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~ vi ~ Contents

Chapter 3 Cognitive Development: Building a Foundation for Language 63

Learning Objectives 63
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 65
The Elements and Processes of Cognitive Organization 66 • The Stage Concept of
Cognitive Development 67 • The Principle of Distancing in Sensorimotor
Development 68 • Concepts and Behaviors Central to Early Cognitive Development 70
The Sensorimotor Period (Birth to 2 Years) 73 • Recent Research: A Critical Review of
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage 83 • Piaget’s Higher Cognitive Stages 86
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A Sociocultural Perspective 89
Private Speech 92 • Social Keys to Cognitive Development 93
Dynamic Systems Theory 95
The Perceptual Groundwork for Communication 97
The Relationship Between Cognition and Perception 98 • Visual and Tactile
Perception 98 • Auditory and Visual Perception 101
Executive Functions 104
Attention and Memory 105 • Executive Functioning and Bilingual
Acquisition 107 • Executive Functioning and Theory of Mind 108
Summary 109
Surfing the Web 110
Review Questions 110

Chapter 4 In the Beginning: Communication Development

from Birth to 2 Years 111
Learning Objectives 111
From the Beginning, the Infant Communicates 112
Creating a Communication Environment Through Interactions: Joint Attention/Reference and
Infant-Directed Speech 113 • Expansions 118 • Extensions 119 • Child-Directed
Speech Matters 121
Ready to Receive Language: Perception and Comprehension of Words 136
Ready to Speak: Expressive Growth in Infancy 140
Reflexive Cries, Biological Noises, and Sounds of Comfort and Pleasure 140 •
Transitional and True Babbling 141 • Variegated Babbling and Jargon 142
The Development of Communication Functions: Using Communication
to Get Things Done 144
Intentionality 144 • Imitation 145 • Pointing 146
Beyond Infancy: The Emergence of Language 147
First Words 147 • Classifying the Child’s First Words 148 • Presuppositions and
Conversational Turn Taking 154 • Midstage Review: What Is Happening So Far? 155
 Contents ~ vii ~

Early Syntactic Development: A Stage Model 156

Early Stage 1 (MLU: 1.0 to 1.5; Age: 12 to 22 Months) 158
Late Stage 1: Syntactic Development—Words to Word Combinations
(MLU: 1.5 to 2.0; Age: 22 to 26 Months) 158
The Syntactic Level: Arranging Words Appropriately 159 • The Semantic Level:
Determining the Meanings of Early Sentences 160 • The Pragmatic Level: An Emphasis on
the Functions of Early Sentences 163
Comprehension and Production: A Critical and Evolving Relationship 164
Social Routines Involving Literacy: Songs, Rhymes, and Stories 167
Infant-Directed Singing 167 • Rhymes 168 • Stories 169 • Television 169
Summary 171
Surfing the Web 172
Review Questions 173

Chapter 5 The Saga Continues: Language Development Through

the Preschool Years 174
Learning Objectives 174
Stage 2: Elaborating Structure and Refining Meaning 175
Pronouns: Words Used to Represent Nouns 178 • Auxiliary Verbs 180 •
Phrases 180 • Negation 183 • Asking Questions 184 • Requests and
Demands 185 • Semantics 185 • Pragmatics and Conversation 187 •
Metalinguistics 188
Stage 3: Producing Longer, More Adultlike Sentences 190
Morphological Development Continues 190 • Phrases and Sentences 190 •
Questions 191 • Pragmatics, Conversation, and Narratives 192 •
Metalinguistics 194
Stage 4: Elaboration with Phrases and Clauses 196
Phrases 196 • Morphology 198 • Pragmatics, Conversations, and
Narratives 200 • Metalinguistics and Emergent Literacy 203
Stage 5: Polishing the Act 205
Morphology 205 • Embedding and Conjoining Sentences 207 • Pragmatics,
Conversations, and Narratives 209 • Metalinguistics and Emergent Literacy 212
The Role of Comprehension and Production in Language Development 215
Concepts Underlying Words 215 • Active and Passive Sentences 217 • Figurative
Language 219 • And That’s Not All, Folks! 220
Summary 220
Surfing the Web 220
Review Questions 221
~ viii ~ Contents

Chapter 6 Taking Language to School and Into Adulthood 222

Learning Objectives 222
The Classroom and Language: New Demands 224
The Language Forms and Curricula of the Classroom 225 • Teacher–Student Dialogues:
Basic Variations 226 • Cultural Diversity in the Classroom 228
Semantic Development 229
Factors Influencing Vocabulary Acquisition 229 • Strategies for Organizing
Vocabulary 231 • Strategies for Retrieving Stored Vocabulary 232 • Defining
Words 234 • From Literal to Figurative: Having Fun With Words 236
Syntax and Morphology 240
Figuring Out Passive Sentences 241 • The Principle of Minimal Distance 241 •
Conjoining and Embedding: Becoming More Complex 242 • Noun and Verb Phrases:
Still Expanding 244 • Morphological Modifications 247
Pragmatics, Conversations, and Narratives 248
Topic Maintenance 249 • Conversational Repairs 249 • Indirect Requests 250 •
Presuppositional Skills 251 • Conjuncts and Disjuncts 251 • Narratives 253 •
Gender Differences in Style and Vocabulary 255
Metalinguistic Development During the School Years 257
Awareness of Speech Sounds 258 • Awareness of Semantics 259 • Awareness of
Morphology and Syntax 260 • Awareness of Pragmatics 260
Learning to Read and Write 261
The Components of Reading and Reading Instruction 262 • Children’s Reading
Development 264 • Components of Writing and Its Development 269
And the Beat Goes on . . . 277
Summary 277
Surfing the Web 278
Review Questions 278

Chapter 7 The Building Blocks of Speech 280

Learning Objectives 280
Describing Speech Sounds 282
Traditional Phonetics 283 • Distinctive Features 286
Development of Speech Sounds in the Prelinguistic and One-Word Stages 287
Development of Speech Sounds in Two-Word Utterances and Beyond 291
Consonant Clusters 292 • Phonological Views of Development 294
Coarticulation and Suprasegmental Aspects of Speech Production 296
The Roles of Biology, Cognition, and Social Interaction in Phonological
Development 298
Summary 299
 Contents ~ ix ~

Surfing the Web 300

Review Questions 300

Chapter 8 Language Diversity: Social/Cultural and Regional

Differences 301
Learning Objectives 301
Socioeconomic Factors 302
Social Class, Education, and Occupation 303 • The Impact of Socioeconomic Status
on Language and Learning 305
Social/Cultural Factors 307
Dialects and Accents 307
Social/Cultural Dialects 309
African American English 309 • Hispanic English 314 • Asian English 317 •
Native American English 319
The Changing Face of America 320
Regional Dialects 321
Bilingualism 325
Simultaneous Language Acquisition 327 • Two Languages or a Hybrid? 328 • The
Impact of the Community on Simultaneous Bilingualism 328 • Monolingual Versus
Simultaneous Bilingual Development 329 • Code Mixing 330 • Stages of
Development in Simultaneous Bilingualism 331 • Successive Bilingual Language
Development 331 • Transfer from First to Second Language 332 • Influence of the
Second Language on the First 332 • Rate of Learning the Second Language 333 •
Stages of Development in Successive Bilingualism 333 • Other Stages of Second Language
Acquisition 334
The Optimal Age of Second Language Learning 336
Cognition, Language, and Literacy Development 338
Cognition and a Second Language: Two Views 339
Cultural Diversity in the Public Schools 341
Curricular Approaches, Teacher Preparation, and Classroom Environment 343
Summary 347
Surfing the Web 347
Review Questions 348

Chapter 9 Speech and Language Disorders in the Home, School,

and Community 349
Learning Objectives 349
Interrelationships and Impact of Speech and Language Disorders 353
Four Students with Speech, Language, and Learning Problems 354
~ x ~ Contents

Causes and Types of Communication Disorders 357

Environmental Factors 358 • Sensory Factors 359 • Developmental Factors 361 •
Neurological Factors 363 • Language Disorders of Unknown Origin 367
Speech Disorders 368
Voice Disorders 369 • Fluency Disorders 370
Final Thoughts 373
Summary 374
Surfing the Web 374
Review Questions 374

Appendix The Anatomical and Physiological Bases of Speech, Language,

and Hearing 377
Learning Objectives 377
Speech as the Product of Borrowed Structures 378
The Four Processes of Speech 379
Respiration 380
The Structures of Breathing 380 • The Application of Basic Physics to Breathing 382 •
Inhalation and Exhalation During Quiet Breathing 382 • Breathing for Speech 384
Phonation 384
The Parts of the Voice Generator 385 • Making the Voice Generator Work 387
Resonation 390
Articulation 391
The Four Processes in Review 392
The Brain: The Computer Center for Speech and Language 393
Speech and Language Functions of the Brain 394
The Ear: An Energy Transformer 398
The Outer Ear 399 • The Middle Ear 400 • The Inner Ear 401 • Tracing the
Pathway of Hearing: A Brief Summary 403
The Complete Speech and Language Machine 403
Surfing the Web 404
Review Questions 404

Glossary 405
References and Suggested Readings 418
Name Index 465
Subject Index 473
Preface

Practitioners and researchers from many disciplines continue to contribute

new and exciting information about human language acquisition. It is chal-
lenging to keep abreast of the complex array of topics that provides the foun-
dation for human communication and its development from birth through
the young adult period. This new edition of Born to Talk is suitable for students
and practitioners in speech-language pathology, early childhood education,
general education, special education, and related disciplines who seek a con-
temporary and comprehensive view of speech and language development in
a reader-friendly manner.

New to This Edition

The eText for this title is an affordable, interactive version of the print text
that includes videos and interactive features that provide opportunities for
students to get feedback on their answers to the questions posed.
To learn more about the enhanced Pearson eText, go to www.pearson
highered.com/etextbooks.
■ This eText includes three to six video clips in each chapter that allow stu-
dents and practitioners to watch and hear content that further describes
or explains the information in each chapter. Over 90% of the videos
were created specifically for this edition.
■ Each chapter contains a “Reflect and Apply” interactive eText feature.
The feature gives readers access to a video, a thought-provoking ques-
tion that requires application of content in the video, a hint for thinking
about the answer, and detailed feedback.
■ Each chapter also contains a “Reflect and Analyze” interactive eText fea-
ture that gives readers access to a video, a question that requires the
reader to attend to the details of the video, a hint for considering how to
answer the question, and feedback.
■ A glossary is included in this edition that provides definitions for key
terms in the text. These terms appear in boldface when they are first
mentioned. In the eText, readers can click on the term to directly access
the glossary.
In addition, in this sixth edition of Born to Talk, we have
■ Reorganized Chapter 4 to highlight the role of the caregiver in early lan-
guage development. The placement of this information at the forefront
of the chapter stresses the importance of establishing joint attention and
~ xi ~
~ xii ~ Preface

joint reference, as well as using interaction strategies for prelinguistic

children and children in the early stages of communication.
■ Expanded on the development of literacy in Chapters 5 and 6 with the
inclusion of original drawings and writing as examples of the growth
that transpires from preschool to early elementary school.
■ Added a new section on poverty and its relationship to language in
Chapter 8, that leads the discussion on the social/cultural aspects of
language development. Social/cultural factors appear at the begin-
ning of the chapter in this edition, with regional factors following. This
reorganization reflects our social interactionist perspective of language
acquisition.
■ Added twelve new tables or figures to highlight important content in
most chapters making the information easily accessible.
■ Provided search terms in Surfing the Web sections at the end of each
chapter to encourage readers to expand their knowledge beyond the
text to practical and interactive application of the concepts. The search
terms provide a vehicle for extended learning opportunities for students
in a multimedia context.

About This Text

The primary focus of this book is on language development. The sole purpose
of Chapter 1 (“A Connection of Brains”) is to pique the reader’s interest in
language as a unique human experience and to appreciate how messages are
transmitted from one human brain to another. Chapter 2 lays the groundwork
for considering the impressive nature and nurture of human communication.
We discuss the many perspectives involved in learning language by exploring
what human communication is and how we learn it during our early years. In
this edition, we also relate the three perspectives—nativist, behaviorist, and
social interactionist—to how speech-language pathologists and educators use
them in designing appropriate goals and intervention strategies for children
with typical and atypical language development. Chapter 3 is an exploration
of how the development of cognition and perception is related to language
learning. In Chapters 4, 5, and 6 we use a stage model to present the jour-
ney each child takes in developing the various components of language. The
integration of all language components including literacy using this real-
time approach will facilitate an understanding of how one aspect of language
affects all other aspects. Chapter 7 explores how language is learned and
transmitted from one person to another via speech production. In Chapter 8
we take a close look at the relationship between language acquisition and
socioeconomic status and poverty, as well as social dialects. We also explore
the wonders and challenges of children learning two languages within a soci-
etal framework. Chapter 9 provides a brief overview of developmental and
acquired disorders of speech and language. Some readers will be less familiar
than others with information pertaining to the anatomy and physiology of
speech, language, and hearing. We include this information in the Appendix.
 Preface ~ xiii ~

Before we get to our acknowledgments, we want to address the gender

strategy we use in this book. As members of a profession that is more than
80% female, we are sensitive to the gender problem in communication. We
are also frustrated by the limitations of American English pronouns. For this
reason, we alternate the use of feminine and masculine pronouns, with the
understanding that these pronouns are intended to be gender-neutral in all
contexts. We also generally refer to the child in the singular (versus the plural
children) in order to create an image of one child whose speech and language
development we study through this book.
There are occasional personal references in this book, indicated by first-
person pronouns and by phrases such as my sister, daughter, grandchildren, and
father. These references reflect the life experiences of the authors, and each is
footnoted for the reader’s information.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the invaluable contributions of several people. Pamela
Hulit provided computer assistance in creating a number of tables included
in the book. Dr. Jill Gilkerson from the LENA Research Foundation provided
guidance in the selection of figures from their publications and language
samples from their database. Lori Shin from the LENA Research Foundation
tailored the graphic art to meet publication specifications. Taylor Weber,
a graduate student in speech-language pathology from the University of
Northern Colorado (UNC), assisted with the video project and created the
glossary. Andy Nagel, the videographer from Mirage Video Pro, and his assis-
tant Ian worked with us in a university and public school setting to produce
the videos. We appreciate the special talents of these people, and we are grate-
ful for their efforts on our behalf.
A special thank you is extended to the parents and their children who
graciously gave their time and language interactions to the video project,
Dr. Madeline Milian for her interview about learning English as a second
language and bilingual education, and Carol Haworth for her coordination
extraordinaire and expert speech-language pathology services in the school.
Finally, we thank the following people who reviewed the fifth edition of
this book: Courtney Karasinski, Grand Valley State University; Lori J. Marra,
Duquesne University; Monique T. Mills, The Ohio State University; Jean
Silbar, Grand Valley State University; Gabriella Simon-Cerijido, California
State University Los Angeles; and Laura J. Strong, Indiana University of
Pennsylvania.

To the most important people in our lives,

with immeasurable love and gratitude
Pamela, Yvonne, Carmen, Scot, John, Christopher,
Lance, Benjamin, Peyton, Brianna, Bonita, Lane, Cornelia,
Rosemary, Ernest, Daniel, Anna, Molly, Andrew, and Samantha
This page intentionally left blank
 1
A Connection
of Brains

Learning Objectives

After completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

■ define communication, language, and speech and the relationship of these
terms to each other.
■ define and discuss pragmatics, semantics, syntax and morphology, articulation,
and suprasegmental aspects of speech production.
■ explain how speech and language are separate but related processes.
■ recognize and compare the design features of the human communication system.
■ explain and demonstrate the elements of the speech chain connecting a
speaker’s thoughts to a listener’s understanding of those thoughts.

This first chapter is designed to pique your interest in speech and language
as processes within the broader process we call communication. As a future
educator, you will be in a unique position to observe and facilitate the growth
of children in their journeys to be effective communicators. We define and
describe these processes, and we consider how speech and language interact
to produce a form of communication unique to humans. We also consider
how a speaker’s thoughts are conveyed to a listener’s brain through a series of
communication transformations known collectively as the speech chain.

T
he idea for Born to Talk was cultivated long before the first word of the
original manuscript was written, and it was probably a good thing that
there was a period of latency between the concept and the product.
During that latency, I* observed language development firsthand in my two
daughters, Yvonne and Carmen. I learned more about the power and won-
der of language in observing them than I have in all the books and all the
journal articles I have read over the course of my career because I witnessed

*
Lloyd Hulit.
~ 1 ~
~ 2 ~ Born to Talk

their processes of discovery. I watched and listened as they made connections

between the world in which they were growing up and the words and language
forms that spilled out of them. They are now grown, and they have blessed
my wife and me with five grandchildren, giving me five more opportunities
to observe speech and language development close up and personal. Each
of them has reinforced my appreciation of language as one of humankind’s
greatest gifts and most powerful tools.
My family has an eclectus parrot named Toby. When we were trying to
teach Toby to talk in his first year, he said, “hello” and “step up.” These are
certainly not momentous utterances. They fall short of the magic of Abraham
Lincoln’s “Four score and seven years ago . . .” and John F. Kennedy’s “Ask
not what your country can do for you . . . ,” but they are the beginning of
speech or, at the very least, the beginning of speech-like behavior. What was
fascinating about observing Toby was that the process of acquisition was so
different from the process in human children, and it will always be different.
His utterances, no matter how many he produces over his lifetime, will always
be conditioned responses, and there is no way we will ever know if there is
any connection between what is going on inside his parrot brain and what we
believe in our human brains he is saying, which leads us to the power of ESP
in speech and language.
Have you ever wished you could read someone’s mind, or ever wished or
worried that someone could read your mind? Probably each of us has won-
dered about mental telepathy, and perhaps some of you reading this page
believe you have that gift. We would like to suggest that every person, who
is able to communicate, is capable of a form of mental telepathy, because
human communication allows one human brain to interact with another
human brain in a wondrous and almost magical manner.
Most people give very little thought to the magic of communication
through speech and language because it is acquired so naturally and used so
effortlessly by humans. The purpose of this book is to explore the miracles
of speech and language, to examine the marvelous anatomic structures and
physiological processes we humans have adapted for talking and listening,
to unravel the components of language from sounds to words to elaborate
sentence structure that together help us deliver our messages, to investigate
the dialectal differences in our own language, and to consider the problems
that occur when speech and language do not develop properly or when some-
thing goes wrong after communication skills have been normal for a while. By
the time you have turned the final page in your journey through this book,
we believe you will be convinced that words such as magic and wondrous and
miraculous in reference to speech and language are accurately descriptive, but
before we go any further, we need to address some basic terminology.

Separate but Related Processes

In the preceding paragraphs we used the words speech and language in a man-
ner implying that they are not the same thing, which is correct. They are
 A Connection of Brains ~ 3 ~

separate but related processes in the larger process called communication. To

understand any of these processes, you must understand all of them and how
they are interconnected.
Communication is the sending and receiving of information, ideas, feel-
ings, or messages. To appreciate the breadth of communication, consider just
some of the methods by which human beings communicate. We transmit mes-
sages of all kinds by talking, writing, using codes (Morse code, text messaging,
semaphore flags, Braille), using facial expressions, gestures, art, music, dance,
the distances we maintain when we interact, vocal variations, the clothes we
wear, hairstyles, our natural and purchased odors, and more. We send hun-
dreds, perhaps thousands, of messages every day. Some of our communica-
tions are intended, but many are not. We hope that most of what we send is
received according to our intent, but unfortunately this is not always the case.
The fact is, we humans cannot stop communicating even when we want to.
You may decide to say nothing, but your saying nothing may be saying more
than your saying something. Even when you are asleep you may be sending
messages. You may talk in your sleep, of course, but even in the silence of
unconsciousness, you may communicate restlessness by the way you thrash
around in your bed, or you may communicate a basic insecurity by the way
you curl into the fetal position, or you may transmit a message of utter tran-
quility by the relaxed and peaceful expression on your sleeping face. Do you
get the point? Communication is so much a part of the human experience
that we are constantly sending and receiving messages.
Educators develop a keen sense of the communication strategies of their
students. You will notice that some students let you know that they understand
or do not understand a particular idea through nodding or shaking the head,
smiling or frowning, shrugging shoulders, raising an eyebrow, asking another
child for help, or giving that blank stare! These communication signals are quite Reflect and Apply
important as we gauge the speed, amount, and complexity of our messages.
Language is an infinitely more difficult phenomenon to describe, so we
will build a definition by first looking at some of the characteristics of lan-
guage and then trying to piece them together. Language is an expression of
an ability that is innate in all humans. We are born with the capacity to use
language in the same way a spider is born with the ability to weave webs and
a bird is born with the ability to make a nest. To use language is instinctive
in humans, but the capacity is realized differently in people according to the
specific languages to which they are exposed. A child reared in a family of
English-speaking adults, who hears only English during the language acqui-
sition period, will speak English. You might be surprised that the logic of
that observation escapes some people. My family adopted my youngest sister,
abandoned by her natural Korean parents, when we lived in Korea. When we
returned to a small town in rural Ohio 2 years later, some people were amazed
that she spoke English without a Korean accent. Children do not know they
are German, French, Russian, or Japanese when they are born. They speak
the language they hear, but the innate capacity for that language is the same,
no matter where they are born.
~ 4 ~ Born to Talk

It is important to understand that language and the expression of lan-

guage are two very different things. Language exists in the mind, and it exists
whether or not it is expressed. When we think through an idea or listen to
others and understand what they are saying or asking us to do, we call this
receptive language. When we decide what we want to say and then actually
speak it, sign it, or write it, we call it expressive language.
It is useful to understand language as a system of abstract symbols orga-
nized according to basic rules that seem to be common to all the languages
known to humankind. In other words, at the deepest, most basic level, all lan-
guages share common components and each of these components use rules
that allow the members of the language community to understand each other.
Let us look at the most functional component of l­anguage—​­the ability to
use language as a social vehicle for establishing and maintaining relationships
with others. We call this component pragmatics. Consider how we socialize
children in our families and in early childhood settings. In Western culture,
adults use a combination of obvious instructions, such as “Wait until I fin-
ish talking before you speak,” “Say please,” “Ask Joey for that toy nicely,” and
Reflect and Analyze subtle cues, such as holding up a hand to signal waiting or withholding the
snack, until the child uses a polite request.
Other cultures use varying degrees of verbal and gestural cues as they social-
ize their children. Pragmatics involves not only using language according to
socially established standards but also nonverbal behaviors, such as maintain-
ing an appropriate distance between speakers, establishing and maintaining
eye contact, and using body language appropriate to the situation. Most chil-
dren learn pragmatics through daily routines and we expect that youngsters
come to school with well-established social communication patterns. When
a child comes to school without age-appropriate pragmatics or if pragmat-
ics skills vary considerably from the cultural expectations of the classroom, it
doesn’t take long for teachers and other students to notice.
Another component of language is semantics. When we communicate, no
matter what medium we choose, the goal is to convey meaning. Each lan-
guage has rules for using words and for combining them into meaningful
arrangements. Consider the following exercise. Write three nouns and then
create sentences that convey different ideas. The example words in the follow-
ing sentences are flowers, vase, and morning.
In the morning, I go to the garden and pick flowers for my vase.
This morning, I knocked over the vase of flowers.
The flowers in my favorite vase were dead in the morning.
The deliveryman arrived this morning with a beautiful vase of flowers.
Do you want to get your friend a vase of flowers this morning?
As you can see, semantics involves the meaning that we wish to convey,
even when we are using the same topic words. It involves our use of vocabu-
lary to construct ideas through relationships between words. Children benefit
from lots of activities about words. We will explore this idea at length in sub-
sequent chapters.
 A Connection of Brains ~ 5 ~

Ideas can be conveyed rather simply through three to five simple word
combinations and even nonverbally, but humans develop rules for putting
together words in complex arrangements in order to boost the power and effi-
ciency of their language. We can get a lot done by speaking in an organized
and clear manner. We use grammar to connect different types of words and
the rule structure for these combinations is called syntax. In the sentences
on the previous page, it is necessary to connect the nouns with other parts of
speech, so that the meaning occurs. Imagine if we did not have rules for com-
bining words. How would we make sense of messages if we only had nouns, for
example? Read the sentences aloud using only the three nouns and you will
get the point about the importance of syntax.
The arrangement of words is important for stating our meanings, and each
word is considered a ­morpheme—​­a unit of meaning. But we also have small
units of meaning that we add to words to enhance our messages. For example,
the word flowers in the example is not one, but two morphemes. Flower is the
name of the object and we use the s at the end to convey that there is more
than one. Thus the s is a plural morpheme. We will discuss morphemes in
greater detail in Chapters 4 and 5.
The fact that we do not all speak the same language suggests that some
aspects of language are learned. Languages are different in many ways. They
use different words and different rules for organizing words into grammatical
sentences. English, for example, stresses word order in its grammar system,
but other languages, such as Latin, place greater emphasis on word endings
than on order to indicate grammatical relationships. That is, all languages
have rules for making sentences grammatically correct, but the means by
which correctness is achieved vary. We can conclude, therefore, that although
the capacity for language is innate, and although all languages share very
basic rules, the specific conventions of any given language are learned. The
child who will speak English, for example, must learn the sounds of English as
well as its vocabulary and grammar.
Now let us put some of these pieces together into a definition. Language is
a system of abstract symbols and rule-governed structures, the specific conven-
tions of which are learned. The symbols of language may be sounds that are
combined into spoken words, or letters that are combined into written words,
or even the elements of sign language that are combined into larger units. It
is important to note that whatever the symbols, they are arbitrarily established
by the conventional usage of a given people. Furthermore, the symbols or
their combinations will change over time because language is a constantly
evolving phenomenon. Much more needs to be added to this definition (and
will be in the chapters that follow), but this will serve as a starting point.
We can now define speech, a relatively simple task if we understand com-
munication and language. Very simply, speech is the oral expression of lan-
guage. Sometimes people use the terms language and speech as though they
are interchangeable, but they clearly are not. If they were interchangeable,
one could not exist without the other because they would be one and the
same thing. In fact, speech can and does exist in the absence of language, and
~ 6 ~ Born to Talk

language exists in the absence of speech. Consider Toby the parrot or mynah
birds that can mimic human speech, often with remarkable clarity. These
birds produce speech, but they do not have language. That is, they can pro-
duce strings of sounds with the acoustic characteristics of human speech, and
human listeners recognize the sequences of sounds as words, but the speech
of these birds is devoid of meaning and, therefore, is not the oral expression
of language. They have speech but no language. Some human beings, most
notably those with severe cognitive challenges, may have the ability to imitate
speech perfectly even if they do not fully understand the language underlying
the speech. They have speech that reflects language abilities they do not have.
Even normal children, between the ages of 18 and 24 months, often produce
a form of speech known as echolalia, which is an imitation of words, phrases,
or even whole sentences in the absence of an understanding of what they are
saying. I* vividly recall a 3-year-old boy named Jerry, who arrived for his lan-
guage therapy session. Jerry had very little verbal language, but he frequently
used echolalia. When I said, “Hello, Jerry,” he responded “Hello, Jerry.” Then
he pointed at the sign at the top of the door saying, “E-X-I-T. For more infor-
mation call 1-800-234-6824.”
Language can also exist independently of speech. Children who are born
deaf, for example, may never learn to speak, but their deafness does not pre-
clude their use of language. If these children have no other problems and
receive proper stimulation and appropriate educational opportunities, they
can develop language abilities just as sophisticated and complete as those of
the hearing child who speaks. The child who is deaf and who does not have
speech must learn a different way to express language, most likely through
signs and gestures. In addition, the child who is deaf can receive and express
language through the written word.
We can best understand speech as a highly complex physiological process
requiring the coordination of respiration, phonation, resonation, and articu-
lation. Some of the movements involved in producing even the simplest utter-
ances are simultaneous and others are successive, but the synchronization of
these movements is critical.
Consider what happens in the production of the single word statistics. The
tip of the tongue is lifted from a resting position to an area on the roof of
the mouth just behind the upper teeth called the alveolar ridge to produce
the s sound. The tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge hard enough
to produce constriction but not so hard as to stop the airflow altogether. As
the speaker slowly contracts the muscles of exhalation under precise control,
air is forced between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. Leaving
the tongue in the same area, the speaker now presses a little harder to stop
the airflow and then quickly releases the contact for the production of the
t sound. The tongue drops to a neutral position and the vocal folds in the
larynx vibrate to produce the vowel a. The speaker turns off the voice and lifts
the tongue to the alveolar ridge for the next t, then vibrates the vocal folds

*
Kathleen Fahey
 A Connection of Brains ~ 7 ~

for the vowel i while the tongue stays in a forward but slightly lowered posi-
tion. The speaker turns voicing off again and moves the tongue to the alveolar
ridge yet again to produce the controlled constriction for the next s, followed
by increased pressure to stop the airflow and release it for the t. The voice is
turned on one more time and the tongue lowered to a neutral position for
the i, and then turned off as the tongue arches to the back of the mouth,
where it contacts the velum, or fleshy part of the roof of the mouth, for the
k. Finally, the tongue tip darts to the alveolar ridge for the production of the
final s sound.
All of this occurs in the production of one word! Imagine what occurs in
the production of a long sentence produced at an average rate of speed. In
addition to the production of each sound, we use suprasegmental aspects of
speech. The syllables in each word are produced with varied degrees of stress.
We also use intonation to emphasize certain words over others in order to
convey meaning, and we modulate our pitch and phrasing to make speech
interesting. Think of someone you know who speaks too fast, speaks in a
monotone, or doesn’t have a smooth rhythm. When you consider how many
intricate adjustments are made so quickly in the speech mechanism and the
suprasegmental aspects that we use to make our speech flow, it is difficult to
imagine that anyone learns to speak at all. But we do learn to speak, and we
do it easily and naturally over a very brief period of time.

Speech and Language Rejoined

Now that we have established that speech and language are separate, although
related, parts of the communication process, we will reconnect them for the
remainder of our analysis. For practical purposes, in people with normal com-
municative abilities, they are not separate. Speech is commonly understood
as oral language, and that understanding will serve our purposes well. It is
certainly clear to anyone who has studied the development of communication
in children that speech and language develop together, but we should always
remember that they do not develop at the same pace. Most of what a child
will ever know about language is acquired before entering school, but some
speech sounds are not mastered until age 7 or 8. Even within language itself,
not all dimensions are acquired according to the same schedule. Rules per-
taining to the structure of language are acquired early and most of the basic
vocabulary of a language is learned early, but we continue to add vocabulary
as long as we live, and most of us are developing our knowledge about how to
use language well into adulthood during speaking and writing.
From this point on, however, we will consider speech and language as inte-
grated parts of the same process in the same way that pictures and sounds
are integrated parts of television. You can certainly have television without
pictures: It’s called radio. And you can have television without sound: That’s
called network difficulty. But television as we expect it includes not only pic-
tures but also sound. Speech as we expect it in normal human beings com-
bines phonated and articulated noises and the rule-governed structures of
language.
~ 8 ~ Born to Talk

The Unique Characteristics of Human Speech

To appreciate the powers of oral language, we can compare it to the commu-
nication systems of other animals. Other animals do communicate, of course,
but there is much we do not understand about their systems. Some animals
seem to communicate very general messages in simple ways. The beaver, for
example, slaps its tail when it senses danger. Dogs bark when they are fright-
ened or excited. Other animals are able to communicate more elaborate mes-
sages. Bees dance to tell their fellow bees where flowers are. Other insects use
their antennae to instruct or inform. There is a great deal of interest in the
communication systems of dolphins and singing whales because they seem to
be much more elaborate than the systems of most other animals (Herman &
Forestell, 1985; Janik, 2000; Schusterman, 1986; Tyack, 2000). Recent research
provides fascinating information about the communicative abilities of other
species (see Table 1.1). But, no matter how much we discover about the abili-
ties of other animals to communicate, we remain convinced that no animal
has a communication system as powerful as human speech.
One of the first linguists to take a detailed, analytical look at the character-
istics of human speech in comparison to the communication systems of other
animals was Charles F. Hockett (1960), who wrote a classic essay entitled “The
Origin of Speech,” in which he describes what he calls “13 design-features”
of language. Although many animals share some of these features in their
communication systems, Hockett believed that when taken together, his 13
features effectively separate human speech from other forms of animal com-
munication. Since Hockett wrote his essay, new theoretical interpretations of
animal communication and research data supporting these interpretations
suggest that other species share many of the 13 features Hockett believed
­differentiated human communication from animal communication. Based
on what we now know, only a few of Hockett’s features are not found in the
communication systems of other animals. Interestingly, we have found fea-
tures beyond those identified by Hockett that can be ascribed to human com-
munication. Nevertheless, “The Origin of Speech” remains an important and
interesting part of the literature on human language, because it challenged
linguists at the time to think about language and the humans who use it in
revolutionary ways. We will examine Hockett’s original 13 design features as
a way of understanding the power of human communication, but we will also
attempt to compare and contrast human communication with the commu-
nication systems of other species. We will then take a look at some design
­features that did not make Hockett’s list. Table 1.2 on page 10 shows that eight
characteristics are present in humans and other species. Four characteristics
are present in human language, but quite rare and limited in nonhumans,
and five characteristics are particular to human language.

From Mouths to Ears

Hockett’s first design feature is the vocal-auditory channel. That is, human
beings communicate by forcing air through the vocal folds of the larynx and
 A Connection of Brains ~ 9 ~

Table 1.1 ■ Animal Communication Signals

Animal Communication Signals Purpose of Signal/Effect of Signal Researchers

and Abilities
Monkeys Snake chutter Warns other monkeys that snake is nearby/ Akmajian, Demers,
(vervet) monkeys surround snake and Harnish (1984)
Aerial predator call Warns other monkeys that eagle is overhead/
monkeys seek cover on ground
Terrestrial predator call Warns other monkeys that leopard is nearby/
monkeys climb trees and go to ends of
branches
Marmots Alarm signal Intensity based on amount of risk present in
situation
Bonobos and Use of symbols Symbols represent objects or actions; limited Corballis (2007)
chimpanzees combinations of symbols to create new
meaning
Dogs Conative signals; play bow Invites other dogs to play Hauser, Chomsky,
and Fitch (2002)
Bottlenose Distress whistle Signal for “help!”/ dolphins in area arrive and
dolphins raise distressed animal to the surface
Recognizes self in mirror (Not evidence of theory of mind) Akmajian, Demers,
and Harnish (1984)
Birds Aerial predator call “seet” Warns other birds that predator is overhead/ Gallup, 1982
take cover in bushes and stay still
Mobbing call “chink” Warns other birds that stationary predator is
nearby/surround (mob) the predator
Terrestrial song Warns other male birds to keep away; invites
uncommitted females to come to his location
Chickadees Four distinct sounds repeated (Not evidence of recursion) Akmajian, Demers,
in limited arrangements and Harnish (1984)
Starlings Count different sounds in (Not evidence of recursion)
sequences and match them for
similarities and differences
Nutcracker Memory for where it stored Locates food in future (not evidence of
food recursion)
Western Memory for when and how Locates food in future (not evidence of Hailman and Ficken
scrub jay long food is stored recursion) (1986)

breaking the vibrating airstream into sounds of speech, which are organized
into words and sentences. The listener’s ear receives these sounds. This fea-
ture is so obvious that we may need to note that other channels can be used
in communication and are used by other animals. Bees, for example, com-
municate by dancing, and that can be described as the visual channel. In fact,
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THE CASE OF THE FLYING SAUCER. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE FROGMEN. Trans Artists

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THE CASE OF THE FUGITIVE AT LARGE.

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THE CASE OF THE GASOLINE WAR. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE GOLDEN STATUE. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE GOSSIPY MAID. See

PETE AND GLADYS.

THE CASE OF THE GREAT CIRCUS MYSTERY.

Trans Artists Productions. 7 min.,
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THE CASE OF THE GUN MIXUP. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE HAUNTED HOUSE. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE HERMIT OF CREEPY HOLLOW.
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THE CASE OF THE INVISIBLE ROBBERS. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE IRON SHARK. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE KIDNAPPED AMUSEMENT PARK.

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THE CASE OF THE LAUGHING GAS VICTIMS.

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THE CASE OF THE MAD COWBOYS. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MAD PAINTER. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MAD SCIENTIST. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MAGIC WAND. Trans Artists

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THE CASE OF THE MAIL TRAIN ROBBERY.

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THE CASE OF THE MARINE BANDIT. See

GOMER PYLE-USMC.

THE CASE OF THE MASKED RAIDERS. (The

case of the masked bandits) Trans
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THE CASE OF THE MINCED SPIES. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MIND READER. Trans

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CASE OF THE MISSING CASE. See

HARRIGAN AND SON.

THE CASE OF THE MISSING MAGNETS. Bureau

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THE CASE OF THE MISSING MASTERPIECE.

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THE CASE OF THE MISSING PARTNER. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MOON GIANT. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE MYSTERIOUS BOTTLE.

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THE CASE OF THE MYSTERIOUS SUBMARINE.

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THE CASE OF THE MYSTERIOUS WEATHER.

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THE CASE OF THE NINE LIVES. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE NORTHWOODS CAPER.

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THE CASE OF THE OPERA SINGER. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE PERFECT ALIBI. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE PILLOW. See

THE DICK VAN DYKE SHOW.

THE CASE OF THE PROFESSOR'S MACHINE.

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CASE OF THE RED-EYED RUBY. Universal-International.

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THE CASE OF THE RESCUE SQUAD. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE REVOLVING WITNESS. See

NO TIME FOR SERGEANTS.

THE CASE OF THE ROBBER RABBIT. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE SAGGIN' DRAGON. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE SCHEMING CLEANERS.

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THE CASE OF THE SECRET WEAPON. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE SHOO SHOO FLY. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE SLIPPERY SLIPSY. See

MICKEY.

THE CASE OF THE SNIFFER MACHINE. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE SPIES RETURN. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE STOLEN CHEESE. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE STOLEN PYRAMID. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE T.V. DIRECTOR. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE THINKING CAP. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE TRAMPOLENE PERFORMERS.

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THE CASE OF THE TWO SISTERS. See

 SCHLITZ-LUX PLAYHOUSE.

THE CASE OF THE UNDERCOVER AGENTS. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE UNMENTIONABLES. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE UNTHINKABLES. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE VISITING PATIENT. Trans

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THE CASE OF THE WATERFRONT CAPER.

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THE CASE OF THE WAX MUSEUM. Trans

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A CASE OF TREASON. See

WALT DISNEY PRESENTS. Show no. 17.

THE CASE OF.

For other titles beginning with
The case of See PERRY MASON.

CASE PRESENTATIONS ON FILM. See

DERMATOSIS CENICIENTA.

EPIZOONOSES.

FAMILIAL CIRCUMSCRIBED ERYTHROKERATODERMA.

TOXIC ANHIDROSIS.

TURBAN TUMOR.

CASE SALE. See

 HAMM'S BEER COMMERCIALS.

A CASE STUDY OF TWO SAVAGES. See

NAKED CITY.

CASE WITHOUT CLUES. See

MANHUNT.

CASEY. See

LASSIE.

CASEY AND THE CLOWNS. See

THE LIFE AND LEGEND OF WYATT EARP.

CASEY AT THE BAT. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Made by Lumin Films. Released by
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CASEY JONES. Screen Gems. 30 min.

each, sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Screen
Gems, Inc.

1. Night mail. © 8Oct57; LP15123.

2. Spurline to danger. © 16Oct57;

LP15124.

3. Death rides the tender. © 21Oct57;

LP15125.
4. The gunslinger. © 23Oct57; LP15126.

5. Badge for Casey. © 28Oct57;

LP15127.

6. The trackwalker. © 4Nov57; LP15128.

7. Prison train. © 11Nov57; LP15129.

8. President's special. © 18Nov57;

LP15130.

9. Way station. © 25Nov57; LP15131.

10. Satan's wail. © 2Dec57; LP15132.

11. The old timer. © 9Dec57; LP15133.

12. Run to Deadwood. © 16Dec57;

LP15134.

13. The marauders. © 23Dec57; LP15135.

14. One-way ticket. © 30Dec57;

LP15136.

15. Lost train. © 30Dec57; LP15137.

16. Storm warning. © 30Dec57; LP15138.

17. Iron men. © 30Dec57; LP15139.

18. Girl in the cab. © 30Dec57;

LP15140.

19. Night run. © 30Dec57; LP15141.

20. Layover at Jamestown. © 30Dec57;
LP15142.

21. The black box. © 30Dec57; LP15143.

22. Star witness. © 30Dec57; LP15144.

23. The Dutch clock. © 30Dec57;

LP15145.

24. Dark rider. © 30Dec57; LP15146.

25. Dangerous hours. © 17Mar58;

LP15147.

26. Treasure of Sam Bass. © 24Mar58;

LP15148.

27. Hard luck train. © 31Mar58;

LP15149.

28. The silk train. © 7Apr58; LP15150.

29. Lethal journey. © 14Apr58;

LP15151.

30. Honeymoon Express. © 21Apr58;

LP15152.

31. The fire eater. © 28Apr58;

LP15153.

32. Mrs. Casey Jones. © 5May58;

LP15154.
CASH MCCALL. Warner Bros. Pictures
Co. Released by Warner Bros. Pictures
Distributing Corp. 102 min., sd.,
Technicolor, 35 mm. From the novel
by Cameron Hawley. © Warner Bros.
Pictures Co., Inc.; 23Jan60 (in notice:
1959); LP18711.

CASH ON DEMAND. Woodpecker Productions.

Released by Columbia Pictures Corp.
77 min., sd., b&w, 35 mm. From a
play by Jacques Gillies. © Woodpecker
Productions, Ltd.; 1Jan62 (in
notice: 1961); LP21392.

CASH ON THE BARREL HEAD. BNA Incorporated.

Made by Reid H. Ray Film Industries.
17 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © BNA
Incorporated; 23Mar62; MP12251.

THE CASINO. See

TIGHTROPE.

CASINO ROYALE. Famous Artists Productions,

London. Released in the U.S.
by Columbia Pictures Corp. 130 min.,
sd., color, 35 mm. Panavision.
Suggested by the novel by Ian
Fleming. © Famous Artists Productions,
Ltd.; 1Apr67; LF13.

THE CASKET. See

COMBAT!
CASKET 7.3. See

TALES OF WELLS FARGO.

THE CASSIE VANCE STORY. See

WAGON TRAIN.

CASSINO FALLS AT LAST. See

GREATEST HEADLINES OF THE CENTURY.

CASSIUS CLAY (MUHAMMAD ALI) VS. ... See

TURN OF THE CENTURY FIGHTS.

THE CASSOCK. See

COMBAT!

CAST A GIANT SHADOW. Mirisch-Llenroc-Batjac.

Released by United Artists
Corp. 139 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
Color by DeLuxe. Panavision. Based
on the book by Ted Berkman.
© Mirisch-Llenroc-Batjac; 29Mar66;
LP32500.

CAST IRON MAGOO. See

MISTER MAGOO.

CAST YOUR BRAT UPON THE WATER. See

THE RED SKELTON HOUR.

THE CASTAWAY. See

GENERAL ELECTRIC THEATER.

CASTAWAY PICTURES PRESENTS. See

GILLIGAN'S ISLAND.

THE CASTLE CAPER. See

DICK TRACY.

CASTLE KEEP. Filmways. Released by

Columbia Pictures Industries.
119 min., sd., color, 35 mm. Panavision.
Based upon the novel by
William Eastlake. © Columbia Pictures
Industries, Inc.; 1Jul69; LP36998.

CASTLE MINERVA. See

MASQUERADE.

CASUAL IN STORE. Kimberly-Clark Corp.

Made by Foote, Cone & Belding. 60
sec., sd., b&w. 16 mm. (Kleenex,
KIM-FCB 104742) © Kimberly-Clark
Corp.; 13Feb61; MU6998.

CASUALTY. See

77 SUNSET STRIP.

THE CAT. See

BOPIN' HOOD.
 CANE AND ABLE.

JOHNNY RINGO. 2317.

THE CAT ABOVE AND THE MOUSE BELOW.

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 7 min., sd.,
color, 35 mm. (Tom & Jerry cartoon)
A Sib-Tower 12 production. Metrocolor.
© Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc.; 16Jul64;
LP28436.

CAT ADDAMS. See

THE ADDAMS FAMILY.

CAT ALARM. Terrytoons. Released by

Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp. 7
min., sd., Color by DeLuxe, 35 mm.
(A Terrytoons cartoon) © Terrytoons,
a division of CBS Films, Inc.; 31Dec60;
LP18573.

CAT AND DUPLI-CAT. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

7 min., sd., color, 35 mm.
(Tom and Jerry) © Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer,
Inc.; 11Apr67; LP34595.

CAT AND MOUSE. See

COMBAT!

THE CAT AND THE MICE. See

FOXHOLE IN CAIRO.
CAT BALLOU. Harold Hecht Corp. Released
by Columbia Pictures Corp.
96 min., sd., color, 35 mm. Eastman
color. Based on a novel by Roy
Chanslor. © Harold Hecht Corp.;
1Jun65; LP30839.

THE CAT BURGLAR. See

THE DICK VAN DYKE SHOW.

THE JACK BENNY PROGRAM.

THE CAT CARTOON. See

COOL CAT BLUES.

TOP CAT.

THE CAT FAMILY. See

ENRICHMENT FILMS FOR LET'S SEE THE ANIMALS.

CAT FEUD. Warner Bros. Pictures.

7 min., sd., Technicolor, 35 mm.
(Merrie melodies) © Vitaphone Corp.;
20Dec58; MP9888.

CAT IN THE CRADLE. See

GENERAL ELECTRIC THEATER.

CAT OVERBOARD. See

GOMER PYLE-USMC.
CATACOMB AND DOGMA AFFAIR. See

THE GIRL FROM U.N.C.L.E.

CATACOMBS. See

THE WOMAN WHO WOULDN'T DIE.

THE CATALOG WOMAN. See

LAWMAN.

CATALYSIS. Regents of the University

of California. 15 min., sd., color,
16 mm. (Chemical education material
study) Appl. author: Richard E.
Powell. © Regents of the University
of California; 28Feb62 (in notice:
1961); MP12472.

CATALYSIS. Sutherland Educational

Films. 16 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
© Sutherland Educational Films, Inc.,
wholly owned subsidiary of John
Sutherland Productions, Inc.;
17Jan62; MP12732.

CATALYSIS. See

CHEM STUDY TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM.

CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN

PEROXIDE. Yale University. 2 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (Preparation of
oxygen) (YF-214) © Yale University;
8Sep64; MP15182.
CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM
CHLORATE. Yale University. 3 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (Preparation of
oxygen) (YF-215) © Yale University;
8Sep64; MP15183.

CATARACT SURGERY SERIES. See

SURGERY OF THE SENILE CATARACT, INTRACAPSULAR

EXTRACTION WITH FORCEPS,
SLIDING AND COUNTERTRACTION.

SURGERY OF THE SENILE CATARACT, INTRACAPSULAR

EXTRACTION WITH FORCEPS,
TUMBLING AND COUNTERTRACTION.

CATARACTS. Professional Research.

8 min., sd., color, Super 8 mm.
© Professional Research, Inc.;
10Sep69; MP19876.

CATAWOMPER. See

GUNSMOKE.

CATCH AS CATCH CAN. See

BONANZA.

CATCH FEAR BY THE THROAT. See

KRAFT MYSTERY THEATRE.

CATCH ME ON THE PAAR SHOW. See

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