-ray diffraction or
electron diffraction method or spectroscopic method.
The bond length in chemical bonding is the sum of
their ionic radii, In an ionic compound. In a covalent
compound, it is the sum of their covalent radii. For a
covalent molecule AB, the bond length is given by d=
ra + rb .

Factors Affecting Bond Length:

- Size of the atoms: The bond length increases with an
increase in the size of the atom. HI > HBr > HCl > HF
- The multiplicity of bond: The bond length decreases
with an increase in bond order.

- Type of hybridization: As a ‘s’ orbital is smaller in

size, the greater the ‘s’ character, and the shorter
the bond length.

2. Bond Enthalpy: It is also known as bond

dissociation enthalpy. It is the amount of energy
required to break one mole of bonds of a type so as
to separate the molecule into individual gaseous
atoms. Bond enthalpy is usually expressed in KJ mol-
1. The greater the bond dissociation enthalpy, the
greater the bond strength. For diatomic molecules
like H2, Cl2, O2, N2, HCl, HBr, HI, the bond enthalpies
 are equal to their dissociation enthalpy. In the case of
polyatomic molecules, bond enthalpies are usually
the average values, because the dissociation energy
varies with each type of bond.

Factors Affecting Bond Enthalpy:

- Size of the atom: The greater the size of the atom,

the greater the bond length and the less the bond
dissociation enthalpy.

- The multiplicity of the bonds: The greater the

multiplicity of the bond, the greater the bond
dissociation enthalpy.

- The number of lone pairs of electrons present: The

more the number of lone pairs of electrons present
on the bonded atoms, the greater the repulsion
between the atoms and thus the lesser the bond
dissociation enthalpy of the chemical bond.