Genet

ics

GENETI
CS
Genet
icsi
sthesci
ent
if
icst
udyofher
edi
tyandv
ari
ati
onsbet
weenor
gani
smswhi
l
e
i
nher
it
ance descr
ibes how t
he si
mil
ari
ti
es ar
etr
ansf
err
ed f
rom t
he par
entt
othe
of
fspr
ing.Thesi
mil
ari
ti
esar
einf
orm ofchar
act
eri
sti
cssuchasski
ncol
our
,int
ell
i
gence,
hei
ghtandmanyot
her
s.
Mendel
wast
hef
ir
stsci
ent
istt
ost
udygenet
icsandi
nher
it
ance.
Cat
egor
iesofv
ari
ati
on
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofgenet
icv
ari
ati
ons.
1.Cont
inuousv
ari
ati
ons.
Thesear
evar
iat
ionst
hatshow agr
adualchangei
nindi
vi
dual
swi
thoutacl
ear
-cut
di
vi
sionbet
weent
het
woext
remes.I
tresul
tsi
ntof
ormat
ionofi
nter
medi
ates.Such
v
ari
ati
onsi
ncl
udehei
ght
,int
ell
i
gence,
ski
ncol
our
,yi
eldi
npl
ant
s,et
c.I
nsuchv
ari
ati
ons,
or
gani
smsar
eusual
l
yver
ymanyar
oundt
hemean/
aver
agepoi
nt.
Gr
aphi
cil
l
ust
rat
ionofcont
inuousv
ari
ati
on

No.of
or
gani
sms

Meanpoi
nt

2.Di
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
on.
Thi
sisav
ari
ati
on,whi
chshowsacl
ear
-cutdi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
woext
remes
wi
thouti
nter
medi
ates.Thi
sresul
tsi
ntoexpr
essi
onofonl
ytwophenot
ypes.Exampl
es
ofdi
scont
inuousv
ari
ati
onsi
ncl
ude,
tonguer
oll
i
ng,
bloodgr
oups,
sex,
etc.

Causesofv
ari
ati
on
Some v
ari
ati
onsar
einher
it
ed and ar
e cal
l
ed i
nher
it
ed v
ari
ati
onswhi
l
e ot
her
sar
e
occupi
edasar
esul
toft
heenv
ironmenthencecal
l
edenv
ironment
alv
ari
ati
ons.
Exampl
esofi
nher
it
edv
ari
ati
onsar
ebl
oodgr
oups,
eyecol
our
,al
bini
sm,
hai
r,et
c.
Exampl
esofenv
ironment
alv
ari
ati
onsar
eknowl
edge,
etc.
Env
ironment
alf
act
orst
hatcausev
ari
ati
ons
 Di
et  Pat
hogens
  Al
ti
tude  Li
ght
Fact
orst
hatcausei
nher
it
edv
ari
ati
ons
 Mut
ati
on
 Cr
ossi
ngov
er
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ion
Ter
msusedi
ngenet
ics.
1.Chr
omosome.Thesear
ethr
ead-
li
kest
ruct
uresbear
inggenesandl
ocat
edi
nthe
nucl
eus.
2.Chr
omat
id.Thi
sishal
fofachr
omosomespl
i
tlongi
tudi
nal
l
y.
3.Bi
val
ent
.Thi
sisapai
rofhomol
ogouschr
omosomes.
4.Gene.Thi
sisauni
toft
heher
edi
tabl
emat
eri
alf
oundont
hechr
omosomeand
r
esponsi
blef
orcont
rol
l
ingapar
ti
cul
art
rai
t/
char
act
er.
5.Al
l
ele.Thi
sist
heal
ter
nat
ivef
orm oft
hesamegene.mostgenesar
emadeupoft
wo
al
l
eles.Al
l
eles oft
he same gene ar
erepr
esent
ed byt
he same l
ett
erbutt
he
domi
nantal
l
elei
srepr
esent
edbyacapi
tall
ett
erandt
her
ecessi
veal
l
elebyasmal
l
l
ett
eri
nthecaseofdomi
nant
-r
ecessi
vechar
act
ers
6.Di
ploi
d.Thi
sisadescr
ipt
ionofacel
l
,whi
chhasawhol
esetofchr
omosomes.
7.Hapl
oid.Thi
sref
erst
oacel
lwi
thhal
fthesetofchr
omosomes.
8.Genot
ype.Thi
sref
erst
othegenet
iccomposi
ti
onnofanor
gani
sm.
9.Phenot
ype.Thi
sist
hephy
sicalappear
anceort
heout
war
d expr
essi
on of an
i
ndi
vi
dual
.
10.
Domi
nantgene/
domi
nantal
l
ele.Thi
sisadescr
ipt
ionofagene/
all
elewhoseef
fect
i
sseeni
nthephenot
ypeoft
hehet
erozy
gousi
ndi
vi
dual
.Theef
fectoft
hedomi
nant
gene/
all
elei
sseeni
nthephenot
ypeev
eni
nthepr
esenceofanot
hergene/
all
ele.
11.
Recessi
ve.Thi
sisa descr
ipt
ion ofa genewhoseef
fecti
snotphenot
ypi
cal
l
y
expr
essedi
nthehet
erozy
gousst
ate.Theef
fectofar
ecessi
vegene/
all
elei
snot
seeni
nthepr
esenceofanot
her(
domi
nant
)gene/
all
ele.
12.
Homozy
gous.Thi
sref
erst
oagenewi
tht
woi
dent
icalal
l
elesf
orexampl
eifT
r
epr
esent
sthegenef
orhei
ghtwher
etal
l
nessi
sdomi
nantt
oshor
tnesst
hent
he
al
l
elef
ort
all
nessi
sTandt
hatf
orshor
tnessi
st.ani
ndi
vi
dualwi
thTTi
ssai
dtobe
homozy
goust
all
andt
tissai
dtobehomozy
gousshor
t.
13.
Homozy
gousdomi
nant
.Thi
siswher
ebot
hal
l
elesofagenedet
ermi
neadomi
nant
char
act
er.
 Genet
ics

14.
Homozy
gousr
ecessi
ve.Thi
siswher
ebot
hal
l
elesofagenedet
ermi
near
ecessi
ve
char
act
er.
15.
Het
erozy
gous.Thi
sref
erst
oagenewi
tht
wodi
ff
erental
l
elesf
orexampl
eifT
r
epr
esent
stheal
l
elef
ort
all
nessandtf
orshor
tnesst
henTti
sthehet
eroz
ygous
st
ateoft
hisgene.
16.
Hybr
id.Thi
sisanof
fspr
ingpr
oducedbypar
ent
soft
wodi
ff
erentpur
eli
nes.
17.
Incompl
etedomi
nance.Thi
sisacondi
ti
onwher
enei
theroft
hegenesi
sdomi
nant
ov
ert
heot
her
.
18.
Gamet
es.Thesear
erepr
oduct
ivecel
l
s.
19.
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion.Thi
sist
hef
usi
onoft
hemal
eandf
emal
egamet
est
ofor
m azy
got
e.
20.
Monohy
bri
dinher
it
ance.Thi
sisat
ypeofi
nher
it
ance,whi
chi
nvol
vesst
udy
inga
si
ngl
epai
rofcont
rast
ingchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
21.
Dihy
bri
dinher
it
ance.Thi
sisat
ypeofi
nher
it
ance,whi
chi
nvol
vesst
udy
ingt
wopai
rs
ofcont
rast
ingchar
act
eri
sti
csatago
22.
Testcr
oss
Thisisaty
peofbackcrosswhi chi
nvol
v escrossi
nganoffspr
inghavi
ngadomi nant
charact
erwit
hitsr
ecessi
veparenti
nor dertodeter
minethetestoft
hatof
fspr
ing.
23.
Backcross
Thisist
hemat i
ngofanoffspr
ingwithoneofi t
sparent
s.

MENDEL’
SEXPERI
MENT
Forhi
sexper
imenthecol
l
ect
edoneoft
hev
ari
eti
esofgar pi
denpeas( sum sat
ivum)
wi
thcont
rast
ingf
eat
uressuchasonev
ari
etywaspr
oduci
ngt
allpl
ant
swhenst
emsar
e
about200cm andanot
hershor
tpl
antwi
thst
emsof25cm.Hecr
ossedt
hesepl
ant
sfor
hi
sexper
iment
s.
Hecr
ossedpur
etal
lpeapl
ant
swi
thpur
eshor
tpeapl
ant
sandal
ltheof
fspr
ingswer
e
t
all
(F1gener
ati
on)
Tal
l
nesswast
hedomi
nantchar
act
erandshor
tnesst
her
ecessi
vechar
act
er.
The domi
nantchar
act
eri
srepr
esent
ed usi
ng a capi
tall
ett
erwhi
l
ethe r
ecessi
ve
char
act
eri
srepr
esent
edusi
ngasmal
ll
ett
er.
Of
fspr
ingphenot
ype:
All
tal
l
Mendelt
hensel
fedt
hepl
ant
soft
heF1gener
ati
onandobt
ainedanF2gener
ati
onwi
th
t
all
andshor
tpl
ant
sinar
ati
oof3:
1

Par
ent
al Tal
l Tal
l
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
Tt Tt
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e T t T t
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng T Tt Tt t
t
F1genoty
pe

Genoty
picrati
o;TT:
Tt:
tt=1:2:
1
Phenoty
picrati
o;3t
all
:1short
Mendel
’
sconcl
usi
ons
Mendel
suggest
edt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
oexpl
ainhi
sresul
ts.
1.Gamet
es l
i
ke pol
l
en gr
ains and ov
ules oft
he gar
den peas car
ry char
act
ers
det
ermi
ningf
act
orst
hroughwhi
chr
esembl
ancei
spastonf
rom onegener
ati
ont
o
t
henext
.
2.Achar
act
erl
i
kehei
ghtoft
hegar
denpeai
scont
rol
l
edbyapai
rofgenes.These
separ
atedur
ingf
ormat
ionofgamet
esandonl
yonegoesi
ntoeachgamet
e.Thi
s
meanst
hatonl
yhal
foft
heusualnumberofgenesi
spr
esenti
nthegamet
es.
Howev
ert
henor
malnumberi
srest
oredatf
ert
il
izat
ionbyt
hef
usi
onoft
het
wo
 Genet
ics

gamet
es
3.Henamedagenedet
ermi
ningadomi
nantchar
act
erasadomi
nantgeneandone
det
ermi
ning a r
ecessi
ve char
act
eras a r
ecessi
ve gene.I
n hi
srepr
esent
ati
on
domi
nantgeneswer
egi
vencapi
tall
ett
ersandr
ecessi
vegeneswer
egi
vensmal
l
l
ett
ers.

Mendel
’
slawsofi
nher
it
ance
Fr
om hi
sobser
vat
ions,
Mendel
putupt
wol
awsofi
nher
it
ance.
Fi
rstl
aw:
Thel
awofsegr
egat
ion.
Thi
slawst
atest
hatt
hechar
act
erofanor
gani
sm i
sdet
ermi
nedbyapai
rofal
l
eles.Onl
y
oneal
l
eleofsuchapai
riscar
ri
edi
nagamet
e.
Secondl
aw:
Thel
awofi
ndependentassor
tment
.
Thi
sst
atest
hateachoft
heal
l
elesi
napai
rmaycombi
newi
thanot
heral
l
elef
rom
anot
herpai
rrandoml
y.

Concl
usi
onsf
rom Mendel
’
s’cr
osses.
1.A char
act
ercan bet
ransmi
tt
ed f
rom par
entt
o of
fspr
ing i
ndependentofot
her
char
act
ers.
2.Genesoccurasapai
rofal
l
eles.
3.Onl
yoneal
l
eleoft
hesamegenei
scar
ri
edi
nasi
ngl
egamet
e.

MONOHYBRI
DINHERI
TANCE
I
nher
it
ancei
sthepassi
ngov
erofchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hepar
ent
stot
hei
rof
fspr
ings.
Monohy
bri
dinher
it
ancei
nvol
vest
hest
udyofhowonechar
act
eri
sinher
it
edf
rom t
he
par
ent
stot
heof
fspr
ings.Mendel
car
ri
edoutsev
eral
exper
iment
sonpeast
ost
udy
monohy
bri
dinher
it
ance.
Mendel
chosegar
denpeasf
orhi
sexper
iment
sbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:
1.Theygr
owv
eryf
astandpr
oducer
esul
tsi
nav
eryshor
tper
iodoft
ime.
2.Theyar
erel
ati
vel
ysmal
landcanbegr
ownonasmal
lpl
otf
orst
udypur
poses.
3.Someoft
hei
rchar
act
ersar
econt
rol
l
edbysi
ngl
egenes,
whi
chmakei
teasyt
ost
udy
t
hem.
4.Theyhav
echar
act
eri
sti
cs,whi
chshow cl
ear
-cutdi
ff
erenceswi
thouti
nter
medi
ates
l
i
ket
all
andshor
t,gr
eenandy
ell
owcot
yledons,
etc.
Het
her
efor
econcl
udedt
hatt
hei
rrepr
oduct
ioncanbemani
pul
atedbypol
l
inat
ion.
Quest
ions:
Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingsf
oracr
ossbet
weenhomozy
gousbl
ackandhomozy
gous
br
own.TakeBf
orbl
ackandbf
orbr
own.
Lett
hegenef
orbl
ackf
urber
epr
esent
edbyBandt
hatf
orbr
ownb.
Not
e.
1.I
tisonegenecont
rol
l
ingachar
act
er,
whi
chi
sfurcol
our
.Fort
hisr
easonweuset
he
samel
ett
er
2.Bl
ackcol
ouri
sdomi
nantt
hati
swhyweuse(
B)andbr
owni
srecessi
ve(
b)
3.Thet
erm pur
e-br
eedi
ngi
susedt
omeanhomozy
gousf
ort
hatpar
ti
cul
argene.
Cr
osses. Par
ent
al Br
own Bl
ack
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
bb B
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e b b B B
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Offspr
ing
F1 Bb Bb Bb Bb
genotype
Of
fspr
inggenot
ype:
all
Bb (
het
erozy
gous)
Of
fspr
ingphenot
ype: al
lbl
ack.
Theyar
e al
lbl
ackbecause bl
acki
s domi
nantt
o br
own and i
tshows up i
nthe
het
erozy
gousst
ate.
Consi
dersel
fi
ngofF1(
crossi
ngt
wooffspr
ingsofF1above)
.
Parent
al Bl
ack Bl
ack
X
Parent
al
Bb Bb
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e B b B b
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng B Bb Bb bb
F2genoty
pe

F2phenot
ypi
crat
io.3bl
ack:1br
own
 Genet
ics

3:
1
Exampl
eii
Consi
deragenef
orhei
ghti
ngar
denpeas.Tal
l
nessi
sdomi
nantov
ershor
tness.
Lett
hegenef
ort
all
nessbeTandt
hatf
orshor
tnesst
.show t
hecr
ossbet
weenpur
e-
br
eedi
ngt
all
peaandapur
e-br
eedi
ngshor
tpea.
Par
ent
al Tal
l Shor
t
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
T t
t
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e T T t t
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1genoty
pe

F1phenot
ype.Al
lof
fspr
ingsar
etal
l
.
Sel
fi
ngofF1pr
oducesF2wi
thaphenot
ypi
crat
ioof3t
all
to1br
own.(
3:1)

Monohy
bri
dinher
it
ancei
nhumanbei
ngs
1.Al
bini
sm
Thi
sisacondi
ti
oni
nhumanbei
ngswher
ethei
ndi
vi
dual
fai
ltopr
oduceski
npi
gment
s
cal
l
edmel
ani
n.
Al
binoshav
e;
 Li
ghtski
n
 Whi
tehai
r
 Pi
nkey
es
 Theyar
esensi
ti
vet
obr
ightl
i
ght
Al
bini
sm i
scausedbyar
ecessi
vegene.
Exampl
e
LetAbet
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
ski
ncol
our
Letabet
heal
l
elef
ornoski
ncol
our
Genot
ype Phenot
ype
AA Nor
mal
ski
ncol
our
Aa Car
ri
erf
oral
bini
sm
Aa Al
bino

QUESTI
ONS:
1.Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingsi
fanal
binomar
ri
esanor
mal
per
son?

Al
bino Nor
mal
per
son
Parent
al
phenotype X
Parent
al
genoty
pe aa AA

Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es a a A A

Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Aa Aa Aa Aa
F1genoty
pe

Al
ltheof
fspr
ingswi
l
lbecar
ri
ersofal
bini
sm
2.Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingswhen2i
ndi
vi
dual
swhoar
ecar
ri
ersofal
bini
sm get
mar
ri
ed?

Car
ri
er Car
ri
er
Parent
al
phenotype X
Parent
al
genoty
pe Aa Aa

Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es A a A a

Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng AA Aa Aa aa
F1genoty
pe
 Genet
ics

Genot
ypi
crat
io;
1nor
mal
:2car
ri
er:
1al
bino
1:
2:1
Phenot
ypi
crat
io;
3:1

BACKCROSSORTESTCROSS
At
estcr
ossi
susedt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weenhomozy
gousandhet
erozy
gousdomi
nant
f
orms.Thi
siswhenanF1i
ndi
vi
dual
wit
hthephenot
ypeoft
hedomi
nantpar
enti
s
cr
ossedwi
tht
her
ecessi
vepar
entt
odet
ermi
net
hephenot
ypeoft
hepar
ent
.
I
ftheF1i
shomozy
gousdomi
nant
,al
ltheof
fspr
ingswi
l
lshowt
hedomi
nantchar
act
er.
I
ftheF1i
ndi
vi
dual
sar
ehet
erozy
gous,
a1:
1rat
ioofdomi
nantorr
ecessi
vechar
act
ersi
s
obt
ained.E.
g.
l
etTr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
ort
all
ness
l
ettr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orshor
tness

Tal
l shor
t
X
Tt t
t
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e T t t t
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Tt t
t Tt t
t
F2genoty
pe

Twoof
fspr
ingswi
l
lbehet
erozy
goust
all
and2wi
l
lbehomozy
gousshor
t.

X
T t
t
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e T T t t
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1genoty
pe
Het
erozy
goust
all
QUESTI
ON:
Thef
rui
tfl
y(dr
osophi
l
amel
angast
er)usual
l
yhaswi
ngst
wiceasl
ongasi
tsabdomen
butsomedr
osophi
l
ahav
ever
yshor
torv
est
igi
alwi
ngs.Al
ongwi
ngeddr
osophi
l
a(mal
e)
wascr
ossedwi
thav
est
igi
alwi
ngedf
emal
edr
osophi
l
aandal
ltheF1of
fspr
ingswer
e
l
ongwi
nged.Thel
ongwi
ngedF1gener
ati
onwer
ethenmat
ed.
i
) Howcant
hecr
ossber
epr
esent
eddi
agr
ammat
ical
l
y
i
i
) St
atet
hephenot
ypesoft
heof
fspr
ingsi
ntheF2gener
ati
onandst
atet
hei
r
genot
ypi
crat
io.
i
i
i) Whati
stheper
cent
ageoft
hev
est
igi
alwi
ngeddr
osophi
l
afl
i
esi
nthet
heF2
gener
ati
on.
i
v) Adr
osophi
l
aisnor
mal
l
yusedi
nexper
iment
sonher
edi
ty,
whydoy
out
hinki
t
i
ssui
tabl
eforsuchexper
iment
s.
Sol
uti
on:
Lett
hegenef
orl
ongwi
ngbeLandt
hatofv
est
igouswi
ngl
Thel
ongwi
ngedf
emal
ecanbeLLorLlbecausel
ongwi
ngedi
sdomi
nantt
oshor
t
wi
nged.

Vesti
gial Longwi
ngedmal
e
i
) Par
ent
al wingedfemal
e
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
l
l LL
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es l l L L
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Ll Ll Ll Ll
F1genoty
pe

F1phenot
ype.Al
ll
ongwi
nged.
i
i
) Longwi
nged
Longwi
nged
Par
ent
al
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
Ll Ll
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e L l L l
 Genet
ics

Oneoft
heof
fspr
ingswi
l
lbehomozy
gousl
ongwi
nged
Twooft
hem wi
l
lbehet
erozy
gousl
ongwi
nged
Oneoft
hem wi
l
lbehomozy
gousshor
twi
ngedorv
est
igi
alwi
nged
Genot
ypi
crat
io1:
2:1
i
i
i) ¼x100=25%
i
v) I
t’
sbecauset
heyhav
econt
rast
ingchar
act
ersandhav
eshor
tli
fespanandshow
cl
earcutdi
ff
erences.

I
ncat
tl
e,t
hegenef
orhor
nlesscondi
ti
oni
sdomi
nantov
eronef
orhor
ns.Ahor
nlesscow
wasmat
edwi
thahor
nedbul
l
.Usi
nggenet
icsy
mbol
s,showt
hepossi
blephenot
ypeand
genot
ypeoft
heF1of
fspr
ing.
Lethr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orhor
nedbul
l
.
LetHr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orhor
nlessbul
l

Hor
ned Hor
nless
Par
ent
al
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
hh HH
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es h h H H
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng Hh Hh Hh Hh
F1genoty
pe

Al
lwer
ehor
nedcows.

A bul
lwhosehor
nswer
eremov
edwasmat
edt
oahor
nedcow.Show t
hepossi
ble
genot
ypesandphenot
ypesoft
heF1of
fspr
ings.Gi
vear
easonf
ory
ouranswer
.
Lethr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orhor
nedbul
l
.
LetHr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orhor
nlessbul
l

Hor
ned Remov
edhor
ns
Par
ent
al
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
hh hh
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es h h h h
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng hh hh hh hh
F1genoty
pe

Al
lar
ehor
ned
Becauset
hebul
lwi
thcutof
fhor
nsst
il
lhast
hegenesf
orhor
nedandcut
ti
ngof
fthe
hor
nsdoesn’
tchanget
hegenes.

SEXDETERMI
NATI
ONI
NHUMANBEI
NGS
Ther
ear
e23pai
rsofchr
omosomesi
neachcel
loft
hehumanbody
.Onepai
r
det
ermi
nest
hesexoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
andt
heyar
ecal
l
edsexchr
omosomes.
I
nthehumanf
emal
e,sexchr
omosomesar
ehomol
ogous(
XX)sof
emal
espr
oduceone
t
ypeofgamet
ewhi
chi
sX.
I
nthehumanmal
e,sexchr
omosomesar
enothomol
ogousandt
heyar
ehet
erozy
gous
(
XY)
.
Howev
er,
theYchr
omosomesdonotcar
ryanygenes,
theyar
eempt
yhencei
tist
heX
orYchr
omosomepr
oducedbymant
hatdet
ermi
nest
hesexoft
heof
fspr
ings.Whent
he
ov
um i
sfer
ti
li
zedbyanXsper
m,af
emal
ebabyXXi
sbor
n.
Wheni
tisf
ert
il
izedbyaYsper
m,amal
ebabyi
sbor
n.
Hencei
tist
hemal
ewhi
chdet
ermi
nest
hesexofahumanbaby
.
TheYsper
msar
emor
eact
iveandper
sist
entt
hant
heXsper
ms.Thi
sincr
easest
he
chancesofanov
um t
obef
ert
il
izedbyaYsper
m.Sot
oev
ery100gi
rl
s,120boy
sar
e
bor
nbutXYbabyboy
sar
enotsot
oughast
heXXbabygi
rl
sduet
othi
s;mor
eboy
sthan
gi
rl
sdi
eatt
het
imeofbi
rt
h.
 Genet
ics

QUESTI
ON;
Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingswhenamal
emat
eswi
tht
hef
emal
e.
St
atet
hegenot
ypi
crat
iooft
heof
fspr
ing.

Femal
e Mal
e
v
) Par
ent
al
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
XX XY
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es X X X Y
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Of
fspr
ing XX XX XY XY
Genot
ypi
crat
io1:
1

SEXLI
NKEDTRAI
TS/
CHARACTERS
Thesear
etr
ait
sorgenesassoci
atedwi
tht
hesexoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Thesechar
act
ersar
e
car
ri
edont
hesexchr
omosomesandar
econt
rol
l
edordet
ermi
nedbyt
hegeneson
t
hosechr
omosomes.Suchchar
act
ersappeari
nar
ecessi
vef
orm hencear
ever
y
commoni
nmal
est
hani
nfemal
es.Suchchar
act
ersi
ncl
ude;
 Col
ourbl
i
ndness
 Haemophi
l
ia(
bleederdi
sease)
 Si
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
a
 Bal
dness
 Et
c.

I
nher
it
anceofcol
ourbl
i
ndness
Col
ourbl
i
ndnessi
sadef
ectoft
heey
escausedbyar
ecessi
vegeneont
heX
chr
omosome.
Exampl
e
LetBbet
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
col
ourv
isi
on
Letbbet
heal
l
elef
orcol
ourbl
i
ndness
Genot
ype Phenot
ype
XBXB Nor
mal
femal
e
XBXb Car
ri
erf
emal
e
XbXb Col
ourbl
i
ndf
emal
e
XBY Nor
mal
mal
e
b
XY Col
ourbl
i
ndmal
e

QUESTI
ON:
1.i
)whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingswhenacar
ri
erf
emal
eforcol
ourbl
i
ndnessmar
ri
esa
mal
ewi
thnor
mal
col
ourv
isi
on.
i
i
)wr
it
ethegenot
ypi
crat
iooft
heof
fspr
ingsandmakeacommentoft
hei
r
condi
ti
on.
Sol
uti
on:
l
etBr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
col
ourv
isi
on
l
etbr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orcol
ourbl
i
ndness.

Mot
her Fat
her
X
XBXb XBY
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es X Xb X Y
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Of
fspr
inggenot
ype XBXB XBXb XBY XbY

Genot
ypi
crat
io2:
1:1
2wi
l
lbenor
mal
gir
l(f
emal
e)
1wi
l
lbenor
mal
boy(
mal
e)
1wi
l
lbecar
ri
ergi
rl(
femal
e)
1wi
l
lbecol
ourbl
i
ndboy(
mal
e)
2.Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingi
facol
ourbl
i
ndwomanmar
ri
esanor
mal
man.
Sol
uti
on:

I
nher
it
anceofhaemophi
l
ia(
bleederdi
sease)
I
tisadi
seasei
nwhi
chbl
oodt
akesal
ongt
imet
ocl
otatawound.I
tisal
soknownas
t
hebl
eeder
’sdi
sease.Thi
sdi
seasei
scausedbyar
ecessi
vegenewhi
chi
scar
ri
edon
 Genet
ics

t
heXchr
omosome.
LetHbet
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
bloodcl
ott
ing
Letbbet
heal
l
elef
orhaemophi
l
ia
Genot
ype Phenot
ype
H H
XX Nor
mal
femal
e
XHXh Car
ri
erf
emal
e
XhXh Haemophi
l
iacf
emal
e
XHY Nor
mal
mal
e
XhY Haemophi
l
iacmal
e
QUESTI
ON:
Whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingsi
fanor
mal
womanmar
ri
esahaemophi
l
iacman?
LetHr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
bloodcl
ott
ing
Lethr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orhaemophi
l
ia

Mot
her Fat
her
X
XHXH XhY
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es X XH Xh Y
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Of
fspr
inggenot
ype XHXh XHXh XHY XHY

2car
ri
erf
emal
es:
2nor
mal
mal
es
Sexl
i
mit
edt
rai
ts
These ar
e char
act
eri
sti
cs t
hat onl
y show i
n one sex e.
g.secondar
y sexual
char
act
eri
sti
cs,
hai
rypi
nna,
etc.
Si
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
a
I
tisduet
oamut
ati
onofagene.Aper
sonsuf
fer
ingf
rom si
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
ahasa
def
ect
ivet
ypeofhaemogl n.I
obi tiscausedbyar
ecessi
vegene.
Whent
heconcent
rat
ionofoxy
geni
slowi
nbl
ood,
ther
edbl
oodcel
l
sassumet
heshape
ofasi
ckl
e.Becauseoft
his,
ther
edbl
oodcel
l
scannotabsor
boxy
genpr
oper
ly.
Thi
sisaher
edi
tar
ydi
seaseandcanbepassedont
othechi
l
drenbyt
hepar
ent
sint
hei
r
gamet
es.Si
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
ahasaf
atal
eff
ectonpeopl
ewhoar
ehomozy
gousf
ort
his
mut
atedgene.
Peopl
ewhoar
ehet
erozy
gousi
.e.t
heyhav
emut
atedandnon-
mut
atedgeneshav
e
nor
mal
redbl
oodcel
l
s.

Exampl
e:
LetBr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
RBC
Letbr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orsi
ckl
eshapedRBC
Genot
ype Phenot
ype
BB Nor
mal
RBC
Bb Nor
mal
butcar
ri
er
Bb Si
ckl
eshapedRBC

QUESTI
ON:
1.Anor
malmal
emar
ri
edacar
ri
erf
emal
eforsi
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
a.Det
ermi
net
he
phenot
ypeandgenot
ypeoft
hechi
l
dren.

l
etBr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
ornor
mal
RBC
l
etbr
epr
esentt
heal
l
elef
orsi
ckl
ecel
l

Par
ent
alphenot
ype Nor
ma Nor
ma
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
BB Bb
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e B B B b
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng BB BB Bb Bb
F2genoty
pe
Nor
mal
Car
ri
er
 Genet
ics

Phenot
ype Nor
ma Nor
mal Nor
mal
: l Car
ri
er

Anor
malmal
ewhosemot
herhadsi
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
amar
ri
edacar
ri
erf
emal
e.What
per
cent
ageoft
hei
rchi
l
drenhadsi
ckl
ecel
lanaemi
a?

EXCEPTI
ONSTOMENDELI
ANI
NHERI
TANCE
Thef
oll
owi
ngdonotconf
ormt
othepr
ocessofi
nher
it
anceasi
l
lust
rat
edbyMendel
.
1.Li
nkage
2.I
ncompl
etedomi
nance.
3.Co-
domi
nance
4.Mul
ti
pleal
l
eles.

CO-
DOMI
NANCE
Thi
sisacondi
ti
onwher
egenesdet
ermi
ningapar
ti
cul
archar
act
eral
lshowupsucht
hat
t
hephenot
ypeoft
heof
fspr
ingi
sami
xtur
eoft
hatoft
hepar s.I
ent tmai
nlyoccur
sin
ani
mal
s.
I
tiswher
eint
hehet
erozy
gousst
atenei
theral
l
elei
scompl
etel
ydomi
nantov
ert
heot
her
i
.e.t
he2al
l
elesar
eco-
domi
nant
.Thi
sresul
tsi
nthephenot
ypei
nter
medi
atebet
ween
t
hepar
ent
’sappear
ance.

Quest
ion:
I
nani
mal
s,whatwi
l
lbet
heof
fspr
ingswhenar
edbul
li
scr
ossedwi
thawhi
tecow.
LetRbet
heal
l
elef
orr
edbul
l
LetW bet
heal
l
elef
orwhi
tecow
Par
ent
alphenot
ype
Redbul
l Whi
tecow
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype RR
WW
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es R R W W
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng RW RW RW RW
F1genoty
pe
F1phenot
ype:
all
theof
fspr
ingswi
l
lber
oan.
whatwoul
dbet
heof
fspr
ingsi
nthe2ndgener
ati
on
Par
ent
alphenot
ype Roanbul
l Roancow
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
RW RW
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es R W R W
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng RR RW RW WW
F2genoty
pe

F2phenot
ype.1r
ed,
2roanand1whi
te.

I
NCOMPLETEDOMI
NANCE
Thi
sisacondi
ti
oni
nthehet
erozy
gouswher
enei
theroft
heal
l
elesi
sdomi
nantov
ert
he
ot
herandt
hephenot
ypeoft
heof
fspr
ingi
sani
nter
medi
atebet
weent
hatoft
hepar
ent
s.
I
tmai
nlyoccur
sinpl
ant
s.
E.
g.i
npl
ant
s,whenar
edf
lower
edpl
anti
scr
ossedwi
thawhi
tef
lower
edpl
ant
,the
of
fspr
ingpr
oducedpi
nkandwhi
tef
lower
sinar
ati
oof1:
2:1r
espect
ivel
y.
Exampl
e1.
Consi
derpet
alcol
ouri
nfl
ower
s.
Lett
hegenef
orr
edpet
alf
lower
sbeR.
l
ett
hegenef
orwhi
tef
lower
sbeW

Par
ent
alphenot
ype
Red Whi
te
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype RR
W
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e R R W W
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng R R R R
F1genoty
pe
 Genet
ics

F1phenot
ype:
all
pinkpet
als.
Sel
fi
ngF1.(
Crossbet
weenof
fspr
ingi
nF1)
Par
ent
alphenot
ype Pi
nkpet
als Pi
nkpet
als
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype
RW RW
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es R W R W
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Off
spri
ng RR RW RW WW
F2genoty
pe

F2phenot
ype.1r
ed,
2pi
nkand1whi
te.
Phenot
ypi
crat
io;
1red:
2pi
nk:
1whi
te.(
1:2:
1)

MULTI
PLEALLELES
Thi
siswher
eonechar
act
eri
sdet
ermi
nedbymor
ethant
woal
l
eles.Thi
simpl
i
est
hata
si
ngl
egenecont
ainsmor
ethant
woal
l
eles.Anexampl
eisbl
oodgr
oupi
nher
it
ance.
I
nher
it
anceofbl
oodgr
oups
Thegenecont
rol
l
ingbl
oodgr
oupsi
smadeupoft
hreedi
ff
erental
l
eles(
mul
ti
pleal
l
eles)
.
Theseal
l
elesar
eA,
BandO.Thei
nher
it
anceofbl
oodgr
oupsi
sal
soanexampl
eofco-
domi
nance.Ther
ear
e4bl
oodgr
oupst
hati
sgr
oupA,
B,ABandO.t
heal
l
elesf
orbl
ood
A B O O A B A B
gr
oupsar
erepr
esent
edasI,IandI.I i
srecessi
vet
oI andI .I andI ar
eco-
domi
nant
.Ani
ndi
vi
duali
nher
it
stwooft
heseal
l
elesonef
rom eachpar
ent
.Thet
abl
e
bel
owshowst
hepossi
blebl
oodgr
oupst
hatcanar
isef
rom t
hedi
ff
erentgenot
ypes.
Genot
ype(
all
eles) Bl
oodgr
oup(
phenot
ype)
AO
II A
AA
II A
BO
II B
BB
II B
AB
II AB
 OO
II O

Exampl
e:
Wor
koutt
hepossi
blebl
oodgr
oupsoft
heof
fspr
ingspr
oducedi
famanofbl
oodgr
oup
Amar
ri
esawomanofbl
oodgr
oupAB
AO AA A
Themancanhav
etwopossi
blegenot
ypes,i
.e.II andII.Thi
sisbecauseal
l
eleI i
s
O
domi
nantt
oal
l
eleI.
AA
Consi
der
ingt
hecasewher
ethemani
sI I

Mal
ewi
thgr
oup Femal
ewi
thgr
oup
A AB
Par
ent
alphenot
ype
X
Par
ent
algenot
ype AA AB
II II
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
es A
I A
l
A
I B
I
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Of
fspr
ing AA
II AA
II AB
II AB
II
genot
ype

Of
fspr
ingphenot
ype.2bl
oodgr
oupAand2bl
oodgr
oupAB

AO
Consi
der
ingt
hecasewher
ethemani
sI I
Malewit
h Femalewi
th
Par
ental gr
oupA groupAB
p X
Ph
ae
r
en
no
tt
y
ap
le
genot
ype AO AB
I I II
Mei
osi
s

Gamet
e I I I I
Fer
ti
li
zat
io

Of
fspr
ing AA
II AO
II AB
II BO
II
genot
ype
 Genet
ics

Of
fspr
ingphenot
ype.2hav
ebl
oodgr
oupA,1hasbl
oodgr
oupABand1hasbl
ood
gr
oupB

Appl
i
cat
ionofgenet
ics
1.Thest
udyofgenet
icsencour
agesbr
eedi
ngofani
mal
swi
thgoodchar
act
eri
sti
cst
o
i
mpr
ovel
i
vest
ock.
2.I
thel
pst
oel
i
minat
eorr
educehar
mful
char
act
eri
sti
cst
hrought
hest
udyofgenet
ics.
3.Thr
oughgenet
iccounsel
i
ngandadv
icei
ndi
vi
dual
smaybeadv
isedont
hepossi
bil
i
ty
oft
hei
rof
fspr
ings.
4.I
thel
psi
npr
edi
cti
onofof
fspr
ingf
rom t
womat
ingi
ndi
vi
dual
sandsol
vespr
obl
ems
l
i
kef
rat
ernal
uncer
tai
nty
.

MUTATI
ON
Thi
sisasudden/
spont
aneouschangei
nthest
ruct
ureandcomposi
ti
onofageneor
chr
omosome.

Ty
pesofmut
ati
on
1.Chr
omosomemut
ati
on:
thi
sisasuddenchangei
nthest
ruct
ureofachr
omosome.
2.Genemut
ati
on

Ty
pesofchr
omosomemut
ati
on
i
) Del
eti
on:
Thi
siswhenapi
eceofchr
omosomei
sbr
okenof
fandl
ostt
her
efor
ethechr
omosome
becomesshor
tert
hant
heor
igi
nal
one.
A
B
C

i
i
)Inv
ersi
on:
Api
eceoft
hechr
omosomebr
eaksandj
oinsonadi
ff
erentsi
deoft
hesame
chr
omosome.
A
B
C

i
i
i)Dupl
i
cat
ion:
Achr
omosomegai
nsapi
ecef
rom anot
herchr
omosomeoft
hesamet
ypeand
becomesl
onger
.
A
B
C

i
v)Tr
ansl
ocat
ion:
Api
eceofchr
omosomebr
eaksandj
oinst
oanot
herchr
omosomeofdi
ff
erentt
ype.
A
B
C

Genemut
ati
on:
Thi
sisasuddenchangei
nthest
ruct
ureofagene.
Ty
pesofgenemut
ati
on
Del
eti
on
Dupl
i
cat
ion
Subst
it
uti
on:(
thi
sisacondi
ti
onwher
eapar
tofagenei
srepl
acedbyanot
herofa
di
ff
erentt
ype)
.

Causesofmut
ati
ons.
Mut
ati
onsar
ecausedbysubst
ancesgener
all
yref
err
edt
oasmut
agens.Thesei
ncl
ude;
1.Hi
ght
emper
atur
es.
2.Chemi
cal
ssuchasmust
ardgas,
col
chi
neandcaf
fei
ne.
3.Hi
gh-
ener
gypar
ti
clessuchasal
phaandbet
apar
ti
cles.
4.Hi
gh-
ener
gyr
adi
ati
onssuchasx-
ray
s,gammar
aysandul
tr
avi
oletr
adi
ati
ons.
Not
e;mostmut
ati
onsar
edi
sadv
ant
ageousandr
ecessi
ve.Theyar
erar
ebutper
sist
ent
i
nthepopul
ati
on.
 Genet
ics

EVOLUTI
ON

Ev
olut
ioni
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chmor
ecompl
exf
ormsofor
gani
smsar
isef
rom si
mpl
er
f
ormsov
eral
ongper
iodoft
ime.Or
Thi
sisagr
adualpr
ocessbywhi
chor
gani
smschangef
rom si
mpl
etocompl
exf
orms
ov
eraper
iodoft
ime.
Ast
heenv
ironmentchanges,or
gani
smsal
sounder
gochangest
osui
tthemsel
vest
o
t
hechangi
ngenv
ironment
.Thi
sresul
tsi
ntoev
olut
ionwi
thi
ntheor
gani
sms.

ORI
GINOFLI
FE
Theor
igi
nofl
i
fei
snotexact
lyknown.Howev
ersomet
heor
ieshav
ebeenputf
orwar
dto
expl
aint
heor
igi
nofl
i
fe.Thesear
e:
1.Speci
alcr
eat
iont
heor
y:
Al
ll
iv
ingt
hingswer
ecr
eat
edbyGod.
2.St
eadyst
atet
heor
y:
I
tsuggest
sthatl
i
fehasnoor
igi
nandi
thasbeeni
nexi
stence.
3.Spont
aneousgener
ati
ont
heor
y:
I
tsuggest
sthatl
i
fear
osef
rom non-
li
vi
ngmat
ter
.
4.Cosmozoant
heor
y:
I
tsuggest
sthatl
i
fear
osef
rom anot
herpl
anetoft
heuni
ver
seandar
ri
vedonear
th
bysomemeans.
5.Bi
ochemi
cal
evol
uti
ont
heor
y:
I
tsuggest
sthati
nor
gani
cmol
ecul
esi
.e.DNAandchr
omosomesandot
herpr
otei
n
mol
ecul
eswer
eor
gani
zedi
ntoabasi
cuni
tofl
i
fecal
l
edacel
l
.
I
tist
hemostaccept
edt
heor
yoft
heor
igi
nofl
i
fe.Thesi
mpl
eli
fe(
cel
l
)gr
adual
l
y
under
wentnumer
ouschangesal
ongdi
ff
erentl
i
nest
ofor
mthepr
esentdi
ver
sit
yof
compl
exor
gani
sms.
Thi
sconf
ir
mst
hatal
lthepr
esentor
gani
smsdespi
teoft
hei
rdi
ff
erencesar
osef
rom t
he
sameancest
ors,
apr edev
ocesscal
l olut
ion.

THEORI
ESOFEVOLUTI
ON
Theseexpl
aint
hemechani
sm ofhowev
olut
ionhast
akenpl
aceov
eraper
iodoft
ime.
Ther
ear
etwot
heor
iesputf
orwar
dtoexpl
ainhowev
olut
iont
akespl
ace.
1.Lamar
ck’
stheor
y(Lamar
cki
sm)
2.Dar
win’
stheor
y(Dar
wini
sm)

LAMARCKI
ANEVOLUTI
ON
Thi
swasputf
orwar
dbyabi
ologi
stcal
l
edLamar
ck.
I
twasbasedont
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ples;
 I
nfl
uenceofenv
ironment
alf
act
ors.
 Useanddi
suseofpar
tsoft
hebody
.
 I
nher
it
anceofacqui
redchar
act
ers.
Lamar
cksuggest
edt
hatev
olut
ionwasasar
esul
tofchangest
hator
gani
smsacqui
red
dur
ingt
hei
rli
fet
ime.Thesechangeswer
ethenpassedont
othei
rof
fspr
ing.I
twas
bel
i
evedt
hatancest
orsofpr
esentdaygi
raf
feshadshor
tnecksbutasf
oodbecame
scar
ce,
theyst
ret
chedt
hei
rnecksi
nor
dert
ogetf
oli
agel
eav
esatt
het
opofshor
ttr
ees.
Thi
scausedt
hei
rneckst
oel
ongat
e.Thi
schar
act
erwaspassedont
othei
rof
fspr
ing.
Lamar
ckputupt
hel suse.Hesuggest
aw ofuseanddi edt
hatt
hedi
suseofany
char
act
erwoul
dresul
tini
tsdi
sappear
anceandt
heuseofanychar
act
erwoul
dleadt
o
i
tsdev
elopment
.
N.
B:howev
er,Lamar
ck’
stheor
ywaspr
ovedt
obewr
ongbygenet
icev
idencet
hat
acqui
redchar
act
erscannotbei
nher
it
ed.

DARWI
N’STHEORYOFEVOLUTI
ON
Char
lesDar
wini
sanot
herbi
ologi
stwhopr
oposedat
heor
ytoexpl
ainhow ev
olut
ion
t
akespl
ace.Dar
winsuggest
edt
hatev
olut
ionoccur
sbynat
ural
sel
ect
ion.

NATURALSELECTI
ON
Thi
sist
hepr
ocessbywhi
chor
gani
smst
hatar
ebet
teradapt
edt
otheenv
ironment
sur
viv
etor
epr
oducewhi
l
ethosel
essadapt
edf
ailt
odosoandbecomeext
inct
.Or
Thi
sisapr
ocessbywhi
chnat
uresel
ect
sfort
hebestadapt
edor
gani
smsandsel
ect
s
agai
nstt
hel
essadapt
edones.
When t
he env
ironmentchanges,i
taf
fect
s or
gani
sms and t
hose,whi
ch possess
char
act
erst
hatenabl
ethem t
osur
viv
eint
hechangi
ngenv
ironmentsur
viv
ewhi
l
ethose
 Genet
ics

l
essadapt
ed,di
eov
eral
ongper
iodoft
ime.Thi
soccur
sbecauseor
gani
smsposses
v
ari
ati
ons(
dif
fer
encesbet
weent
hem)
.
Thesur
viv
aloft
hebestadapt
edandr
emov
aloft
hel
essadapt sknownassur
edi viv
al
f
ort
hef
it
test
.
Thr
oughhi
sst
udi
es,
Dar
winmadet
hef
oll
owi
ngobser
vat
ions.
1.Or
gani
smspr
oducev
erymanyof
fspr
ings.
2.The popul
ati
on ofor
gani
sms gener
all
yremai
ns const
antdespi
te oft
he l
arge
numberofof
fspr
ingspr
oduced.Thi
sisduet
ocompet
it
ionbet
weent
hemember
sof
t
hespeci
esf
orenv
ironment
alr
esour
cessuchasf
ood,
space,
shel
ter
,andmat
es.
3.Of
fspr
ings t
end t
oresembl
ethei
rpar
ent
sin some char
act
ers.Thi
sis due t
o
i
nher
it
anceofchar
act
ersorgenesf
rom par
ent
s.
4.Ther
eisv
ari
ati
onamongor
gani
smsoft
hesamepopul
ati
on.Thi
sisduet
obot
h
genet
icandenv
ironment
alf
act
ors.
Fr
om t
heabov
eobser
vat
ions,Dar
winsuggest
edt
hatt
her
emustbeast
ruggl
efor
exi
stencewher
ebyt
hef
iti
ndi
vi
dual
s(bet
teradapt
ed)sur
viv
eandt
heunf
itonesdi
e
(
sur
viv
alf
ort
hef
it
test
).Ov
erav
eryl
ongper
iodoft
imet
heseor
gani
smscanchange
i
ntoadi
ff
erentspeci
es.

EVI
DENCEOFEVOLUTI
ON
Ther
ear
esev
eralev
idencesputf
orwar
dtosuppor
tthet
heor
yofev
olut
ion.These
i
ncl
ude;
 Compar
ati
veanat
omy
 Compar
ati
veembr
yol
ogy
 Pal
eont
ology
 Taxonomy
 Compar
ati
vebi
ochemi
str
y
 Geogr
aphi
cal
dist
ri
but
ionofor
gani
sms

1.Pal
eont
ology
Thi
sist
hest
udyoff
ossi
l
s.Fossi
l
sar
eremai
nsofor
gani
smst
hatl
i
vedi
nthepastand
wer
epr
eser
vedi
nrocks.Fossi
lst
udi
esshowt
hator
gani
smst
hatl
i
vedi
nthepasthad
somer
esembl
ancet
othepr
esentdayor
gani
sms.Thi
sshowst
hatt
heyhadacommon
ancest
ry.Thedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hem showst
hatev
olut
ionhasoccur
redi
nthe
pr
esentdayor
gani
sms.

2.Compar
ati
veembr
yol
ogy
.
Thest
udyoft
hedev
elopmentoft
hezy
got
eshowst
hator
gani
smshadacommon
ancest
or.I
nal
lver
tebr
atesf
orexampl
ethezy
got
edev
elopsat
aili
ntheear
lyst
ages
andi
tissur
roundedbymembr
anes(
amni
onandal
l
ant
ois)
.

3.Cel
lbi
ology
.
Thest
udyofcel
l
sshowssi
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenor
gani
sms.Forexampl
eal
lcel
l
sof
mul
ti
cel
l
ularor
gani
smshav
eanucl
eus,
mit
ochondr
iaandot
heror
ganel
l
es.Thi
sshows
t
hatt
heor
gani
smshadacommonancest
ry.Thedi
ff
erencese.
g.chl
oropl
ast
sinpl
ant
cel
l
sshowst
hatev
olut
iont
ookpl
ace
4.Compar
ati
veanat
omy
.
When anat
omi
calst
ruct
uresofor
gani
smsar
est
udi
ed,t
heyshow si
mil
ari
ti
esand
di
ff
erences.Si
mil
ari
ti
esi
ndi
cat
ethatt
heor
gani
smshadacommonancest
orwhi
l
ethe
di
ff
erencesshowt
hatt
heyhav
eev
olv
ed.Forexampl
eal
lver
tebr
ateshav
eapent
adact
yl
l
i
mbbutt
hel
i
mbhasbeenmodi
fi
edi
nthedi
ff
erentv
ert
ebr
atesandi
tper
for
msdi
ff
erent
f
unct
ions.
Homol
ogousst
ruct
ures
Thesear
est
ruct
uresf
rom t
hecommonancest
ralor
igi
nthatser
vedi
ff
erentf
unct
ions
e.
gthepent
adact
yll
i
mbcomposedoff
ivedi
git
sli
kei
nthehor
sef
orr
unni
ng,monkey
s
f
orgr
aspi
ng,
humanbei
ngsf
orhandl
i
ngandbat
sforf
lyi
ng.
Thi
sty
peofev
olut
ioni eddi
scal
l ver
gentev
olut
ionwhi
chi
sthet
ypeofev
olut
ionwher
e
byor
gani
smswi
thcommonancest
orshav
edev
elopedst
ruct
urest
hatper
for
m di
ff
erent
f
unct
ionsbecauseofchangei
ntheenv
ironmentt
heyl
i
vei
n.
Whenst
ruct
uresar
efur
thercompar
ed,
iti
sobser
vedt
hatsomeoft
hem di
ff
erbutser
ve
t
hesamef
unct
ions.Suchst
ruct
ur eknownasanal
esar ogousst
ruct
ures.
Thusanal
ogousst
ruct
uresar
est
ruct
uresf
rom di
ff
erentancest
ralor
igi
nbutser
vet
he
samef
unct
ions.Such ev
olut
ion i
scal
l
ed conv
ergentev
olut
ion whi
ch i
sat
ypeof
ev
olut
ionwher
ebydi
ff
erentor
ganswi
thdi
ff
erentancest
ralor
igi
nsper
for
mthesame
f
unct
ion.Thi
sisbecauseoft
hesi
mil
arenv
ironment
stheyl
i
vei
ne.
g.wi
ngsofbi
rdsand
wi
ngsofi
nsect
s.
5.Adapt
iver
adi
ati
on:
 Genet
ics

When t
wo popul
ati
ons oft
he same speci
es ar
e separ
ated geogr
aphi
cal
l
y.The
or
gani
smsadaptt
hemsel
vest
otheenv
ironmenti
nwhi
cht
heyl
i
ve.Thi
scausest
hem t
o
di
ff
eri
nsomewayt
husev
olut
ion.
6.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion.
Thecl
assi
fi
cat
ionofor
gani
smsi
sbasedonr
esembl
ancei
nor
gani
sms.Thi
sindi
cat
es
t
hator
gani
smsi
nagi
vengr
ouphav
eacommonancest
or.
7.Compar
ati
vebi
ochemi
str
y.
Thest
udyofchemi
calcomposi
ti
onandf
unct
ioni
ngbet
weenl
i
vingor
gani
smsshows
t
hatt
heyhav
eacommonancest
orf
orexampl
eal
lor
gani
smshav
eDNA,t
heyhav
e
enzy
mesmadeoutofpr
otei
n,et
c.
8.Geogr
aphi
cal
dist
ri
but
ion:
Di
str
ibut
ionofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sindi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ldi
ndi
cat
esev
olut
ion.i
.e.
di
ff
erentenv
ironmentl
ookdi
ff
erent
.Howev
ersomeor
gani
smsi
ndi
ff
erentgeogr
aphi
cal
l
ocat
ionar
esi
mil
armeani
ngt
hatt
heyhadacommonancest
or.