What is morality?

Bioethics
It is defined as the standards that an individual or group has about what is right and wrong, good or evil. Morality This concerns ethical issues pertaining to life,
is innate and can even be unconscious. Our fundamental need to be connected to one another makes us realize biomedical, research, medicines, health care, and
that there are qualities inside us that forced us to live in harmony with other human beings. Hence, it is our moral the medical profession.
qualities that push us to be attuned with the unconscious; this is the highest form of morality.
Morality is applied to the whole of humanity; it serves as a yardstick of behaving in a community and tries to Environmental Ethics
reduce evil or harm as its goals. -It deals with moral issues concerning nature, the ecosystem, and its nonhuman contents.
Morality is a complex of concepts and philosophical beliefs by which an individual determines whether his or her
actions fare right or wrong. Often, these concepts and beliefs are generalized and codified in a culture or group, Business Ethics
and thus serve to regulate the behavior of its members. Conformity to such codification is called morality, and the -It examines moral principles concerning the business environment which involves issues about corporate
group may depend on widespread conformity to such codes for its continued existence. A "moral" may refer to a practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organizations. It
particular principle, usually as informal and general summary of a moral principle, as applied in a given human investigates ethical controversies.
situation (Darwall, 2015)
Sexual Ethics
There are six features which serve as keys in understanding morality better. It studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.

1. People experience a sense of moral obligation and accountability. Social Ethics

One cannot but to accept the reality that he is existent--his moral experience. Even secularist (advocating or - It deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole.
relating to separation of the state from religious institutions), like Kai Nielsen recommends that one "ought to" act - Its focus is on what may be deemed as proper behavior for people as a whole.
or follow some rules, policies, practices, or principles. (Nielsen, 1973)
- Even atheist namely Richard Dawkins, an atheist, exclaims that there are THE MORAL AGENT
"moral instructions on how we ought to behave." (Dawkins, 2006)
MAN AS MORAL AGENT.
2. Moral values and moral absolutes exist. ❑Moral Agent is a being that is “capable of acting with reference to right and wrong”.
According to Craig, it is hard to deny the objective reality of moral values. Morality may not be totally absolute ❑A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the power of choosing, and scope to act according to his choice.
per se but it is objectively claimed to be. Rape, torture, and child abuse are not just objectionable behavior but ❑Being a moral agent means that they can be held responsible for their decisions and behaviors, whether they
are moral abominations (Craig, 1994) are good or bad.

- There are moral absolutes -truths that exist and apply to everyone. LESSON 2: MORAL and NON-MORALSTANDARD and DILEMMAS

3. Moral law does exist. - Rules are specific sets of norms of behavior, regulations and laws established on purpose to regulate
When we have chosen what is good over evil, this only means that we have used some standard in doing so. the life in the community.
We cannot choose good over evil in the absence of moral law. - These Norms secure the order and allow avoiding total chaos.

4. Moral law is known to humans.

Importance of rules to human beings
This is the law which, as claimed by philosophers, everyone must know. It also called Law of Nature. We can
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior
then claim that all peoples in every society in the world possess, at least, a law of nature, which may be slightly
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom
different from that of the other but that it is not so different.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system
5. Morality is objective.
Morality is unconditional/absolute - it is not relative nor subjective. This means that there is real right and real
Differences between Moral and Non-Moral Standards
wrong that is generally and unchangeably true, independent of one's cognition. There are things to which people
•Moral Standard- refers to the norms which we have about the types of action which we believe to be morally
very much agree as bad like, rape, genocide, women mutilation etc. This only means that such things are really
acceptable and morally unacceptable.
wrong.
•Deals with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human beings.
6. Moral judgments must be supported by reasons.
How are Moral Standards Formed?
Personal preference is very much different with moral judgments. Guts maybe used when expressing something
❑Moral Standards are influenced by a variety of factors
bad. A wife may allegedly feel that her husband is doing something against their vow of marriage, but it is not
❑as the moral principles we accept as part of our upbringing,
warranted since it is only a gut - feelings. In the absence of reason therefore, morality becomes debatable.
❑values passed on to us through heritage and legacy,
❑the religious values that we have imbibed from childhood,
❑the values that were showcased during the period of our education,
ETHICAL THEORIES
❑the behavior pattern of those who are around us,
❑the explicit and implicit standards of our culture,
Normative or Prescriptive ethics - is defined as a type
❑our life experiences
of ethics that determines what moral standards determine the rightness or wrongness of our actions.
❑and more importantly, our critical experience reflections on these
- It prescribes how a person should act in society.
experiences.
- Usually, prescriptive ethics have either a religious
origin such as the Bible, or a non-religious or purely
CHARACTERISTIC OF MORAL STANDARD
humanistic ethics.
1. Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment.
Descriptive or Applied Ethics - involves the factual
2. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
investigation of moral behavior. In each society, these
3. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
standards are identifiable as they are embedded in cultural and religious practices.
4. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
5. MORAL STANDARDS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIAL EMOTIONS AND VOCABULARY.
Applied Ethics examines specific, controversial moral
issues. Thus, there must be considerable groups of people both for and against the issue.
•Prescriptivity indicates the practical oraction-guiding nature of moral standards. These principles are proposed Methods of Philosophy
for users to evaluate behavior, assign praise and blame, and produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt. ❑Philosophy as Speculation / Speculative Thinking
❑Philosophy as Critical Thinking / Analysis
Differences between Moral and Non-Moral Standards ❑Philosophy as Reflective Inquiry
•Non-Moral Standard –refer to rules that are unrelated to
moral or ethical considerations. Example, rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various
house rules. PHILOSOPHY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO:?
MAIN BRANCHES
•Etiquette- refers to the norms of correct conduct in polite society or, more generally, to any special code of • Metaphysics • Epistemology • Axiology
social behavior or courtesy. MAIN DIVISIONS
• Theoretical • Practical
•Statutes- are laws enacted by legislative bodies. Congress and state legislatures enact statutes.
•Somewhere between etiquette and law lie professional codes of ethics. These are the rules that are supposed METAPHYSICS
to govern the conduct of members of a given profession. • Refers to the branch of philosophy that deals the nature of reality.
• Ontology is the study of the nature of the existence of
things. Also referred to as the theory of being.

MORAL DILEMMA
❑is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons for choosing Epistemology
each action. (meaning study of knowledge) It refers to the study of validity of human knowledge.
❑A Moral Dilemma is a situation where: • empiricism (experience) or rationalism (by the mind prior to experience) – and verification or confirmation of
❑You are presented with two or more actions, all of which you have the ability to perform. knowledge.
❑There are moral reasons for you to choose each of the actions. • Skepticism - The mind cannot attain the truth because it is prone to error and ergo one needs to suspend his /
❑You cannot perform all of the actions and have to choose which action, or actions when there are three or her belief.
more choices, to perform.
Axiology
3 Levels of Moral Dilemma Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels: - refers to the philosophical study of value and as humans we value two things: beauty and human conduct.
• Aesthetics is concerned with the analysis of aesthetic experience and the idea of what is beautiful (objective
1. Personal Dilemmas are those experienced and beauty).
resolved on a personal level. • Ethics (ethos), meaning "habit, custom“ is concerned with moral conduct.
•Since many ethical decisions are personally made, many if not most moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to
this level. Other Divisions of Philosophy
•If a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to choose between Theoretical
the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma. • Cosmology • Ontology • Metaphysics • Psychology
• Theodicy • (Philosophy of Religion) • Epistemology
2. Organizational Dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social organizations. This
category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical fields, and the public sector. COSMOLOGY
The study of the origin, evolution, and ultimate fate of the entire universe. Cosmologists deal with the questions
3. Structural Dilemmas refer to cases involving a network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. regarding the origin of the universe in a scientific and philosophical manner.
As they usually encompass multisectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent
than organizational dilemmas. PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is defined as a science that studies human and animal behavior.
LESSON 1: BASIS and DEFINITION
THEODICY
THE SUBJECT: ETHICS Theodicy investigates the nature, being, and attributes of God not based on the bible and divine revelation but by
In the Theaetetus, Plato’s Socrates claims that philosophy begins in wonder (thaumazein). Aristotle echoes logical abstractions and reasoning.
these sentiments in his Metaphysics; it is wonder and astonishment that first led us to philosophize.

Introduction
The ability to inquire or ask questions is inherent among human beings. To think is the basic impulse of man SEMANTICS
The act of asking is the person’s way of making sense of all things around him or her that he or she does not The study of the meaning of words in its linguistic forms, their functions and their relationship to other words.
understand.
HERMENUETICS
PHILOSOPHY Hermeneutics as the methodology of interpretation is concerned with problems that arise when dealing with
meaningful human actions and the products of such actions, most importantly texts.
ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION
LOGIC
Came from the two Greek words: Logic came from the Greek word "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea,
Philia (φιλο) means “love” argument, account, reason or principle. It is defined as the science of correct reasoning.
Sophia (σοφία) means “wisdom”
Therefore, it literally means, love of wisdom.  The rich history of philosophy is replete with men and women who inquired into the fundamental nature of
the self. Along with the question of the primary substratum that defines the multiplicity of things in the
ACADEMIC DEFINITION world, the inquiry on the self has preoccupied the earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy.
“Scientia rerum omnium per causas altissimas, naturali ratione comparata.”  It was the Greeks who questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand the
reality and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of self.
(The science of all things through the highest causes obtained by natural reason).
 The diverse perspectives on the self can be best seen and understood then by revisiting its prime movers MORALITY
and identify the most vital conjectures made by the great thinkers form the ancient time until to the
contemporary era. • Can be defined as the standards that an individual or a
group has about what is right and wrong, good or evil.
ETHICS
•Deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern • Morality is an informal public system applying to
society at the level of the person, society and in all rational persons, governing behavior that
interaction with the environment and other shared affects others, and has lessening of evil or harm
resources. as its goal.

MORALITY •It is a complex of concepts and philosophical

•Pertains to the standards of right and wrong that beliefs by which an individual determines
an individual originally picks from the community. whether his or her actions are right or wrong.

ETHICS/ MORAL PHILOSOPHY THE TERM MORALITY CAN BE USED EITHER;

❑May be defined in a provisional way, as the scientific study of moral judgments. a. Descriptively (Descriptive Sense)
❑Ethics is a discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. - to refer to certain codes of conduct put forward by a society or a group (such as religion), or accepted by an
❑Ethics is a system of moral principles. individual for his/her own behavior or;
❑The term was derived from the Greek word ethos
which can mean custom, habit, character, or disposition. b. Normatively (Normative Sense)
❑In latin, mos (normative) or moris (genitive) which means custom or traditional line of conduct - to refer to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons.

Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in the hierarchy CHAPTER 2: FREEDOM AND MORALITY
of human values, as it is concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good and Goal – Happiness.
LESSON 1 FREEDOM AND MORAL ACTS
•According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.
• According to Gualdo, Placido and Dagwasi, ethics is a FREEDOM AND MORAL ACTS
personal and lifelong commitment. • In Kant Philosophy, freedom is defined as a concept which is involved in the moral domain, at the question:
•Ethics is not only about the morality of particular courses of action, but it’s also about the goodness of what should I do?
individuals and what it means to live a good life. • Kant says that the moral law is only that I know myself as a free person. Kantian freedom is closely
•Ethics in ancient Greece was concerned with moral character or virtues. linked to the notion of autonomy, which means law itself: thus,freedom falls obedience to a law that I created
•For instance, Socrates cited the importance to recognize the value of questions that affect how a person should myself. It is therefore, respect its commitment to compliance with oneself.
live. This is Socratic method, elenchus. Intellectual midwifery, . • Practical reasons is based on freedom, it is freedom.
intellectual humility. • Practical reason is the rational capacity by which agents guide their conduct.
• It is defined as the capacity of a rational being to act according to principles
BRANCHES OF ETHICS • Kant Ethics is mainly based on the concepts of free will and autonomy.

In the Field of Ethics, morality is often defined in two ways.

NORMATIVE ETHICS KANTS MORALITY AND FREEDOM

• To act freely is to act autonomously. To act autonomously is to act according to a law I give myself.
- in which actions are judged by merits, allowing societies to develop codes of conduct for behavior. • Whenever I act according to the laws of nature,demands of social convention, when I pursue pleasure and
comfort, I am not acting freely. To act freely is to choose the end itself, for its own sake.
- The Golden Rule, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”, is a classic example of normative • For Kant, acting freely (autonomously) and acting morally are one and the same thing.
ethics, since you are determining morality through your actions.
To arrive at a proper understanding of Kant’s notion of moral law and the connection between morality, freedom
DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS and reason, let’s examine these contrasts:

- it ask what people think is moral. It does not actually claim that things are right or wrong, but simply studies DUTY VS INCLINATION (MORALITY)
how individuals or societies define their morals. - only the motive of duty, acting according the law I gave myself confers moral worth to an action.
Any other motive, while possibly commendable, cannot give an action moral worth.
- It defines morals in terms of their cultural or personal significance.
AUTONOMY VS HETERONOMY (FREEDOM)
WHY STUDY ETHICS? -I am only free when my will is determined autonomously, governed by the law I give myself. Being
part of nature, I am not exempt from its laws and I’m inclined or compelled to act according to those laws (act
The Study of Ethics will enable a person to understand better what his conscience is, how he acquired it, how heteronomously). My capacity for reason opens another possibility. That of acting according to the laws other
far he is likely to be able to trust to its deliverances with safety, and how he can improve it and make it more than the laws of nature: the laws I give myself. this reason, “pure practical reason”, legislative a priori -regardless
intelligent. of all empirical ends.

HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATiVE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE CATEGORICAL VS HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES (REASON) – Kant acknowledges two ways in which
Hypothetical imperatives are moral commands that Categorical imperatives are commands you must reason can command the will, two imperatives. Hypothetical Imperatives uses instrumental reason: if I want X, I
are conditional on personal desire or motive. follow irrespective of your desires and motives must do Y. (If I want to stay out of jail, I must be a good citizen and not rob banks). Hypothetical imperatives is
A command you should follow if you want something; An absolute moral obligation derived from pure reason always conditional.
thus, it tells you how to achieve a specific goal TWO MAIN FORMULATIONS OF THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE:
An imperative based on desire or inclination . An imperative based on reason alone.
Universal or absolute Not Universal or absolute
Teach us how to reach a specific goal Help us to evaluate our moral actions and to make
moral judgments.
 •Culture is derived from the Latin Word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or cultivation. Culture as
Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. - cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of his own social group.
Immanuel Kant
• “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, law art, moral, custom, and other capabilities
•“MAXIM” is a rule, a principle that gives reason to action. •This is a “UNIVERSALIZING TEST” that checks and habits acquired as a member of society” (Anthropologist Edward B. Taylor).
whether my action puts my interests and circumstances ahead of everyone else’s. My action will fail the test if it
results in a contradiction. On the other hand, sociologists defined culture as the entire way of life followed by people, and everything
learned and shared by people in society.
Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any
other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. -Immanuel Kant Culture is a complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common
to members of society
•For Kant, HUMAN EXISTENCE has in itself an absolute value -it is an end in itself and the only ground of
possible categorical imperative. THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT

THE ROLE OF FREEDOM IN MORALITY • Culture has been with us since the dawn of human existence. Significant as it is, culture considerably shapes
•The Personal Aspect of Morality -which might more properly be called ethics – is about the cultivation of virtue: its members on how they live and relate within themselves and with other cultures.
The development of character traits so that choosing the good becomes a matter of habit.
•Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it cannot be coerced. A virtuous man must •Culture is a social environment in which a person is born and wherein he or she lives together with other
also be a free man. persons.

The interpersonal aspect of morality is more about rule following. RULES prevent us from colliding with each • Hence, culture has a great impact in the development of the human person in varied ways; may it be in
other. They permit us to live together in harmony, and they also make us recognize from the mere consequences physical, knowledge, thought, relationship, religious or moral development.
to ourselves, the rights of others. How culture influences the moral development of the people.
FREEDOM: THE FOUNDATION OF MORAL ACT
1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards one another and their
•Freedom is human’s greatest quality and it is a reflection of our creator. experience as people are the culture’s meadow.
•Freedom is the power rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act, to do this or that and so to perform
deliberate actions on one’s own responsibility. Having Freedom means having Responsibility. 2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of the society.

WHAT SEPARATES HUMAN FROM ANIMALS? 3. Culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and
limitations as they live and relate with one another.
• REASON (intellect) and WILL (moral action).
4. As culture helps in generating the character identity of its people, it also includes their moral character.
• GOOD AND EVIL are rooted are forged in freedom. To that degree that a person reaches higher level of
freedom, he becomes capable of higher levels of morality. The sinful person becomes slave. 5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.

• The existence of freedom is a central premise in Catholic morality. Our secular culture greatly exalts DYNAMICS OF CULTURE
freedom. Yet it also questions whether freedom really exists.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Human act vs Acts of Humans.
• Cultural Relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgements using the
•Human acts make use of his knowledge and free will. standards of one’s own culture.
Ex. Love your enemy, pray to God, sacrifice for others.
• The goal of this is to promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one’s own culture.
•Acts of Human do not make use of his intellect or will knowledge. His action is natural. Ex. Breathing,
blinking, and sneezing. •Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than other another
culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc
•Man is created by God as a human person who can begin and control his own actions. He is meant to seek
God and gain perfection by clinging to him. By freedom (rooted form his intellect and will) man has the power to •Marriage practices of Muslims should not be judged based on the culture of the Roman Catholics is one
act or not to act. example. The celebration of fiesta in the Philippines should not look into by other nation as too much religiosity.

•By constantly doing good, man grows in freedom. Doing evil leads man into a “slavery of sin” (Rom 6:17). ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES of Cultural Relativism
•Human history attests that the problems of man come from man’s abuse of freedom
Advantages of Cultural Relativism:
•An act is good when the object, the intention, and the circumstances are all good. Some acts are evil in 1. It is a system which promotes cooperation.
themselves as fornication and are always wrong to choose. 2. It creates a society where equality is possible.

•Therefore, the person’s intention and circumstances, such as pressure or duress, cannot change a morally evil
act, such as murder, blasphemy, or adultery, into a morally good act. We cannot do evil so good will come from
it.

LESSON 2 : Dynamics of Culture

WHAT IS CULTURE?
3. People can pursue a genuine interest. 2. THE BAYANIHAN.
4. Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural relativism. •It is the spirit of communal unity or effort to achieve a particular object.
5. It preserves human cultures. •People nowadays use it to describe an outpouring of community spirit – as people give their all to the common
6. Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural relativism.
Western Ethics Eastern Ethics
7. We can create personal moral codes based on societal standard with ease.
8. It stops cultural conditioning. Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect
The disadvantages of Cultural Relativism: Basis Rational Though Religious teachings
1. It creates a system that is fueled by personal bias.
2. It would create chaos. Emphasis Logic, cause, and effect Respect towards Family
3. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity.
4. It could promote a lack of diversity
5. It draws people away from one another.
6. It could limit moral progress. Roots in Athens, Rome, Judeo, and Christianity Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism,
7. It could limit humanity’s progress. and Taoism
8. Cultural Relativism can turn perceptions into truth.

Dead Bodies in Indonesia

Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural

Conflict and Harmony Good over Evil Good and Bad, light and dark all
exist in equilibrium
Shi'ite Muslims

good without expecting recognition or personal gain.

3. COURTSHIP.
•Serenading or harana in tagalog is one of the most popular forms of courtship to show that a man is very
Finger Cutting of Danitribe serious with his intentions to woman.
•A serenade would require the young man to sing a
love song in front of the young lady’s house (normally he is accompanied by his male friends who act as back-up
singers.)

4. RELIGION
•The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman Catholic nations in Asia-Pacific.
•Their habit of going to church and often praying reflects
that Filipinos have a deep faith and belief when it comes
to religion.
• Filipinos believe that having a strong devotion may lead
to a better life and their guidance to face everyday life.

5. SUPERSTITION
• Superstitious beliefs have grown throughout the country
• These beliefs have come from the different sayings and beliefs of our ancestors that aim to prevent danger
from happening or to make a person refrain from doing something in particular.
East vs.Westt • These are part of our culture, for one derives his/ her own beliefs from the influences of what his/her customs,
traditions and culture have dictated to explain certain phenomena or to scare people
• Some are practiced primarily because Filipinos believe that there is nothing to lose if they will comply with
LESSON 3 : THE FILIPINO WAY these beliefs.
The Filipino Customs and Traditions
•Our culture is a big reflection of our great and complex history. 6. MARRIAGE AND WEDDING CUSTOMS.
•It is influenced by most of the people we have interacted with. A blend of the MalayoPolenesian and Hispanic •Marriage is a scared union of man and woman after a
Culture with the influence from Chinese, Indian Arabs, and period of courtship and engagement.
other Asian Cultures really contribute to the customs and traditions of the Filipinos. •For many Filipinos, the eternal quality of dedication to
God pervades a truly sacred marriage.
1. Close Family Ties. •A scared marriage is a covenant between two who
•It is one of the most outstanding cultural values that Filipinos have. love each other in God and with God, whose joining
•The Family takes care of each other and is taught to becomes an expression of the desire of each other to
be loyal to family and elders by simply obeying their love and serve God together.
authorities.
•Having Fondness for family reunions during secular 7. DEATH
and religious holidays is evidence that Filipino people •For many Filipinos, a death of a relative is an opportunity to strengthen ties in the family.
value not only our cultural tradition but the spirit of •To pay respect and honor the relationship to the deceased, long lost relatives, friends and even relatives
our family. working abroad are reunited.
•The Philippines is the home of some unique death
rituals that are partly religious and mostly superstitious. sometimes, with those who are in a high role or a prestigious member of society.
• Paggalang cam also be shown toward your elders by kissing their hands before leaving/ to say goodbye upon
8. SOCIETY arrival/ to greet them.
•The primary ancestors of Filipinos are Malays who came
from the southeastern Asian country. 2. Pakikisama (Helping others)
•The Philippines is a combined society, both singular and •It has the connotation of getting along with people in general.
plural in form. It is singular as one nation, but plural in •This trait usually fosters general cooperation and performing good or helpful deeds, which can lead to
that it is fragmented geographically and culturally. others viewing you in a favorable light.
•The nation is divided between Christians, Muslims, and
other religious-ethno-linguistic groups; between urban 3. UTANG NA LOOB (DEBT OF GRATITUDE)
and rural people; between upland and lowland people; •It means to pay your debt with gratitude.
between the rich and the poor. •There is usually a system of obligation. When this value is
applied, it imparts a sense of duty and responsibility on the younger siblings to serve and repay the favors done
9. CHRISTMAS IN THE PHILIPPINES. to them by their elders.
•It is considered as one of the biggest holidays in the
archipelago. 4. PAGPAPAHALAGA SA PAMILYA (PRIORITIZING FAMILY)
• We earned the distinction of celebrating the world’s •This implies that a person will place a high regard on
longest Christmas season with Christmas carols heard as his/her family and prioritize that before anything else.
early as September and lasting until Epiphany, the feast of
the Black Nazarene on January 9 or the Feast of the Santo 5. Hiya (Shame)
Niño de Cebu on the third Sunday of January. •This controls the social behaviors and interactions of Filipino.
• For many Filipinos, the true essence of Christmas is not •It is the value that drives a Filipino to be obedient
giving but sharing this special holy day with family. and respectful to their parents, older siblings, and other authorities.
•This is also a key ingredient in the loyalty of one’s Family.
10. FIESTAS
• It is held in the Philippines to celebrate a patron saint. It is part and parcel of Filipino culture through good times 6. DAMAYAN SYSTEM
and bad times, it must go on. •Extending sympathy for people who lost their loved ones.
• For individual Filipinos, it can be a way of supplicating the heavens or to make amends for past wrongs. It is a •In case of death of a certain member of the community, the whole community sympathizes with the bereaved
way to celebrate their blessings commemorate their past and observe solemn religious rituals. family.
• Celebrations may take form of music, dancing, feasting, beauty contests, balls, processions, sports challenges • Neighbors, friends, and relatives of the deceased usually
or a host of other events. give certain amount of money as their way of showing
• Spanish influence is evident in the elaborate masks, makeup, headdresses and costumes worn by revellers; sympathy.
outfits which often take months of preparation.
7. COMPASSIONATE
11. LIVING WITH PARENTS. •A Filipino trait of being sympathetic to others even the person is a stranger. An example of this is giving alms to
•Filipinos highly value the presence of family more the beggars.
than anything. Adult children living with their •This is observed when we hear Filipino saying, “kawawa naman or nakakaawa naman”.
parents are another Filipino traditional that make
them exceptional. 8. Fun-Loving Trait
•Unlike in the United States where children leave •A trait that makes them unique that even in times of calamities and other challenges in life, they always have
the home after finishing high school or college, something to be happy about, a reason to celebrate.
many Filipinos continue living with parents until
they get married. SOCIAL VALUES OF THE FILIPINOS

CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE 1.HIGH REGARD FOR AMOR PROPIO (SELF-ESTEEM)

1. The Filipino people are very Resilient. • Self-esteem reflects an individual’s overall subjective emotional evaluation of his or her own worth
2. Filipinos take pride in their families •It encompasses beliefs about oneself, as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and
3. Filipinos are very religious shame.
4. Filipinos are very respectful • Filipinos are sensitive to attacks of their own self
5. Filipinos help one another esteem and cultivate a sensitivity to the self-esteem of
6. Filipinos value traditions and Culture others as well.
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebrations 2. SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
8. Filipinos love art and architecture •It is the nature of interaction that occurs between two or more people.
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people •People in an interpersonal relationship may interact overtly, covertly, face-to-face or even anonymously.
•It may occur with friends, family, co-workers,
Filipino Family Values strangers, chat room participants, doctors or clients.
• The Family is the center of the social structure and
includes the nuclear family, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such as godparents, 3. PERSONAL ALLIANCE SYSTEM
sponsors, and close family friends. People get strength and stability from their family. As such, many children •This scheme is anchored on kinship, beginning with the nuclear family.
have several godparents. • A Filipino loyalty goes first to the immediate family; identity is deeply embedded in the web of kindship.
• The Filipino Family consists of many traditional values that have been treasured and passed on for many •With respect to kin beyond this nuclear family, closeness in relationship depends very much on
generations already. physical proximity.

Hereunder are the following traditional values: 4. THE COMPADRE SYSTEM

1. Paggalang (Respect) •Bonds or ritual kinship, sealed on any of three ceremonial occasions; baptism, confirmation, and marriage,
• Filipinos are accustomed to using the words “po,” “opo,” and “ho” when they are conversing with older people intensify and extend personal alliances.
or, •This mutual kinship system, known as copadrazgo or
compadre, meaning god parenthood or sponsorship dates back at least to the introduction of Christianity and CHAPTER 3: UNIVERSAL VALUES
perhaps earlier. LESSON 1: BASIC UNIVERSAL VALUES
•In asking a friend to become a godparent to a child, a
Filipino is also asking that person to become a closer What is - Universal Value?
friend. A value is a quality that weans people, things, events, or
situations. The term is used to designate the moral
5. UTANG-NA-LOOB characteristics that are inherent in subject piety,
•It is expected that the debtor will attempt repayment, it is widely recognized that the debt can never be fully responsibility, secularism, respect, etc.
repaid and the obligation can last for generations.
•Saving another’s life, providing employment, or Universal, however, is an adjective that is related to what
making it possible for another to become educated are “gifts” that incur utang na loob. belongs or which relates to the universe. The concept refers to the set of all things created and what is common
to all its kind.
6. SUKI RELATIONSHIP
•Suki relationships or market-exchange partnerships may develop between to people who agree to become Universal Values
regular customer and supplier. • are formed by implied behavioral standards that are
• Suki does more that help develop economic exchange relationships. Because trust is a vital aspect, it creates a necessary to live in a harmonious and peaceful society.
platform for personal relationships that can blossom into genuine friendship between individuals. • It is a notion that is not obvious to define, because, a value is associated with morality and ethics, which is
difficult to transpose or refer to the level of the group.
7. FRIENDSHIP • In addition to cultural differences, we can say that goodness, solidarity, volunteerism, and honesty are virtues
•It is often placed on at par with kinship as the most central of Filipino Relationships. you want in any country or region. So, these are universal values.
•Certainly ties among those within one’s group of • It is acquired with family education and school because the process of socialization involves new generations
friends are an important factor in the development of personal alliance system. internalizing timeless conceptsp.
•A willingness to help one another provides the prime rationale for the relationship.
The Universal Values
Weakness of Filipino Character S. H. Schwartz, defined “values” as conceptions of the
1. Passivity and lack of Initiative -Acceptance of what desirable that influence the way people select action and
happens, without active response or resistance. evaluate events.
Schwartz’s results from a series of studies that included
2. Colonial Mentality -more strictly refers to the attitude the Filipinos feel that product coming from other surveys of more than 25,000 people in 44 countries with awide range of different cultural types suggest that
countries there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal values.
are more superior than the local products. -VALUE -TYPES-
With the specific
3. Kanya-kanya syndrome – Filipinos have a selfish, self Related Values
serving attitude that generates a feeling of envy and 1. Power: Social status and prestige, control or dominance
competitiveness towards others, particularly one’s peers over people and resources.
who seem to have gained some status or prestige. 2. Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating
4. Extreme Personalism -Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships and the extent to which one competence according to social standards.
is able to personally relate things and people determines the 3. Hedonism: Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
recognition of their existence and the value given to them. 4. Stimulation: excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
5. Self-Direction: Independent thought and action –
5.Extreme Family Centeredness – Excessive concern for the family creates an in-group to which the Filipino is choosing, creating, exploring.
fiercely loyal to the detriment of concern for the larger community or for the common good. 6. Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for
nature.
6. Lack of discipline- Procrastination is one reason of lack of self-discipline, lack of willpower, motivation and 7. Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal
ambition are also causes for lack of self-discipline. contact.
8. Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion
7. Lack of Self-analysis and reflection -In the face of prpovide.
serious problems, both personal and social, there is lack of 9. Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social
analysis or reflection. We joke about the most serious expectations or norms.
matters and this prevents looking deeply into the problem. 10.Security: Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.

8. Ningas Cogon – A Filipino attitude of being enthusiastic

only during the start of new undertaking but ends dismally
in accomplishing nothing.

9. Gaya-Gaya Attitude – A Filipino Attitude of imitating or

copying other culture specifically in mode of dressing,
language, fashion, trend or even haircut.

Schwartz also tested an 11th possible universal value,

“spirituality” or the ‘goal of finding meaning in life’,
but found that it does not seem to be recognized in all cultures.
LESSON 2
DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL CHARACTER
What is Moral Character?
•Moral Character or character is an evaluation of an individual’s stable moral qualities. LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL
•The concept of character can imply a variety of attributes including the existence or lack of virtues such as • The individual moves beyond the perspective of his/her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract
empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good behaviors or habits. principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of
•Lawrence Pervin defines moral character as “a disposition to express behavior in consistent patterns of all individuals.
functions across range of situations.
•A moral Character is defined as an idea in which one • Stage 5: Social contract orientation
is unique and can be distinguished from others. – Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human
•In another words, it is “human excellence,” or unique thoughts of a character. purposes. That is, given the right situation, there
are exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, it
CHARACTER TRAITS THAT IMPACT ONE’S HAPPINESS does not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered.
- Good Character consists of defining your values and integrity based on time-tested principles and self-
reflection and having the courage to live your life accordingly. •Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle orientation
1. Integrity 2. Honesty - According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals will
3. Loyalty 4. Respectfulness never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined by one’s selfchosen ethical principle of
5. Responsibility 6. Humility conscience. These principles are abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the
7. Compassion 8. Fairness perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.
9. Forgiveness 10.Authenticity
11.Courageousness 12.Generosity Arguments against Kohlberg’s Theory
13.Perseverance 14.Politeness •How does this theory apply to males and females?
15.Kindness 16.Lovingness • Kohlberg (1969) felt the more males than females move
17.Optimism 18.Reliability past stage four in their moral development.
19.Conscientiousness 20.Self-discipline •He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in
their moral reasoning abilities.
• These ideas were not well received by Carol Gilligan, a
research assistant of Kohlberg, who consequently
LESSON 3: developed her own ideas of moral development.•In her groundbreaking book, in a “Different Voice: Psychological
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Theory and Women’s Development”, Gilligan criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only on
upper class white men and boys.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development •She argued that women are deficient in their moral
• Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, a comprehensive stage theory of moral development reasoning – she proposed that males and females
based on Jean Piaget’s theory or moral judgment for children (1932) reason differently.
•It focuses on the thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong. •Girls and women focus more on staying connected
• The framework of Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers of and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral development.

LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

• At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally
controlled. Rules imposed by authority figures are
conformed to in order to avoid punishment orreceive
rewards, this perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is personally
satisfying.

• Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

- Behavior is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid punishment.

• STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL PURPOSE ORIENTATION

– Behavior is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying CHAPTER 4: THE ACT
personal needs.
‘Only human beings can be ethical’
Level 2: Conventional Level
•Conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self interests to relationships with other people and social systems.
The individual strives to support rules
that are set forth by others such as parents, peers,
and the government in order
CHAPTER 4: THE ACT
• Stage 3: Good boy/Nice girl orientation
‘Only human beings can be ethical’
– Behavior is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or own the affection and approval
of others by being a “good person”.
Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the
book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of
• Stage 4: Law and order orientation:
- Social rules and laws are determined behavior. The individual now takes into consideration a larger
perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than consideration of close ties to Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious.
others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving. to win their
approval or to maintain social order.
 Types of Commanded Acts

Human Acts vs. Acts of Man

1. Internal Acts
Human Act
- Actions by man by way of internal mental powers under the command of the will.
- An act that proceed from the deliberate free will of man.
e.g. Act of remembering Imagination Controlling
Acts of man
- Acts that man performs inadvertently and without the exercise of free choice.
2. External Acts
- Acts that are affected by bodily powers of man under the command of the will.
Elements of Human Acts
e.g. eating jumping singing
1. Knowledge
- has intellectual knowledge in doing the
3. Mixed Acts
act
- Acts that include the use of body and mental powers .
- Awareness to the means and end of act

e.g. exam/quiz driving debating/speaking

2. Freedom
- Acted under control of his will
Human Acts in Relation to Reason
- no influence or constraint
- no force
1. Good Acts
- Actions “in harmony with the dictates of right reason”.
3. Voluntariness
- presence of knowledge and freedom
e.g. Businesses paying the right amount of taxes
Appropriate use of authority of the law enforcers
Modifier Of Knowledge: Ignorance
- Ignorance is the absence of knowledge that a person ought to possess.
- Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary diligence 2. Evil Acts
and reasonable efforts. The ignorance of a visitor regarding a particular address in a certain place is vincible, - Actions “contradiction to the dictates of right reason”.
since he can easily ask for information from a policeman or pedestrian.
e.g. Selling expired products
- Invincible ignorance is the type in which a person without being aware of it, or having awareness of it, lacks the
Manipulated raid and arrest
means to rectify it. Ignorance regarding missing persons or objects is often invincible. Thus, a cook might be
Voluntariness of Human Acts
unaware that the food he is cooking is contaminated.
Human Acts in relation to the Will
Voluntary Act (freewill )
- is the act which proceeds from an intrinsic principle with knowledge of the end.
1. Elicited Acts
- Acts which are started by the will, performed by the will, and completed by the will. Approaches to ethics
Philosophers nowadays tend to divide ethicaltheories into three areas: metaethics, normative ethics and
e.g. “I wish” , “I want” , “I like” applied ethics.

2. Commanded Acts • Meta-ethics

- Acts which are begun in the will, performed by the deals with the nature of moral judgement. It looks at the origins and meaning of ethical principles.
will,completed by the will through another medium which is under the control of the will. • Normative or Prescriptive ethics
is concerned with the content of moral judgements and the criteria for what is right or wrong.
e.g. controlling emotions Observable actions like running, walking, lifting etc. • Descriptive or Applied ethics
looks at controversial topics like war, animal
Elements of Elicited Acts rights and capital punishment.
I WANT TO BE AN ATTORNEY TO ENSURE THAT
JUSTICE WILL BE SERVED TO POOR INDIVIDUALS. Not every ethical question has one right answer. That's ok
There is no ethical theory that canresolve every situation perfectly.Moral dilemmas are inevitable.

Wish Consent Should you tell a lie to protect a family member who has done something wrong? Lots of people
Intention “decide would say lying is always wrong.But those same people probably think we have special duties to
“desire” “attainab take care of our families. Our answer in a case like this depends on how much we value certaini deals - truth or
what means
family.
ility” to Use”
Use“ the Fruition
Election will’s “satisfacti
“right comman on of
to pick d to attaining
CHAPTER 4 : THE ACT
Lesson 1: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
from desired
variety
 3. We grant that our favorites and friends have special claims on our attention, and assume that morality must
❑The ultimate basis for ethics is clear: human behavior has consequences for the welfare of others. give us reasons for occasionally denying such claims.

❑We are capable of acting toward others in such a way as to increase or decrease the quality of their lives.
Morality, thus, requires that we should
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY not play favorites, or manipulate rules to our
❑Reason and Impartiality are not absolute to any particular group of people, while morality is absolute. personal advantage, or make ad hoc
exceptions for ourselves. In that sense it
requires us to be Impartial.
❑Whatever is considered wrong morally within a certain group cannot be debated through reason. Morality
decides the outcomes first and then employs reason to justify it.
What is Ethical Case Analysis?
 Ethical case analysis is a common exercise for identifying and reasoning about ethical challenges in
❑For impartiality, fairness is given more importance where people are supposed to be treated equally before the complex situations.
law.  It is a systematic approach in figuring out the right moral decision in a particular situation.
 Its principles also encourage you to form an accurate picture of the situation and think through the effect
of your decisions before you act.
❑While morality may apply generally to a particular group of people, the same cannot be said of reason and
impartiality because the two take a more individualized approach.
What are Ethical / Moral Dilemmas?
 Ethical or Moral dilemmas are situations in which conflicts between two choices are present.
WHAT IS REASON?
• Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic,
and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. A mother, who has the sole responsibility of feeding her children but is
• Reason, is sometimes referred to as rationality. unemployed, has the tendency to commit theft.
• Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect.
• The philosophical field of logic studies ways in which humans reason formally through argument.
In other words, the moral agent is faced with the difficulty of making a moral
decision between stealing or letting her children go hungry which could even
IMPARTIALITY
lead to death.
•Also called evenhandedness or fairmindedness is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based
on objective criteria, rather than on the basis
of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.  Ethical or moral dilemmas are complicated challenges that cannot be easily solved. Therefore, the ability
• Impartiality makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions. to find the optimal solution in such situations is critical to everyone.

SCOTT RAE’S 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL

Consequences of the fundamental principle of Impartiality

- It establishes one of its key values: nondiscrimination, which is one of the most important elements of all Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making which is developed by Scott B. Rae and Kenman L. Wong. “A Model for
aspects of the protection of the human being: human rights law, humanitarian law, and refugee law. Moral Decision Making”. Chap. 16 in Beyond Integrity: A Judeo-Christian Approach to Business Ethics. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996.
•Impartiality is one of the more commonly recognized aspects of the role of the Mediator.
•This does not mean that the mediator should somehow become inhuman and not have a feeling of bias towards 1. GATHER FACTS
one party or another, but that/he or she practices in a way that minimizes any manifestation of this bias.  In order to know the situation—either it involves a moral dilemma or an ethical issue—before dealing with
•Impartiality serves a purpose in supporting conflict resolution whether we are a mediator or not, it, we must ask basic questions to gather information.
•The mediator creates a channel for communication and not an obstacle to it and remaining impartial allows for
the channel to be as unimpeded as possible.
2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES
 After having identified the facts and overall context of the moral situation, the ethical issue/s involved in
Reasons and Impartiality as Requirement of Ethics the situation must be clearly stated in order to specify what issue one has to make a decision to. This
• In the Euthyphro, Socrates expresses astonishment that a young man would prosecute his own father for section must likewise clearly state the major moral dilemma involved in the case.
murder.
• The conventional assumption he seems to be making is that filial relationships impose special constraints that 3. IDENTIFY THE VIRTUES OR PRINCIPLES THAT HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE
may override other considerations, even in the gravest matter.  Universal principles such as right to life, to security, to privacy, among others are imperatives for the
• For Euthyphro, by contrast, a murder is a murder, the fact us was committed by his father has no bearing upon human being to live well. Thus, identifying the surrounding principles of a certain case is a must in ethical
what he is required to do about it. He must prosecute his father just as he would a stranger. decision making.
• This brief passage can serve as an emblem of a perplexing range of problems that bedevil ethical theory.
4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES
There are at least three distinct elements that run  These suggested courses of actions must then be evaluated based on its applicability, sensibility,
through these problems, namely: practicality before selecting one as the course of action or decision to be made regarding the moral
situation.

5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE VIRTUES / PRINCIPLES

1. We grant the powerful and persistent force of self-interest in our lives, and assume that morality must
 The initial list of suggested courses of actions must then be evaluated from the vantage point of the
somehow give us reasons for constraining such motives;
identified ethical values and principles.

2. We grant that rules and principle of conduct will be useless or counter-productive in purely local or short-range
terms, and assume that morality must give us reasons for acting in principle in spite of it;
6. CONSIDER THE CONSEQUENCES
 If principles have not yielded a clear decision, consider the consequences of your alternatives. Take the Step 6: Consider possible and probable courses of action. Can the best alternative be put into effect? Having
alternatives and work out the positive and negative consequences of each. decided on one alternative, we need to see whether there are any practical constraints which might prevent that
alternative from being acted upon.
7. . MAKE A DECISION (INCLUDING ONE’S JUSTIFICATION FOR THE DECISION) Step 7: List the consequences of the probable courses of action.
 After having analyzed the moral dilemma situation (from steps 1 thru 6), one must now make a decision Step 8: Decide on what appears to be the best course of action.
based on what has been previously discussed and must clearly justify the decision that has been made. Implementing the best alternative.

Lesson 2: FEELINGS and Moral Decision making

• Broadly stated that ethics is “concerned with making sense of intuitions” about what is right and good. We
do this by reasoning our feelings.
• Biologists verify that ‘Emotion is never truly divorced from decision making, even when it is channeled aside by
an effort of the will.”
• Moral philosopher Mary Midgley writes “Sensitivity requires rationality to complete it, and vice versa”.

Ethics vs Feelings
•Many times, there’s a conflict between what we naturally feels and what is considered to be ethical.
•The problem is most of our feelings in today’s world are unethical, politically incorrect or even outright harmful.

1.
a. Natural Feeling: I am part of a group. I am supposed to help this group become better. I am also supposed to
compete with other groups.
b. Reasoning: Being part of a herd made it easier for our ancestors to survive in the wild. There were so many
survival benefits that belonging to a group brought. Naturally, our ancestors started developing good feelings
about belonging to a group.
c. Ethical viewpoint: Help the group. Help other groups too, there is no compelling reason to compete in today’s
times of peace.

2. PATRIOTISM
• Natural Feeling: I was born in a place. I am supposed to help people
in the geographical vicinity around me. Those outside the border
don’t deserve that much attention as those inside the border do.
• Reasoning: Patriotism is Groupism in a higher scale. There have
been countless stories of propaganda by governments to motivate
people to join their wars to fight people over borders. We humans
tends to justify these efforts as noble.
• Ethical viewpoint: wars are always bad. There is no reason to be
proud of your country just because you were born in it.

3. DUNBAR’S NUMBER
a. Natural feeling: I cannot maintain more than 150 stable relationships.
b. Reasoning: Our brains have limited capacity and it becomes mentally hard to maintain more relationships.
c. Ethical viewpoint: Acceding to the Dunbar’s number promotes groupism. Just as we push ourselves to
become better human’s we should also try to push the Dunbar number further.

4. NEGATIVE FEELINGS TO CONTENT ON SOCIAL NETWORKS

a. Natural Feeling: I hate what’s being posted on Facebook. They are just stupid selfies, people gloating their
achievement or just distracting, unproductive content.
b. Reasoning: Many of us have been taught to compete with others since our childhood. We tend to compare
ourselves with other.
c. Ethical Viewpoint: We don’t have to compete with our friends, we can applaud their life achievements without
comparing our lives with theirs.

Steps in Moral Reasoning Model

Step 1: Identify the problem. What facts make this an ethical situation?
Step 2: Identify the potential issues involved. What level of ethical issues are we dealing with: systematic,
corporate, or individual?
Step 3: Review relevant ethical guidelines. Given the facts and the ethical issues, what alternative actions are
possible in this situation?
Step 4: Know relevant laws and regulations. Who will be affected by the alternatives and to what degree?
Step 5: Obtain consultation. Use ethical principles to decide on the best alternative. The ethics of each of the
most plausible alternatives is assesses using ethical principle or rules.