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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

AGD 103: Gender, Population and Development

BY
DR. LODIAGA
WILLY MWANGI

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GENDER & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
AGD 103: GENDER, POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Instructors: 1. Dr. Mildred Lodiaga

2. Mr. Willy Mwangi

Course Description
Interrelationship between the concepts of Gender, population and development, world population
growth, trends estimates and projection. Uses of demographic data, population composition and
distribution. Specific consideration of gender and population composition and distribution and
population theory in particular the Malthusian Theory in relation to practice, population and
development, population policies and programmes.

Major Themes
 The concept of gender
 Relationship between gender, population and development
 World population growth and its effects on development
 Consideration of gender in Population composition and its effects on development
 Population policies and their effects on gender and development

Objectives of Course
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
(i). Define the concepts of gender, population and development and relate them
(ii). Analyze the world population estimates and their effects
(iii). State the sources and purposes of demographic data
(iv). Give an account of the world population composition in terms of sex and age
(v). Discuss the relationship between population distribution and development with specific
focus on African examples.
(vi). Outline the gender and development theories
(vii). Critically assess the relationship between population policies and programmes versus
development

Course requirements and examination/assessment

(i). Regular class attendance
(ii). Two CATs each 15% of the total marks to give a total of 30%. One of which must be a
term paper. (The Lecturer may elect to give random CATs without notice)
(iii). Sit-end-of-semester Examination carrying 70% of the total marks.

Teaching/Learning Methods
Lectures, Class Discussion, Term Paper presentations and Questions and Answers

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COURSE CONTENT

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Definition of major concepts

 Gender
 Population,
 Demography
 Physical Development,
 Social Development

2. Other concepts in the course content

 Why gender in development
 Population Trends
 Population Distribution
 Age structure
 Population projection
 Population Dynamics
 Gender-population concerns

SECTION 2: WORLD POPULATION GROWTH TRENDS (PAST AND PRESENT)

1. Population estimates and projections
2. Effects of population growth on gender
3. Planning ahead

SECTION 3: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

1. Sources and meaning of data
2. Organizational census, birth and death statistics
3. Population composition by age and sex

SECTION 4: GENDER AND POPULATION THEORIES

1. Malthusian Theory

SECTION 5: POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

1. Census areas- geographical and political sub division

2. Rural and urban areas
3. International migration
4. Characteristics and trends in population distribution

SECTION 6: POPULATION VERSUS DEVELOPMENT

1. The interrelationship
2. Implication for development

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SECTION 7: POPULATION POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

1. International policies on population

2. Kenya‘s population policies and programmes
3. The International Conference in Population and Development (ICPD) – Cairo 1994

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SECTION 1: DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

The course introduces and defines the main concepts in Gender, population and development.
There are many other related concepts that are central in this module and you are required to
master them as you move along.
 Gender, gender discrimination, gender equality and gender equity
 Population,
 Demography
 Physical Development,
 Social Development
The course also discusses the relationship between gender, population and development; in
particular the ways in which the number of men and women in a given population may affect
development and also the importance of involving each gender in any development process. The
module in

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

Lesson 1: Differentiating between gender and sex

In this lesson we shall learn about gender. Many people usually use the term ‗gender‘ to stand for
‗women‘, but this is not so. The term gender has have distinct meaning and is a concept that is
learnt.

The lesson is divided into two sections.

Objectives of the Lesson

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:-
1. Define the Concept of Gender and give relevant examples
2. Define the terms population and development and relate the two
3. Articulate why gender is important to any development process

Lesson Content

Sub-topic 1: The meaning of the concept of Gender

• This concept is essential to our understanding of how development processes affect

women and men, girls and boys, in different ways.

• A social construction that refers to the roles of men and women, boys and girls in social
relationships

• It is the assignment of what men and women should do in a society and relates to a range
of social and institutional issues.

• Gender refers to the relationship between women and men based on socially constructed
and defined identities, statuses, roles and responsibilities
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• Gender describes the socially constructed roles, activities, and responsibilities assigned
to women and men in a given culture, location or time.

• Gender finds expression in laws, customs and rules, in theories and practices that govern
the relations between women and men.

• As a result, one distinguishes between the masculine and feminine order. This distinction
is implied in the idea of gender.

• It is a socially determined state (characteristics/attributes) of being a woman, man, girl or

boy.

• Gender influences how women and men perceive themselves, behave and sometimes
think.

• Can be learned and unlearned

Food and Agricultural Organisation of UN (FAO, 1997) defines gender as ‗the relations
between men and women. These relations can be perceptual and/or material. Gender is not
determined biologically, but is constructed socially.

Bravo-Baumann, (2000) asserts that Gender forms a central principle for organizing societies,
and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution.

Gender issues focus on women and men as well as their relationships, roles, access to and control
over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household
security, family well-being, planning, production and many other aspects of life.

Sub- topic 2: Definition of key concepts

 Gender Discrimination is the systematic, unfavourable treatment of individuals on the

basis of their gender, which denies them rights, opportunities or resources.

 Gender equality denotes men and women having the same opportunities in life including
the ability to participate in the public sphere.

 Gender equity stand for the equivalence in life outcomes for women and men,
recognizing their different needs and interests, and requiring a redistribution of power
and resources

 Population
A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the
same geographical area. In sociology, population refers to a collection of human beings.

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 Development
According to Rodney (1989), development starts at an individual level where the individual
increases skill, creativity, responsibility, capacity, freedom,(to govern self), self discipline and
material well being.

Development is therefore a positive change that aims at giving optimum distributive justice,
economic growth, collective and individual self reliance in politics, economics and culture
through the participation of that community and related communities.

Development has 2 dimensions-

 Physical- the real measure of goods and services involving technology in different fields
eg medicine, engineering, agriculture, ICT, infrastructure etc.

 Social – measure of the gains made in literacy, health conditions, housing, water and
other social amenities eg education. The expression the dimension of moves towards
quality of good quality of life and the elimination of poverty, inequality and meaningful
gains of survival.
The ultimate goal of achievement is accelerated or prevented by gender aspects.

Sub- topic 3: Why Gender?

The consideration of gender in any development programme is important as it gives an

opportunity for every member of the society to benefit from the development agenda. In
the consideration of gender, the needs of both men and women boys and girls are put into
thought and weaved into the project hence giving everyone in the population an equal
chance to benefit and benefit. While doing so, both men and women are given equal
chances for decision making. This authenticates the project to both men and women and
they feel that they own the project. This way the project can be sustainable.

Example 1:-
 Taking education as an example of development, gender
consideration will be an important social attributes so that
opportunities are accredited to both boys and girls.

Example 2:-
 In a water project, concerns for both men and women are put in
place so that none of them will feel left behind or disregarded in the
project. The water point for example should not be constructed too
far away for the women to walk long to fetch water for domestic
use.

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Lesson Summary

 Gender consideration is an important aspect in planning for development without which

development can be slowed down

 In any developmental agenda, the question of how much benefit men and women will
each get is an important concern so that none is taken advantage of.

 Regarding the population one is planning for in any development agenda is key

1. In your own community, which are the projects that have been stated
by CDF and have considered the needs of both men and women?
2. Explain in which ways you think considerations and the population
of the place was put in place at the planning stage.
Activity
Muia, D.M. and Otiende, J.E. (2004). Introduction to development studies
for Africa. Nairobi: Acacia publishers.

Moser, C. (1993). Gender planning and Development: theory, practice and

training. London and New York; Routledge.

Further
reading

Explain what you understand by the concept of regarding gender and

population of a place in relation to a development project.

Self-test
Question

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SECTION 2: THE WORLD POPULATION TRENDS

Lesson 1: The past population trends

In this lesson we shall learn about gender. Many people usually use the term ‗gender‘ to stand for
‗women‘, but this is not so. The term gender has have distinct meaning and is a concept that is
learnt.

The lesson is divided into two sections.

Objectives of the Lesson

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:-
1. Outline the past and present World Population growth Trends
2. Describe the population estimates and projections
3. Discuss the implications of the population growth rates

Lesson Content

Sub-topic 1: World Population growth Trends

For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more
rapidly than it is projected to grow in the future. In 1950, the world had 2.5 billion people; and in
2005, the world had 6.5 billion people. By 2050, this number could rise to more than 9 billion

Population distribution trends 1950- 2010

General overview:

 The proportion of the world population that is from all developing countries increased
from 68% in 1950 to 82% in 2010. This leaves the developed world with 18% of the
world‘s total population
 Asia, slightly, from 54% in 1950 to 56% in 2010.
 Sub-Saharan Africa, from 7% in 1950 to 12% in 2010.
 Latin America and the Caribbean, from 6% in 1950 to 9% in 2010.
 Western Europe and Northern America, from 18% in 1950 to 11% in 2010.
 The Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe, from 10% in 1950 to 6%
in 2010.

 10 largest countries

o In 1950, the 10 largest countries (China, India, US, Russia, Japan, Indonesia,
Germany, Brazil, UK, Italy) were 62% of the total world population. China and
India together made up 36% of the total world population.

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o In 2010, the 10 largest countries (China, India, US, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nigeria, Russia, Japan) were 59% of the total world population.
China and India together made up 37%.

o The US was 6% of the total world population in 1950 and 5% in 2010

Table 2.1 below shows the population growth rate from 1950 to 2010 in three distinct regions
described by the development index in the earth: Least developed, Less developed and the More
developed countries. An average for the three regions is also presented.

1950 to 1960 1960 to 1970 1970 to 1980 1980 to 1990 1990 to 2000 2000 to 2010
Least Developed (LD) 2.1% 2.4% 2.7% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7%
Less Developed excluding LD 2.2% 2.7% 2.4% 2.2% 1.7% 1.3%
More Developed 1.3% 1.0% 0.8% 0.6% 0.4% 0.3%
All 1.9% 2.2% 2.0% 1.9% 1.5% 1.3%

Table 2.1: Population increase in three world areas defined by development index

Table 2.2 below shows the percentage increase of the population in different regions in the earth.
The table depicts that there are some regions that have lower population growth rates than others.

1951 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Asia (excluding Near East) 1.2% 1.0% 2.4% 1.8% 1.9% 1.1% 0.9%
Baltics 0.7% 1.4% 1.1% 0.6% 0.1% -0.4% -0.4%
Eastern Europe 1.2% 1.1% 0.8% 0.6% 0.2% -0.1% -0.1%
Latin America and the Caribbean 2.7% 2.9% 2.6% 2.2% 1.7% 1.3% 1.1%
Near East 2.8% 2.9% 2.7% 3.1% 2.7% 2.4% 1.9%
Northern Africa 2.4% 2.4% 2.3% 3.0% 2.0% 1.8% 1.6%
Northern America 2.0% 1.7% 1.0% 1.3% 1.2% 1.1% 1.0%
Oceania 2.6% 2.2% 2.3% 1.4% 1.8% 1.4% 1.3%
Sub-Saharan Africa 2.0% 2.4% 2.5% 2.8% 2.8% 2.6% 2.4%
Western Europe 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.4% 0.5% 0.3% 0.2%

Table 2.2: Population growth rate of different areas of the world from 1950 to 2010

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 Something to bring your attention to from the tables above is that

there has been population ‗explosion‘ in the less developed
countries as opposed to the more developed countries.

 The population growth rate within the more developed countries

has been diminishing with time. This means that there are
comparatively more older people in the developed world than in the
developing world.

Lesson Summary

 There are more people in the developing world than in the developed world

 Developed world has a relatively older generation than the developing world

 There is an imbalance of the population distribution by age in the world

1. From Table 1 and 2 , describe the implications of the differences

of the population growth rate between the developed and the
developing nations.
2. Explain the direction the world is likely to go if the scenario
Activity remains with this imbalance.

Further
reading

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SECTION 3: DEMOGRAPHICS OF KENYA

Lesson 1: Kenya’s population Trend

In this lesson we shall learn about Kenya‘s population. The lesson will shed light on Kenyan
demographics and relate it with the gender component. Also included in the unit is what has
affected the Kenyan population growth and the projections of the population. Lastly, the
implications of the population trend are discussed.

Objectives of the Lesson

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:-
1. Outline the population growth in Kenya and what has affected it.
2. Describe the Kenyan demographics estimates and future projections
3. Discuss the implications of the population growth rate in Kenya.

Sub- topic 1: Population Trend

Lesson Content
Demography is a social science which entails the statistical study of human populations. Kenya
is a state that has many ethnic communities. Each ethnic community is unique and contributes
differently to the development of the country. There is no one ethnic community that is more
important than the other as each carries within itself its unique culture that all others are bound to
appreciate. Kenya is inhabited largely by the Bantu and Nilotic populations, with
some Cushitic ethnic minorities in the north. Its total population was estimated at 42 million
inhabitants as of 2012.
Kenya‘s population increased seven times over between 1948 and 2009. In 1948 when the first
census was carried out in the country, Kenya‘s population was enumerated at 5, 420,281 people
compared with 38,610,097 people in 2009. The rapid population increase in Kenya has hampered
the country‘s socio-economic development by exerting pressure on the on the available
resources.

Kenya takes its census once every ten years. From the past census, Kenyan population was:

5.4 million in 1948

8.6 million in 1962

10.9 million in 1969

15.3 million in 1979

21.4 million in 1989

28.7 million in 1999,

38.6 million in 2009,

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This reflects an average growth of more than 3% per year in a period of 30 years. The population
growth rate has been reported as somewhat reduced during the 2000s and is now estimated at
2.7% (as of 2010).

Sub-topic 2: Population Composition and projections

 It is estimated that 69 individual languages are spoken in Kenya.
The 2009 census figures give the ethnic composition as follows (out of a total population of 38.6
million):
 Kikuyu 22%,
 Luhya 14%,
 Luo 13%
 Kalenjin 12%, ,
 Kamba11%,
 Meru 6%,
 Kisii 6%,
 Mijikenda 5%,
 Turkana 2.5%,
 Maasai 2.1%.
 About 9% of population consist of smaller indigenous group below 1% each, and Non-
African groups (Arabs, Indians and Europeans) are estimated to total to about 1%.

According to KNBS, July 2013, Kenya‘s population was estimated to be 44,037,656. The age
structure of the Kenyan population as at 2013 was:

0-14 years: 42.4% (male 9,357,084/female 9,299,586)

15-24 years: 18.8% (male 4,148,153/female 4,147,896)
25-54 years: 32.4% (male 7,210,891/female 7,070,217)
55-64 years: 3.6% (male 719,374/female 876,458)
65 years and over: 2.7% (male 529,873/female 678,124) (2013 est.)

Population projections for Kenya for the years 2009 to 2050 is as follows:

 2009 – 38,610,067 (Actual)

 2010 - 40,512.680
 2015 - 46,332.490
 2020 - 52,563.910

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 2025 - 59,054.150
 2030 - 65,928.220
 2035 - 73,257.770
 2040 - 80,975.370
 2045 - 88,907.470
 2050 - 96,887.190

1. From the data given above (including the projections for Kenya’s
population), what does it mean to you in relation to development
at the grass root level?

Activity

GOK, (2011) National Council for Population and Development, Nairobi,

Government Printer.

Further
reading

1. Which steps has the Kenya government taken to ensure that the
infant mortality rate drops?
2. Describe the strategies being used by the government to
guarantee the elderly a better life.
3. What is the impact of population increase on the natural
Self-test environment?
Question

SECTION4: GENDER AND POPULATION THEORIES

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Lesson 1: Malthusian Theory of Population

 Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) is the proponent of theories about population and
its increase or decrease in response to various factors. He was influenced both political
economy and demography.
 He articulated his theory in “Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798) and observed
that sooner or later population gets checked by famine and disease.
 Malthus saw the increase of population being limited by the means of subsistence, that
population increase depends on the means of subsistence increase, and that the population
is repressed, and the actual population is kept equal to the means of subsistence, by
misery and other vices.

 Malthus proposed the principle that human populations grow exponentially (i.e., doubling
with each cycle) while food production grows at an arithmetic rate (i.e. by the repeated
addition of a uniform increment in each uniform interval of time).

 This was a claim that population was increasing faster than food production, and he
feared eventual global starvation. He however failed to foresee how modern technology
would expand food production. This observation about how populations increase was
important.
 While food output was likely to increase in a series of twenty-five year intervals in an
arithmetic progression ie 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,….. Population was capable of increasing
in a geometric progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and so forth, explaining why
the numbers can increase so quickly.

 This scenario of arithmetic food growth with simultaneous geometric human population
growth predicted a future when humans would have no resources to survive on. To avoid
such a catastrophe, Malthus urged controls on population growth.
 Working out from a world population of one billion in the early nineteenth century and
an adequate means of subsistence at that time, Malthus suggested there was a possibility
of population increase to 256 billion within 200 years but that the means of subsistence
were only capable of being increased enough for nine billion.
 He therefore considered that the population increase should be kept down to the level at
which it could be supported by the operation of various checks on population growth,
which he categorized as "preventive" and "positive" checks.

Preventive checks

Malthus saw the chief preventive check as that of "moral restraint" which means a deliberate
decision by men to refrain "from pursuing the dictate of nature of early marriage but to marry
later in life.

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It was predicted that this would give rise to smaller families and probably to fewer families.

Malthus was strongly opposed to birth control within marriage and did not suggest that parents
should try to restrict the number of children born to them after their marriage.

Malthus was clearly aware that problems might arise from the postponement of marriage to a
later date, such as an increase in the number of illegitimate births, but considered that these
problems were likely to be less serious than those caused by a continuation of rapid population
increase.

Positive checks

He proposed the positive checks to population growth as being any causes that contributed to the
shortening of human life-spans.

Poor living and working conditions were among the things he included in this category. He saw
this would give rise to low resistance to disease, and included war, famine and natural
catastrophes.

Criticism

 In her book, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change
under Population Pressure, Ester Boserup asserts that population levels determine
agricultural methods, rather than agricultural methods determining population.
 A major point of her book is that "necessity is the mother of invention".
 Julian Simon an economists challenged the Malthusian catastrophe, citing:
(1) There exists new knowledge and educated people to take advantage of it.
(2) Economic freedom, can give rise to the world to increase production when there is a
profitable opportunity to do so.
 Henry George, an economist argued that Malthus didn't provide any evidence of a natural
tendency for a population to overwhelm its ability to provide for itself. He cites issues
such as social causes for misery, like "ignorance and greed, bad government, unjust laws,
or war," rather than insufficient food production.
 Friedrich Engels also criticizes Malthus by arguing that he failed to see that surplus
population is connected to surplus wealth, surplus capital, and surplus landed property.
Population is too large where the overall productive power is too large.

Engels also stated that the calculation that Malthus made is incorrect because
Malthus does not take into consideration a third element, science whose progress is
as unlimited and at least as rapid as that of population‖.

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Doubling of a population

Similarly, if a country's population begins with 1 million and grows at a steady 3 percent
annually, it will add 30,000 persons the first year, almost 31,000 the second year, and 40,000 by
the 10th year. At a 3 percent growth rate, its doubling time — or the number of years to double
in size — is 23 years. (The doubling time for a population can be roughly determined by dividing
the current growth rate into the number "69." Therefore, 69/3=23 years. Of course, if a
population's growth rate does not remain at this rate, the projected doubling time would need to
be recalculated.) constants

The growth rate of 1.2 percent between 2000 and 2005, when applied to the world's 6.5 billion
population in 2005, yields an annual increase of about 78 million people. Because of the large
and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will riain
high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2005 and 2030, most of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America whose population growth rates are much higher than those in
more developed countries. The populations in the less developed regions will most likely
continue to command a larger proportion of the world total. While Asia's share of world
population may continue to hover around 60 percent through 2050, Europe's portion has declined
sharply and is likely to drop even more during the 21st century. Africa would gain part of
Europe's portion, and the population in Latin America and the Caribbean would remain relatively
constant around 8 percent (see chart, "World Population Distribution by Region, 1800–2050,"
above).

The more developed countries in Europe and North America, as well as Japan, Australia, and
New Zealand, are growing by less than 1 percent annually. Population growth rates are negative
in many European countries, including Russia (-0.5%), Estonia (-0.4%), Hungary (-0.3%), and
Ukraine (-0.8%). If the growth rates in these countries continue to fall below zero, population
size would slowly decline. As the chart "World Population Growth, 1950–2050" shows,
population increase in more developed countries is already low and is expected to stabilize.

TERMS

 Birth rate (or crude birth rate): The annual number of births per 1,000 total population.

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 Doubling time: The number of years required for the population of an area to double its
present size, given the current rate of population growth. Population doubling time is
useful to demonstrate the long-term effect of a growth rate, but should not be used to
project population size. Many more-developed countries have very low growth rates. But
these countries are not expected to ever double again. Most, in fact, likely have
population declines in their future. Many less-developed countries have high growth rates
that are associated with short doubling times, but are expected to grow more slowly as
birth rates are expected to continue to decline.
 Growth rate: The number of persons added to (or subtracted from) a population in a year
due to natural increase and net migration; expressed as a percentage of the population at
the beginning of the time period.

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SECTION 5: POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

Definition of terms: gender, population, distribution, and migration, development and

sustainable development.

Introduction

The focus is on discussing the links between gender systems and population size and distribution
by explaining the relationship between gender systems, age-sex structure age / sex structure or
the distribution of the population by age and sex; and spatial distribution or the distribution of
population in various regions or various areas.

The section also introduces the students to different concepts and study of migration; discusses
how gender influences migration and how migration may lead to women‘s empowerment and
disempowerment.

Population Distribution

The analysis and explanation of population distribution are problems, which have interested a
number of social scientist (demographers and human ecologists) because the distribution of a
population within a country is often important for social and economic planning.

Six of the Earth‘s seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most
populous continent with 4.3 billion inhabitants, followed by Africa with about 1 billion people or
15 percent of the world‘s population. Asia alone, account for 60% of the world population. The
world‘s two most populous countries, China and India, together make up about 37 percent of the
world‘s population. Europe‘s 733 million people make up 12 percent of the world‘s population
by 2012, while Latin America and Caribbean regions is inhabited by about 600 million or 9
percent of the world‘s population. North America that consists of the United States and Canada,
is home to about 352 million (5%) people, while Oceania, the least populated area has about 35
million or 0.5 percent of the world‘s population. Antarctica though not permanently inhabited by
a fixed population, has a small fluctuating population, based mainly in polar science stations.
This population rises in the summer months and decreases in winter as visiting researchers return
to their places of origin. Table 5.1 below depicts the distribution of population by
regions/continents.

Table 5.1 Population distribution by Continent – 2013 Estimates

Continent Density Population- Most Most populous

billions Populous city
(Inhabitants/km2) (estimates) country

Asia 96.4 4.298 China Tokyo

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(1.36bill) (35.7m)

Africa 36.7 1.111 Nigeria Cairo (19.4m.)

(173.1m.)

Europe 72.9 0.742 Russia Moscow

(143.7m) (14.8m.)

North 22.9 0.565 U.S.A Mexico City

America (317.9m) (8.9m)

South 22.8 0.407 Brazil Sao Paulo

America (201.03m) (11.3m)

Oceania 4.5 0.038 Australia Sydney (4.6m)

(23.5m.)

Antarctica 0.0003 0.000004 McMurdo

Station (1,200)

Population distribution by countries

Africa is projected to become home to a larger share of world population. Africa‘s population
increased from 13 percent of the world‘s population in 2000 to is projected to increase by 16
percent by the year 2025 and to 20 percent by 2050. During this same time, Europe‘s population
is projected to decline from 12 percent of the world‘s total to 7 percent by 2050. Asia‘s
proportion of the world‘s population is projected to decline slightly, from 61 percent to 58
percent by 2050. Table 5.2 shows the distribution by country. (2000 Population Datasheet)

Table 5.2: Population Distribution in selected Courtiers

World‘s Largest Countries in 2000 World‘s Largest Countries in 2050

Rank Country Population Rank Country Population

(millions) (millions)

1 China 1,265 1 India 1,628

2 India 1,002 2 China 1,369

3 United 276 3 United 404

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States States

4 Indonesia 212 4 Indonesia 312

5 Brazil 170 5 Nigeria 304

6 Pakistan 151 6 Pakistan 285

7 Russia 145 7 Brazil 244

8 Bangladesh 128 8 Bangladesh 211

9 Japan 127 9 Ethiopia 188

10 Nigeria 123 10 Congo 182

DRC

11 Mexico 100 11 Mexico 152

12 Germany 82 12 Philippines 140

13 Philippines 80 13 Russia 128

14 Vietnam 79 14 Vietnam 124

15 Egypt 68 15 Egypt 117

CountryPopulation
1Nigeria
1. --------------- 177,096,000

2. Ethiopia 86,614,000
3. Egypt 84,605,000
4.DRC 74,618,000
5. South Africa 52,982,000

Population distribution by sex

The normal sex ratio at birth ranges from 102 to 106 males per 100 females. However, ratios
much higher than normal - sometimes as high as 130 - have been observed, especially in
countries where technologies make it possible for families to determine the sex of a fetus.

This issue is an increasing concern in some South Asian, East Asian and Central Asian countries

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where more than 100 million girls are 'missing'. Skewed sex ratios in those countries will have
long-lasting social and demographic impacts.

This issue was flagged more than 15 years ago at the International Conference on Population and
Development. The Programme of Action from that meeting, calls on governments to "eliminate
all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference, which
results in harmful and unethical practices regarding female infanticide and pre-natal sex
selection."

NOTE

Governments should give priority to developing programmes and policies that foster
norms and attitudes of zero tolerance for harmful and discriminatory attitudes,
including son preference, which can result in harmful and unethical practices such as
prenatal sex selection, discrimination and violence against the girl child and all forms
of violence against women, including female genital mutilation, rape, incest,
trafficking, sexual violence and exploitation.

--Paragraph 48, Key Actions for the Implementation of the Cairo Programme of
Action

Table:.. Shows Population size and Sex ratio of selected Countries

Table here

Migration

Population change is the result of three major processes: natural change (births and deaths),
internal, inter-regional and international migration. These changes, be they an increase or
decrease in the size of population, are usually termed as ‗growth‘. Migration together with
natural increase forms the two components of population growth and distribution.

International migration is one of today‘s defining global issues; more people are on the move
today than at any other point in human history. There are now around 192 million people living
outside their place of birth—approximately three percent of the world‘s population..

Recently, interest in the extent, causes and selectivity (by age and sex) of migration has
increased. The consequences of migration, particularly rural urban (there is also urban rural,
rural-rural and urban –urban migration) has also received attention. This is true of both the
developing and developed countries. While rural urban migration is recognized as a necessary
concomitant of industrialization and urbanization, it is also feared that urbanization may be
running ahead of the growth of the economy. The problem of masses of unemployed and under

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employed migrants congregating in cities and towns and social and economic consequences of
this have become the focus of attention.

The study of migration is also important for other reasons. It can affect the growth and decline of
population by influencing fertility and mortality of the areas of origin and destination. For
instance it can influence birth rates by altering the proportions of women of childbearing ages in
the population. Migration can also affect the characteristics of the labour force (sex ration of the
labour force) of the area of origin and destination. Knowledge both of the level of migration and
the characteristics of migration is needed for appraising the consequences on both the sending
and receiving areas of migration.

Migration Defined

Definition is still a problem, but there is a general consensus that migration consists
only of those special movement that involve a change of place of usual residence and
the crossing of political boundary

A migrant is a person who changes her/his usual place of residence.

In the current phase of globalization, national, regional and international migration motivated
byeconomic reasons is a phenomenon that affects increasing numbers of people,households and
communities worldwide. In order to maintain contact with theirfamilies and communities of
origins, migrants expand their relationships acrossgeographical, political, economic, and cultural
boundaries, creating transnationalfamilies and communities. Within these social fields of
interaction there is aconstant flow of resources and discourses that question and transform
traditionalideas of identity and belonging.
Remittances –money earned by migrants working abroad that is sent back home constitute the
monetary, as well as the most visible aspect of this constantcirculation between migrants and
their countries of origin. Thisflow of money has caught the attention of governments and
financial anddevelopment institutions, who have begun to identify and implement
initiativesaimed at maximizing the impact of remittances for poverty reduction and
localdevelopment.

Women are an increasing part of migratory movements. As active participantsin these

movements, they contribute to the maintenance of their householdsand to the development of
their communities of origin through the sending ofremittances. However, gender inequalities
differentiate the migratory experiencefor men and women. The decision to migrate, the networks
utilized or theindividual migrant‘s insertion into the labour markets of the destination country,to
mention only a few factors, are all affected by gender differences.
One of the most relevant characteristics of the migratory phenomenon has been the rapidly rising
participation of women. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), in

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most destination countries the number of women migrants has grown at a faster rate than that of
their male counterparts, such that women currently represent almost half of the total international
migrant population and in some countries they account for up to 70% or 80% of the total.2 This
notable female presence is not a new development. In 1960, women represented 47% of the total
number of people living outside their countries of origin. This percentage has steadily increased;
reaching 48% in 1990 and 48.9% in 2000. Current unown!!!!!!
What is new, however, is the economic role assumed by migrant women during the migration
process. Women are increasingly migrating on their own as main economic providers and heads
of households while fewer are migrating as ―dependents‖ of their husbands.

Activity

The main questions that needs answers include the following:

 how does the growing feminization of migration affect remittance flows?,

 how can remittances Promote development, contribute to the achievement of
gender equality and enhance poverty reduction?
 how can we mobilize remittances to achieve sustainable development that
includes women?

Impact of remittance on development

Household level
There is a general consensus on the importance of remittances for the survival of many poor
households in developing countries. Studies on the use of remittances show that they are used
primarily in to meet the basic needs of households – including food, housing, clothing, health
and education (Van Doorn, no date). According to the World Bank, a 10% increase in the
percentage of remittances as a proportion of a country‘s GDP would result in a 1.6% reduction of
the number of people living in poverty in that country (World Bank, 2003).

National level-recipient countries

More controversial is the debate about the effect of remittances on the development of recipient
countries. Experts have identified both positive and negative effects in terms of development. On
the positive side,

 increase national income;

 augment reserves of foreign currency and contribute to
 stabilizing the balance of payments;
 support entrepreneurial activities;
 contribute to savings; and
 create demand for local goods and services (Ratha, 2003). An
 increased demand for local tourism, communication services and ―nostalgic‖ commerce.

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 Expenditures on ―consumer‖ goods such as food, education and health should be seen as
investments in human capital.
And the negative side

 increase the demand for and consumption of imported goods;

 cause inflation;
 increase inequality;
 raise the costs of land and housing;
 encourage dependency; and
 discourage the search for other income-generating activities.
 drains the available labour force, an instability that consequently discourages foreign
investment (IFAD, 2004).
 a growing number of young people are losing interest in education and local livelihood
options because they maintain the (often unrealistic) hope of being able to emigrate
(Carling, 2005).
 the brain drain from developing countries, and the obstacle that this loss of skilled
human capital presents to their economic and social development.

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SECTION 6: POPULATION VERSUS DEVELOPMENT

1. Introduction
This section of the Module discusses the topic of Population and Development interrelationships.
Population and Development can be among the most difficult to teach. This is because
population issues are related to so many other topics, such as demography, economics,
urbanization, gender, religion, politics, food and nutrition, health and human rights to name just a
few. Population and Development is also a sensitive topic to teach as it involves a consideration
of family planning issues – and there are important religious and political views about this in
many countries. The topic is also linked to the controversial North-South debate over the relative
role of population numbers and resource consumption in threatening global sustainability.
Population dynamics, including growth rates, age structure, fertility and mortality, migration and
more, influence every aspect of human, social and economic development.Close to one trillion
people in the world do not have sufficient food for a healthy and active life. While much
progress has been made towards food security in recent decades, without further urgent and
coordinated action, poverty, hunger and malnutrition will continue to undermine the lives of
hundreds of millions of people now and in years to come.

The central hypothesis in this module is that there exists links between gender systems and
population dynamics that go both ways and each direction in the relationship matters in
population policy making. Students of demography and those on Gender Studies need to
understand the nature of this relationship between gender and population processes since gender
equality is a cornerstone of sustainable development. This module explores the connections
between gender, population size and distribution, elements of population change, and population
policy.

This course will generate knowledge on the following aspects:–

 Why gender is important when considering development issues and the need
to integrate population and gender into research and policy agendas
 Various population and gender parameters of development
 Issues and debates on population and gender in development in developing
countries.
 help students think critically and analyze how population policies have not
been successful in linking means to the ends, and how they can be made more
effective by including gender and other social dimensions.
 give students an understanding of the interrelationship among population
change, gender and socio-economic development. The course examines the
factors responsible for demographic trends (mortality, fertility, and migration
patterns), the role of gender in these processes and the impact of changing
social and economic aspects of development on the lives of women and men.
 better understanding,among students, of the relationship between population

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and development that will empower them to make informed decisions and take
actions that will result in an improved quality of life. Collectively, working
towards building a nation that is able to balance its population and resources.

Expected Learning Outcomes

Upon course completion, the learners will:

1. Define the terms population and development

2. Recognize major trends and issues in global population dynamics;
3. Clarify the importance of population issues in relation to sustainable development;
4. Appreciate the significance of the ‗new understanding‘ of the dynamic population-
environment-development interrelationship;
5. Identify challenges, opportunities and resources for teaching about Population and
Development.

Definition of concepts: development; underdevelopment, population; migration, gender

parameters of development; population processes: fecundity, fertility, morbidity, mortality, CBR,
CDR, and migration; social indicators of development (human development index)

Global Population size (estimates)

"Go Forth And Multiply!" That's what the human population has successfully been doing for
thousands and thousands of years, expanding, exploring, migrating, conquering, utilizing,
evolving, civilizing, industrializing, and now, destroying the very land upon which we live.

The world population is the total number of living humans on Earth. As of 2013, it is estimated
at 7.181 billion by the United States Census Bureau (USCB).The USCB estimates that the world
population exceeded 7 billion on March 12, 2012.According to a separate estimate by the United
Nations Population Fund it reached this milestone on October 31, 2011.
The world population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine and
the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million. The highest growth rates – global
population increases above 1.8% per year – occurred briefly during the 1950s, and for longer
during the 1960s and 1970s. The global growth rate peaked at 2.2% in 1963, and has declined to
below 1.1% as of 2012. Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 138 million,
and are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of 134 million, while
deaths number 56 million per year, and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040.

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Current UN projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady
decline in population growth rate; global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and
10.9 billion by 2050. UN Population Division estimates for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and
24.8 billion; one of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate. Some
analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the
growing pressure on the environment, global food supplies, and energy resources.

Activity
What criteria should be used to define overpopulation – and overpopulated in
relation to what?” “Why are we growing food for export when local people are
hungry?” These questions indicate that we need to take more account of the
processes that cause,for example, hunger and famine.

Is it the numbers or consumption patterns that needs attention?

Are many countries in the South over-populated? Or are resource consumption

rates in the North a key problem? Can we say that reducing population growth
is enough to solve the problem of resources? The solution of the less developed
countries developmental problems lies in the control of their population.

The world‘s population reached 6 billion people in 1999 and is expected to reach 8.5 billion by
2025, when 83% of the world will be living in the South. However, our long-term ability to meet
growing demands for food often seems uncertain. Thus, one of our greatest challenges is
increasing food production in a sustainable manner so that everyone can be adequately and
nutritiously fed without over-exploiting the Earth‘s ecosystems.

Many feel (as has been the case throughout history) that the major international wars to be
fought in the future will continue to be over natural resources. Power conflicts and self-
interest will perhaps mean that there will be gross violation of basic rights and death or misery
for millions of innocent people. Throughout history, most wars have had trade and resources at
their core (leading to ideological battles) fueled by imperialistic motives. In the future, while this
pattern is likely to continue, as resources get depleted and wasted in these wars (hot and cold),
additional conflicts and contention will arise through access to even more limited resources.

Many of us have grown up learning and being told that 6 billion is too much and this "over
population" is primarily impacting the planet's ability to cope. But is that really the case? Sure,
the planet is facing incredible stress. But how much of that is due to large populations, and how
much is based on other factors, such as how we choose to live, how we produce, consume and

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waste our resources? The poor are numerous, but as we shall see, consume far less resources of
the planet.

Studies point to ecological limits to sustain people, but these limits can be different, based on the
way we consume resources. It is hard to say for sure what over population means let alone if we
are at some threshold, below, or above it. The information understood so far provides valuable
insights and is very important to consider, nonetheless. Yet, the figure of 6 billion and literature
about over-population naturally looks to the poor regions where there are high populations and
environmental degradation as the problem.

Activity

Are large numbers themselves a problem?Does population affect and put stress on the
environment, society and resources? How much of the environmental degradation we
see today is as a result of over-population and how much is due to over-exploitation
due to consumerism and geopolitical interests? The poor seem to get the blame for
burdening the planet. Is this the case?

Existing consumption patterns as seen in Europe and North America can put strain on the
environment and natural resources. But Especially when considering that ―globally, the 20% of
the world's people in the highest-income countries account for 86% of total private consumption
expenditures - the poorest 20% a minuscule 1.3%", according to the United Nations
Development Programme's 1998 Human Development Report.

Population and development interrelationships

Starting with the population processes - fertility, mortality and migration; these processes lead to
outcomes - population size; age / sex structure or the distribution of the population by age and
sex; and spatial distribution or the distribution of population in various regions or various areas.
These population outcomes affect in many different ways the various development processes,
such as consumption of goods and services (e.g., food, health, education and housing), savings
and investment behavior, public expenditure patterns, utilization of human, physical and natural
resources, to mention a few. For instance, if government provides for primary schooling, and the
school-age population increases, then government might have to spend more to accommodate
this larger population of school-age children. In a very simple sense, that is how population
outcomes affect development processes.

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Sometimes the relationship can be a bit more complex than that. Other processes include
utilization of resources - utilization of land that affects the productivity of land as well as the
environment; utilization or non-utilization of labor, leading to levels of employment,
unemployment and underemployment; and utilization of capital and technology. All these
processes, in turn, lead to development outcomes, which, more or less, indicate the extent to
which we are achieving our development objectives.

These outcomes could be expressed in terms of income or its distribution, levels of employment,
educational, health and nutritional status and even environmental quality, which might be
affected by extensive, excessive or improper use of land and other natural resources. These
socioeconomic outcomes, in turn, also affect the very population processes of fertility, mortality
and migration that we started out with. In general, there is an interaction between population
factors on one hand, and development factors on the other, in terms of the interaction of their
processes and outcomes.

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SECTION 7: POPULATION POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

Lesson 1:

In this lesson we shall learn about Population growth rate and family planning policies and
programmes. The lesson will bring into picture the state of the current population in Kenya and
the bold steps the Kenya government has taken through the Health Ministry to address the issues
of family planning and the possible programmes that can push towards achieving the set
objectives.

Objectives of the Lesson

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:-

1. Define the concept Population growth rate

2. Describe the population control policies and their importance in a development process
3. The International Conference in Population and Development (ICPD) – Cairo 1994

Sub-topic 1: The concept of population policy

A policy is a set of statements (decisions) that govern an issue of concern. It outlines the
objectives and possible systematic implementation structures (plans) as well as the expected
outcomes within a stipulated time. It is a principle or a rule to guide decisions and achieve
rational outcomes

Government views and policies

 Major population concerns

 Population size and growth
 Population age structure
 Fertility and family planning
 Health and mortality
 Spatial distribution and internal migration
 International migration

KENYA World Population Policies 2009

1. MAJOR POPULATION CONCERNS

Less developed regions
 HIV/AIDS 90

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 Infant and child mortality 81

 Maternal mortality 79
 Adolescent fertility 65
 Size of the population of working age 63
 Low life expectancy at birth 62
 Pattern of spatial distribution 58
 High fertility 50

2. POPULATION SIZE AND GROWTH

Many Governments in developing countries have realized the importance of reducing high rates
of population growth in order to ease mounting pressure on renewable and non-renewable
resources, combat climate change, prevent food shortages and provide decent employment and
basic social services to all their inhabitants. Many of these Governments have also realized that
effective implementation of population policy requires the creation of an institutional framework
that ensures the integration of population variables into development planning with adequate
mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation.

3. POPULATION AGE STRUCTURE

One of the inevitable consequences of the unprecedented transformation brought about by the
transition from a regime of high mortality and high fertility to one of low mortality and low
fertility has been population ageing. Many societies, particularly those in developed countries,
have attained older population age structures than have ever existed in the past. In developed
countries, 22 per cent of the population was aged 60 years or over in 2009 and in 2050, 33 per
cent of the population is expected to be in that age range (United Nations, 2009b).

4. FERTILITY AND FAMILY PLANNING

The wealth of information collected on fertility trends provides evidence of the decline in
fertility in most parts of the world. From 1975 to 2005, the number of countries with total
fertility exceeding four children per woman decreased from 127 to 52. As a consequence, global
total fertility declined from 4.3 children per woman in 1970-1975 to 2.7 children per woman in
2005- 2010. For the period 2005-2010, fertility remains above five children per woman in 26 of
the 150 developing countries. In contrast, fertility has reached below-replacement level in 26
developing countries (United Nations, 2009a).

5. HEALTH AND MORTALITY

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During 2005-2010, life expectancy at birth was 77 years in developed countries and 66 years in
developing countries. In the least developed countries, life expectancy at birth was a low 56
years (United Nations, 2009a). Owing to the expansion of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, internal
conflicts, economic crises and deficiencies in health systems, the transition to low mortality has
stagnated or even been reversed in a number of countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa
and in the successor States of the former USSR (McMichael et al. 2004; Moser et al., 2005;
Vallin and Meslé, 2004).

Infant and child mortality and maternal mortality ranked as the second and third most commonly
cited concerns of Governments after the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Maternal mortality is a major
concern for many developing countries. The inclusion of maternal mortality in the MDGs has
heightened awareness among Governments about the need to provide reproductive health
services to all women of reproductive age. The MDGs set a target of reducing maternal mortality
by three quarters between 1990 and 2015 (United Nations 2005).

6. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION

Urbanization has been a major transforming force in most countries of the world. Between 1950
and 2009, the world‘s urban population more than quadrupled, growing from 732 million to 3.4
billion. In 2005, an estimated 37 per cent of the urban population in developing countries lived in
slums (UN-HABITAT, 2008). Often, ―periurban‖ areas or transitional zones between the
countryside and already established cities bear the brunt of rapid urban population growth which,
when urban planning is lacking and there is inadequate investment in infrastructure, contributes
to rising poverty levels, the depletion of natural resources and pollution (UNFPA, 2007; Torres,
Alves and De Oliveira, 2007).

7. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
In 2010, the world is expected to have 214 million international migrants, i.e., people living in
countries other than their country of birth, accounting for 3.1 per cent of the world population.
Six of every 10 international migrants reside in developed countries and the majority of
international migrants living in developed countries originate in developing countries (United
Nations, 2009e). Over the next forty years, the major countries of destination for international
migrants are projected to be the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy,
Germany, Australia, and France, in order of significance. The major countries of origin are

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projected to be Mexico, China, India, the Philippines, Pakistan, Indonesia and Bangladesh, also
in order of importance (United Nations 2009f).

Impact of the global economic and financial crises on international migration and policies in
response

 Highly skilled migrants

 Permanent settlement
 Family reunification
 Temporary workers

Lesson Content

Owing to its high fertility and declining mortality, Kenya is characterised by a youthful
population. Projections show about 43 percent of the population is younger than 15 years (CBS,
2009). According to the Kenya National Census conducted in 2009, over three-fifths of Kenya‘s
population, or about 25 million people, are less than 25 years old. Consequently, Kenya faces the
formidable challenge of providing this youthful population with opportunities for a safe, healthy,
and economically productive future.

The population growth rate was estimated at 2.27% p.a., with a birth rate of 30.08 births/1,000
populations and a death rate of 7.12 deaths/1,000 population (KNBS, 2013)
Like the demographics of Africa in general, Kenya is plagued by:
 High infant mortality, this was at estimated at 59.26 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2006,
decreasing to 54.7 deaths/1,000 live births as of 2010.
 Low life expectancy, this was estimated at 57.9 years as of 2010 and has risen to 63.29
years as of 2013. Male: 61.84 years and female: 64.77 years (2013 est.)
 Malnourishment (32% of population) and
 HIV/AIDS and drugs and substance abuse
 Numeracy and literacy. While these concerns remain grave, a trend towards
improvement is reported in the period of 2006 to 2010: Literacy (age 7 and over can read
and write) was estimated at 85.1% in 2003 (male: 90.6%, female: 79.7%).

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The rate of population growth and the structure of the population are of importance to the
attainment of both the national and global goals (the Millennium Development Goals - MDGs).

Since independence, Kenya has struggled with the increasing demands for health care, education,
housing, water and sanitation, and employment brought about by the rapid increase in the
population.

The rapid population growth has affected allocation of resources at the national and household
levels in Kenya. If the current population growth is not balanced with physical and social
resource consumption, the pressures of increased numbers of people on natural resources such as
farmland and water will be unsustainable

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) endorsed the right of
adolescents and young adults to obtain the highest levels of health care. In line with the ICPD
recommendations, Kenya has put in place an Adolescent Reproductive Health and Development
policy (ARH&D). Broadly, the policy addresses the following adolescent reproductive health
issues and challenges:
 Adolescent sexual health and reproductive rights;
 Harmful practices, including early marriage,
 Female genital cutting, and gender-based violence;
 Drug and substance abuse;
 Socioeconomic factors; and
 Special needs of adolescents and young people with disabilities (Odini, 2008).

Sub-topic 2: Policy matters

International community

The Ministry of Health (MOH) formally approved and adopted the National Reproductive Health
Policy with the theme: ‗Enhancing the Reproductive Health Status for all Kenyans‘. The policy
provides a framework for equitable, efficient, and effective delivery of quality reproductive
health services throughout the country and emphasises reaching those in greatest need who are
most vulnerable. Its aim is to guide planning, standardisation, implementation, and monitoring
and evaluation of reproductive health care provided by various stakeholders. The new policy will
allow the government to incorporate and address key issues such as security of reproductive
health commodities, prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, emergency obstetric
care, adolescent reproductive health issues, gender-based violence, reproductive health needs of
persons with disabilities, and integration of reproductive and HIV health care (Health Policy
Initiative, 2009).

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This policy emphasises priority actions for the achievement of the ICPD goals and the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of improving maternal health, reducing neonatal and
child mortality, reducing the spread of HIV/AIDS, and achieving women‘s empowerment and
gender equality. Attainment of sexual and reproductive health and rights will have positive
effects on poverty reduction and reduction of infant mortality, maternal mortality, and new cases
of HIV/AIDS. A key challenge to attainment of the MDGs will be strengthening the health
system by building the capacity to manage programmes and addressing critical bottlenecks,
especially a shortage of skilled health workers, an inadequate budget for the health sector, poor
procurement and supply systems, and other critical management problems (Division of
Reproductive Health, (2005).

Kenya‘s first national population policy was outlined in Sessional Paper No. 4 of 1984 on
Population Policy Guidelines. This was followed years after by a policy whose implementation
period ended in 2010. It outlined on ways to implement the programme of action developed at
the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt. The
implementation of this policy was being guided by national and district plans of action. The
policy also addressed the issues of environment, gender, and poverty, as well as the problems
facing certain segments of the Kenyan population, such as its youth.

Goals of the population policy include the following:

 Improvement of the standard of living and quality of life
 Improvement of the health and welfare of the people through provision of information
and education on how to prevent illness and premature deaths among risk groups,
especially among mothers and children.
 Sustenance of the ongoing demographic transition to further reduce fertility and
mortality, especially infant and child mortality
 Continuing motivation and encouragement of Kenyans to adhere to responsible
parenthood
 Promotion of stability of the family, taking into account equality of opportunity for
family members, especially the rights of women and children
 Empowerment of women and the improvement of their status in all spheres of life and
elimination of all forms of discrimination, especially against the girl child
 Sustainability of the population programme
 Elimination of retrogressive socio cultural practices through education.

The policy has the following targets, some of which have been achieved according to the current
KDHS results:
 Reduction of the infant mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 live births) from 71 in 1998 to 67
by 2005 and to 63 by 2010

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 Reduction of the under-five mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 live births) from 112 in 1998
to 104 by 2005 and to 98 by 2010
 Reduction of the maternal mortality rate (deaths per 100,000 live births) from 590 in
1998 to 230 by 2005 and to 170 by 2010
 Maintenance of the crude death rate at 12 per 1,000 population up to the year 2000 and
reduction to 10 by 2005 and to 9 by 2010
 Minimisation of the decline in life expectancy at birth for both sexes, from age 58 in
1995 to age 53 in 2010;
 Stabilisation of the population growth rate at 2.1 percent per year by 2010.

Sub-topic 3: Health priorities and programmes

The major health care providers in Kenya are the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation and
the Ministry of Medical Services. These two ministries operate more than half of all health
facilities in the country. The public delivery system is organised in a traditional pyramidal
structure. First-level care is provided at dispensaries and medical clinics. The next level
comprises health centres and sub-district hospitals. Third-level care is provided at district
hospitals and provincial general hospitals. There are two national hospitals—Moi Referral and
Teaching Hospital in Eldoret and Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi. Resources for health are
scarce, and the disease burden is high in the country, just as in other countries in the region
(Glenngård, A.H. and T.M. Maina, 2007) Making adequate health care services universally
available requires striking a delicate balance between a population‘s health needs and available
resources. It also requires the equitable and efficient allocation of resources. Without proper
health care financing strategies, no government can hope to successfully meet the health needs of
its citizens. In 1989, the Kenyan government introduced cost sharing in an effort to bridge the
growing gap between health sector expenses and available resources. Since then, the government
has strived to achieve a mix of health care financing strategies and systems that will enable the
country to provide its citizens with universal access to adequate basic health services (Health
Policy Initiative, 2009).

Since attaining independence, the government has prioritized the improvement of the health
status of Kenyans. It recognises that good health is a prerequisite to socioeconomic development.
A number of government policy documents and successive national development plans have
stated that the provision of health services should meet the basic needs of the population, place
health services within easy reach of Kenyans, and emphasize preventive, promotive, and
rehabilitative services without ignoring curative services. Perhaps as a result of these policies,
both infant mortality and life expectancy at birth, which are basic indicators of health status,
have improved significantly (Ngigi and Macharia, 2006).

The second National Health Sector Strategic Plan (NHSSP II) by the MOH aims to reverse the
downward trends in health indicators observed during the years of the first strategic plan

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(NHSSP I, 1999–2004), while applying the lessons learned and searching for innovative
solutions. NHSSP II re-invigorates the Kenya Health Policy Framework elaborated in 1994. The
health goals formulated in the framework underlined the need to pursue the principles of primary
health care to improve the health status of the Kenyan population.

The Kenya Health Policy Framework set the following strategic imperatives:

1. Ensure equitable allocation of government of Kenya resources to reduce disparities in health

status.
2. Increase cost-effectiveness and efficiency of resource allocation and use.
3. Manage population growth.
4. Enhance the regulatory role of the government in health care provision.
5. Create an enabling environment for increased private sector and community involvement in
service provision and financing.
6. Increase and diversify per capita financial flows to the health sector.

The policies that the government has pursued over the years have had a direct impact on
improving the health status of Kenyans. Despite a decline in economic performance, cumulative
gains have been made in the health sector as evidenced by the improvement in the basic health
indicators (Odini, 2008).

1. Think of some strategies the Kenya government can put in place to curb:
a) High infant mortality
b) Low life expectancy
c) Malnourishment
d) HIV/AIDS and drugs and substance abuse
Activity
e) Illiteracy

GOK, (2011) National Council for Population and Development, Nairobi,

Government Printer.

Odini, L. H. 2008, June 13. Adolescent reproductive health and development policy
2005-2015. AIDSPortal. Retrieved from
Further http://www.aidsportal.org/Article_Details.aspx?ID=7811
reading
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) and ICF Macro. 2010. Kenya
Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09. Calverton, Maryland: KNBS and
ICF Macro.

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1. What are the possible effects of not providing and effecting a viable
reproductive health policy for the youthful population?

Self-test
Question

Section 2:

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD)

Sub-topic 1: The 1994 ICPD in Cairo

What is the ICPD Programme of Action?

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development is the fifth global population
conference, organized under the united Nations.
1. Rome in 1954
2. Belgrade in 1965
3. Bucharest in 1974
4. Mexico City in 1984
5. Cairo in September 1994.
179 countries were officially represented at the Conference.
The Major theme of the conference was:
Population, sustained economic growth and sustainable development

The ICPD Programme of Action contains 16 chapters of consensus recommendations and

commitments agreed to by 179 governments at the International Conference on Population and
Development, held in Cairo in 1994. These recommendations and commitments, strengthened
and updated at the ICPD five-year review (New York, 1999), range from basic principles that
guide population and development efforts to concrete steps each nation should take to make such
efforts successful by the year 2015.

 Key goals embodied in the Programme of Action

 The 1990 illiteracy rate for women and girls should be halved by 2005; and by 2010, the
net primary enrolment ratio for children of both sexes should be at least 90 percent.

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 By 2005, 60 percent of primary health care and family planning facilities were to offer
the widest achievable range of safe and effective family planning methods, essential
obstetric care, prevention and management of reproductive tract infections, including
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and barrier methods to prevent infection; 80
percent of facilities should offer such services by 2010, and all should do so by 2015.

 At least 40 percent of all births should be assisted by skilled attendants where the
maternal mortality rate is very high, and 80 percent globally, by 2005; these figures should be 50
and 85 percent by 2010; and 60 and 90 percent by 2015.

 The gap between the proportion of individuals using contraceptives and the proportion
expressing a desire to space or limit their families should be reduced by half by 2005, by 75
percent by 2010, and by 100 percent by 2015.

 To reduce vulnerability to HIV/AIDS infection, at least 90 percent of young men and
women, aged 15-24, should have access by 2005 to preventive methods-such as female
and male condoms, voluntary testing, counseling, and follow-up-and at least 95 percent
by 2010. HIV infection rates in persons 15-24 years of age should be reduced by 25
percent in the most affected countries by 2005 and by 25 percent globally by 2010.

 By 2015 all countries should aim to achieve an infant mortality rate below 35 per 1000
live births and an under-5 mortality rate below 45 per 1000.

 Countries should strive to reduce maternal mortality by 100 percent by 2015.

The goals and content of the ICPD Programme of Action are sweeping in scope. That said, the
Programme's "

core agenda" revolves around four constituent parts:

 basic family planning,
 expanded reproductive health,
 information and education on sexually transmitted infections
 data/research.

This "core agenda" was reviewed exhaustively to develop detailed resource estimates through
the year 2015 in advance of the ICPD.

1995-2015 PLANS BY ICPD;

1. ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO COMPLETION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

Urged countries to provide wider access to women for secondary and higer level
education as well as vocational and technical training.

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2. REDUCTION OF INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY

Countries should strive to reduce infant and under 5 child mortality rates by 50-70 /1000
deaths by yr 2000. By 2015 all countries should aim to achieve a rate below 35/1000 live
births and under 5 mortality rate below 45/1000.

3. REDUCTION OF MATERNAL MORTALITY

A reduction by 1/2 the 1990 level by 2000 and 1/2 of that by 2015. Disparities in
maternal mortality within countries should be reduced.

4. ACCESS TO REPRODUCTIVE AND FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES

Family planning counseling, prenatal care, safe delivery and post natal care, prevention
and appropriate treatment or infertility. Prevention of abortion, better reproductive health
conditions, counseling on responsible parenthood. Services regarding HIV/AIDS, breast
cancer, and active discouragement of FGM. All these services should be made easily
available.
5. INCREASE OF LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH TO MORE THAN 75 YEARS
Governments were advised to enable easy access to basic life commodities such as food,
shelter, clothing and health services to their citizens. This would ensure quality of life is
increased leading to increased life expectancy to their desired target.

The ICPD delegates reached a consensus that the equality and empowerment of women is
a global priority. It approached this as an essential step toward eradicating poverty and
stabilizing population growth.
A total of 179 governments signed up to the ICPD PROGRAM OF ACTION (P.O.G)
which set out to do the following;

1. Greater civic participation of NGOs, religious institutions, governments and community

leaders.
2. Governments told to change laws and policies in order to implement issues talked about
in the conference.
3. Improving reproductive health services to curb infant and maternal mortality.

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