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The document provides links to download the 14th Edition eBook PDF of 'Foundations of Astronomy' by Michael A. Seeds, along with other related eBooks. It includes a table of contents outlining various topics covered in the book, such as celestial motions, the sun, stars, galaxies, and the solar system. Additionally, it features sections dedicated to scientific methods and concepts in astronomy.

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Dedication In memory of Edward & Antonette Backman and Emery & Helen Seeds

1 Here and Now 1 HOW DO WE KNOW?

1-1 Where Are We? 2
1-1 The Scientific Method 8
1-2 When Is Now? 6
1-3 Why Study Astronomy? 7 2-1 Scientific Models 17
2-2 Pseudoscience 26
2 A User's Guide to the Sky 11 2-3 Scientific Arguments 28
2-1 Stars and Constellations 12 3-1 Scientific Imagination 39
2-2 The Sky and Celestial Motions 17
4-1 Scientific Revolutions 64
2-3 Sun and Planets 21
2-4 Astronom ical Influences on Earth's Climate 24 4-2 Hypotheses, Theories, and laws 69
5-1 Cause and Effect 83
3 Moon Phases and Eclipses 32 5-2 Testing a Hypothesis by Prediction 92
3-1 The Changeable Moon 33 Resolution and Precision 109
6-1
3-2 lunar Eclipses 36
3-3 Solar Eclipses 38
3-4 Predicting Eclipses 45
CONCEPT ART
4 Origins of Modern Astronomy 52 The Sky Around You 18-19
4-1 Roots of Astronomy 53
4-2 The Copernican Revolution 58 The Cycle of the Seasons 22-23
4-3 Tycho, Kepler, and Planetary Motion 64 The Phases of the Moon 34-35
4-4 Galileo's Conclusive Evidence 70

-
4-5 Ninety-Nine Years That Revolutionized Astronomy 74 An Ancient Model of t he Universe 60-61

Orbits 86-87
5 Gravity 78
Modern Optical Telescopes 112-11 3
S-1 Galileo's and Newton's Two New Sciences 79
S-2 Orbital Motion and Tides 84
S-3 Einstein and Relativity 92

6 Light and Telescopes 101

6-1 Radiation: Information from Space 102
6-2 Telescopes 105
6-3 Observatories on Eart h: Optical and Radio 110
6-4 Airborne and Space Observatories 116
6-5 Astronom ical Instruments and Techniques 118
6-6 Non-Electromagnetic Astronomy 123

iv Contents

-
7 Atoms and Spectra
7-1 Atoms 128
127 Celestial Profile THE SUN 144

7-2 Interactions of Light and Matter 131

7-3 Understanding Spectra 135
HOW DO WE KNOW?
8 The Sun 143 7-1 Quantum Mechanics 130
8-1 The Solar Photosphere and Atmosphere 144 8-1 Confirmation and Consolidation 157
8-2 Solar Activi ty 151
8-2 Scientific Confidence 165
8-3 Nuclear Fusion in the Sun 161
~1 Chains of Inference 186

9 The Family of Stars 170 ~2 Basic Scientific Data 194

9-1 Star Distances 171 10-1 Separating Facts from Hypotheses 209
9-2 Apparent Brightness, Intrinsic Brightness, and l uminosity 173 11 -1 Theories and Proof 221
9-3 Stellar Spectra 175
12-1 Mathematical Models 241
9-4 Star Sizes 179
9-5 Star Masses- Binary Stars 185 13-1 Toward Ulti mate Causes 268
9-6 A Census of the Stars 191 14-1 Checks on Fraud In Science 301

10 The Interstellar Medium 199

10-1 Studying the Interstellar Medium 200
CONCEPT ART
10-2 Components of the Interstellar Medium 208

-
10-3 The Gas-Stars-Gas Cycle 212 Atomic Spectra 136-137

Sunspots and the Solar Magnet ic Cycle 154-155

11 The Formation and Structure
ofStars 216 Solar Activity and the Sun-Earth Connect ion 158-159

11-1 Making Stars from the Interstellar Medium 217 The Family of Stars 192-193
11-2 The Orion Nebula: Evidence of Star Formation 221
Three Kinds of Nebulae 202-203
11-3 Young Stellar Obj ects and Protostellar Disks 226
11-4 Stellar Structure 230 St ar Formation in t he Orion Nebula 224-225
11-5 The Source of Stellar Energy 232
Observations of Young Stellar Obj ects and Prot ostellar
Disks 228-229
12 Stellar Evolution 238
12-1 Main-Sequence Stars 239
Star Clusters and St ellar Evolution 254-255
12-2 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution 246 Formation of Planetary Nebulae and White Dwarfs 266-267
12-3 Star Clusters: Evidence of Stellar Evolution 252
12-4 Variable Stars: Evidence of Stellar Evolution 253 The Lighthouse Model of Pulsars 290-291

13 The Deaths of Stars 262

13-1 Low-Mass Stars 263
13-2 The Evolution of Binary Stars 270
13-3 High-Mass Stars 273
13-4 Supernova Explosions 274
13-5 The End of Earth 282

14 Neutron Stars and Black Holes 286

14-1 Neutron Stars 287
14-2 Black Holes 297
14-3 Compact Object s w ith Disks and Jets 303

Co ntent s v

15 The Milky Way Galaxy 31 O HOW DO WE KNOW?

15-1 Discoveryof t heGalaxy 311
15-1 Calibration 314
15-2 Structure of the Galaxy 315
15-3 Spiral Arms and Star Formation 319 15-2 Nature as Processes 323
15-4 The Nucleus of the Galaxy 323 16-1 Classification in Science 337
15-5 Origin and Evolution of the Galaxy 325
16-2 Statistical Evidence 353
17-1 Reasoning by Analogy 367
16 Galaxies: Normal and Active 335
17-2 Science: A System of Knowledge 375
16-1 The Family of Galaxies 336
16-2 Measuring the Properties of Galaxies 340 17-3 Wishing Doesn't Make It So 390
16-3 Evolution of Galaxies 346 18-1 Two Kinds of Hypotheses: Catastrophic and Evolutionary 405
16-4 Active Galactic Nuclei and Quasars 351
18-2 Scientists: Courteous Skeptics 417
16-5 Disks, Jets, Eruptions, and Galaxy Evolution 357
19-1 Understanding Planets: Follow the Energy 426

17 Modern Cosmology 364 19-2 Studying an Unseen World 429

17-1 Introduction to t he Universe 365 20-1 How Hypotheses and Theories Unify the Details 445
17-2 The Big Bang Theory 368 21 -1 Data Manipulation 468
17-3 Space and Time, Matter and Gravity 376
22-1 Who Pays for Science? 520
17-4 21st-CenturyCosmology 384

PART 4 : THE SOLAR SYSTEM

-
1 8 Origin of the Solar System
and Extrasolar Planets 395
CONCEPT ART
Sagitt arius A * 326- 327

18-1 A Survey of the Solar System 396 Galaxy Classification 338-339

18-2 The Great Chain of Origins 402 Interacting Galaxies 348-349
18-3 Building Planets 406
Galaxy Jets and Radio Lobes 354-355

-
18-4 Planets Orbit ing Other Stars 41 3
The Nature of Space-Time 378-379
19 Earth: The Active Planet 424 Terrestrial and Jovian Planets 398-399
19-1 A Travel Guide to the Terrestrial Planets 425
19-2 Earth as a Planet 427
The Active Earth 434-435
19-3 The Solid Earth 428 Impact Cratering 446-447
19-4 Earth's Atmosphere 433
Volcanoes 472-473

20 The Moon and Mercury: Comparing When Good Planets Go Bad 488-489
Airless Worlds 442 Jupiter's Atmosphere 500-501
20-1 The Moon 443 The Ice Rings of Saturn 518-519

-
20-2 Mercury 456

2 1 Venus and Mars 464

21-1 Venus 465 Celestial Profile EARTH 428
21-2 Mars 476
THE MOON 455
21-3 Mars's Moons 486
MERCURY 455

22 Jupiter and Saturn 493 VENUS 475

22-1 A Travel Guide to the Outer Solar System 494 MARS 475
22-2 Jupiter 495 JUPITER 510
22-3 Jupiter's Moons and Rings 499 SATURN 510
22-4 Saturn 509
22-5 Saturn's Moons and Rings 512

vi Contents

and the Kuiper Belt 524 NEPTUNE 537

23-1 Uranus 525

23-2 Neptune 536
HOW DO WE KNOW?

-
23-3 Pluto and the Kuiper Belt 542

23-1 Scientific Discoveries 526

24 Meteorites, Asteroids, and Comets 549 24-1 Selection Effects 552
24-1 Meteorites, Meteors, and Meteoroids 550
25-1 UFOs and Space Aliens 590
24-2 Asteroids 556
24-3 Comets 563 25-2 The Copernican Principle 593
24-4 Asteroid and Comet Impacts 569

CONCEPT ART
PART 5: LIFE

-
25 Astrobiology: Life on Other Worlds
25-1 The Nature of Life 578
577
Uranus's and Neptune's Rings

Observations of Asteroids

Observations of Comets
558-559
534-535

564-565
25-2 life in the Universe 582
25-3 Intelligent Life in the Universe 589 DNA: The Code of Life 580-581

Afterwo rd A· 1
Append ix A Units and Astro nom ical Data A-3

Append ix B Observing the Sky A· 11

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems AN-1
Glossary G-1
Index 1-1

Content s vii

viii A Note to Students

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.,.. All numerical values in t he text and tables were checked
Key Content and Pedagogical
and in son1e cases updated.
Changes for the Fourteenth .,.. T he featu res kno,vn as Doing Science in earlier editions
Edition were renamed Practicing Science.

.,.. Every chapter has been revised and updated with new
text and images regarding observatories, scientific Special Features
n1issions, and ne,v discoveries.
.,.. Material on normal galaxies, active galaxies, and black .,.. T he open ing page of each chapter helps students see t he
holes (Chapters 16 and 17 in t he previous ed ition), have organization of t he book by connecting the chapter with
been combined and streamlined into a single chapter the preceding and following chapters. The short list of
(Chapter 16). The follo,ving chapters have been renum- important questions h igh lights t he learning objectives of
bered as a result. the chapter.
.,.. Son1e sections have been reorganized and updated to give .,.. How Do We Know? boxes help students understand how
clea rer and more current p resentations, especially Section science works. Topics include t he d ifference between a
11-3, Young Stellar Objects and Procoscellar Disks; hypothesis and a theory, t he use of statistical evidence,
Section 13-4, Supernovae Explosions; Section 18-4, the construction of scientific n1odels, and n1ore.
Planets O rbiting Ocher Scars; Section 23-3b, Pluto as a .,.. Concept Art featu res appea r at least once in every chapter
World; and Section 24-3b, Comet Nuclei. and cover topics chat are strongly visual. Color and
.,.. Ocher chapters and sections ,vich less substantial but sti ll nun1erical keys in the introduction to the Concept Art
sign ificant revisions a re Section 6-3a, Modern Optical guide you to t he n1a in concepts.
Telescopes; Section 6 -6b, Gravity Wave Astronomy; .,.. Common Misconceptiom highlight and correct popularly
Section 8- ld Composition of t he Sun; Section 9- lc, held m isconceptions about astronomy.
Parallax and Distance; Section 19-4a, O rigin of t he .,.. Practicing Science boxes at the end of n1ost chapter
Atmosphere; Section 20-2b, Mercu ry's Surface; and sections begin with questions designed to put students
Section 20-2c, Mercury's Interior.
into t he role of scientists considering ho,v best co proceed
.,.. A Hotv Do We Know? essay has been added co the as they investigate the cosmos. T hese questions serve a
cosmology chapter rega rd ing what we can learn from a se,c ond purpose as a further revie,v of ho,v we kno,v what
n1iscaken clain1 about discovering gravity waves, we kno,v. Many of t he Practicing Science boxes end with a
.,.. All art has been carefully reviewed and revised in the second question chat points the scudenc-as-sciencist in a
interest of accuracy, clarity, and consistency. di rection for further investigation.
.,.. Key Equations no,v have numbers and tides, as ,vell as .,.. Celestial Profiles direcdy compare and contrast planets
examples co demonstrate t heir use. T his featu re h igh- with each ocher. Th is is the way p lanetary scientists
lights and reinforces the equations chat will be needed co understand the p lanets-not as isolated, un related bodies
solve problen1s in lacer chapters. but as siblings; they have noticeable d ifferences but many
.,.. Ne,v Sense ofProportion questions have been added to characteristics and a fan1 ily h istory in con1n1on .
help students ground t heir understanding of relative sizes .,.. What Are We? features at the end of each chapter show
of celestial objects, distances, and so on. As a comple- how the chapter content helps explain our place in t he
ment co chis, discussion of proportionality has been cosmos.
expanded where relevant th roughout t he text. .,.. Chapter Sumnzaries review the key concepts of the
.,.. T he Focus on Fundamentals boxed feature has been chapter, high lighting key terms and equations, co aid
el iminated and relevant material was moved back student study.
into t he text. .,.. End-of-chapter Revietv Questiom are designed co help
.,.. T he end-of-chapter Sunzmary sections have been sign ift- students revie,v and test t heir understanding of the
cancly revised in all chapters with t he goal of helping n1acerial.
students focus and better navigate key concepts for .,.. End-of-chapter Active Inquiry Questiom go beyond t he
revte\v. text and invite students co ch ink critically and creatively
.,.. D iscussion Questions have been replaced wit h Active about scientific questions .
Inquiry Questiom, designed co engage students in deeper .,.. End-of-chapter Problems p romote quantitative under-
critical chink ing. standing of the chapter contents.

A Note to Students ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Over the years, we have had the guidance of a great many people A number of solar in1ages are used courtesy of the SOHO consor-
\vho care about astronomy and teach ing. We would like to thank tiun1, a p roject of international cooperation between ESA and
all of the students and teachers \vho have contributed to chis NASA. The NASA Sky View facility located at Goddard Space
book. They helped shape the book th rough thei r con1ments and Flight Center and the SIMBAD database operated by the CDS in
suggesnons. Strasbourg, France, were also used in p reparation of this text.
Many observatories, research institutes, laboratories, and It has been a great p leasure to \York \Vith our Cengage
individual astronomers have suppl ied figures and d iagrams for production team, Content Developer Rebecca Heider, Product
th is edition. They are listed on the credits page, and we would Assistant Caitl in Ghegan, Arc D ire,c to r Cate Barr, and Product
like to thank them specifically for their generosity. Manager Rebecca Berardy-Schwartz, plus Edward D ionne of
We are happy to ackno\vledge the use of images and data fron1 MPS Limited.
a number of important programs. In p reparing materials for this Most of all, we would like to than k ou r fami lies for putting
book we used several atlas images and mosaics p roduced by the up with "the books." They kno\v all too well that textbooks are
T\vo M icron All Sky Survey (2MASS), a joint p roject of the made of time.
University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Dana Backman
Analysis Center/JPL-Caltech, funded by NASA and the NSF. Mike Seeds

x Acknowledgments

Dana Backman taught in the physics and astronomy department at

Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, from 1991 until
2003. He invented and taught a course titled ·ufe in the Universe·in
F&M's interdisciplinary Foundations program. Dana also has taught
introductory astronomy and astronomy for physics majors at Santa Clara
University as well as introductory astronomy, astrobiology, and
cosmology courses in Stanford University's Continuing Studies program.
His research interests focused on infrared observations of planet
formation, models of debris disks around nearby stars, and evolution of
the Solar System's Kuiper Belt. Dana is employed by the SETI Institute in
Mountain View, California, managing NASA's Airborne Astronomy
Ambassadors and outreach programs for SOFIA. the Stratospheric
Observatory for In frared Astronomy. Along with this book, Da na is
coauthor with Mike Seeds of Horizons: Exploring the Universe; Stars and
Galaxies; The Solar System; and ASTRO, all published by (engage.

Mike Seeds was a professor of physics and astronomy at Franklin

and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, from 1970 until his
retirement in 2001. In 1989 he received F&M College's LindbackAward for
Distinguished Teaching. Mike's love for the history of astronomy led him to
create upper-level courses on archaeoastronomy and on the Copernican
Revolution ("Changing Concepts of the Universe"). His research interests
focused on variable stars and automation of astronomical telescopes. In
addition to this book, Mike is coauthor with Dana Backman of Horizons:
Exploring the Universe; Stars and Galaxies; The Solar System; and ASTRO, all
published by (engage. He was senior consultant for creation of the
20-episode telecourse accompanying h is book Horizons: Exploring the
Universe.

•
R

Abo ut the Authors xi

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Courtl!'Sy of NASA

As you study astronomy, you will learn about yourself. You are a planet-walker, and this chapter • Composite image of
will g ive you a preview of what that means. The planet you live on whirls around a star that Earth's western hemisphere
moves through a Universe filled with other stars and galaxies which are all results of billions of at night assembled from
years of history and evolution. You owe it to yourself to know where you are in the Universe, and data acquired by the Suomi
when you are in its history, because those are important steps toward knowing what you are. National Polar-orbiting
In this chapter, you will consider three important questions about astronomy: Partnership satellite. The
bright crescent at right is
... Where is Earth in the Universe? the location of dawn .
... How does human history fit into the history of the Universe?
... Why study astronomy?

This chapter is a jumping-off point for your exploration of deep space and deep time. The
next chapter continues your journey by looking at the night sky as seen from Earth. As you
study astronomy, you will see how science gives you a way to know how nature works. later
chapters will provide more specific insights into how scientists study and understand nature.

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neighborhood. When you expand you r field of view by another
The longest journe~ begins witti facto r of JOO, the neighborhood you sa\v in Figure 1-2 vanishes.
a single steP-, -LAOZI No\v your field of view is J 60 kn1 wide, and you see cities and
to\vns as patches of gray {Figure 1·3). Wilm ington, Delaware, is
visible at the lower right. At th is scale, you can see son1e of the
1-1 Where Are We?
natural features of Ea rth's surface. T h e Allegheny Mountains of
To find you r place among the scars, you can cake a cosmic southern Pennsylvania cross the image at the upper left, and the
zoom- a ride out th rough the Universe to p review the kinds of Susquehanna River f!o\vs southeast into C hesapeake Bay. What
objects you a re about co study. look like wh ite bun1ps are a fe\v puffs of cloud.
Begin with something familiar. Figure 1·1 shows an area Figure 1-3 is an infrared photograph in \vhich healthy green
52 feet across on a college campus including a person, a sidewalk, leaves and crops are shown as red. Human eyes are sensitive to
and a few t rees, wh ich are all objects \Vith sizes you can under- only a na rro\v range of colors. As you explore the Un iverse, you
stand. Each successive picture in th is "zoom" will sho\v you a \viii learn to use a \vide range of other "colo rs," from X-rays to
region of the Universe chat is I 00 times wider than the p receding radio waves, to reveal sights invisible to unaided hun1an eyes.
p icture. That is, each step will widen your field of view, \vhich You will lear n more about infrared, X-ray, and radio energy in
is the region you can see in the image, by a facto r of I 00. later chapters.
Widening your field of view by a factor of I 00 allows you to At the next step in your journey, you can see your enti re
see an area I n1ile in diameter in the next in1age (Figure 1· 2). planet, wh ich is nearly 13,000 km in d ian1eter (Figure 1·4). Ac
People, t rees, and sidewalks have become coo small to discern, any particular moment, half of Earth's surface is exposed to sun-
but no\v you can vie\v an enti re college campus plus surrounding light, and the other half is in darkness. As Earth rotates on its
streets and houses. The d imensions of houses and streets are axis, it carries you th rough sunlight and then through da rkness,
fam iliar; chis is still the world you know. p roducing the cycle of day and night. T he blurriness at the right
Before leaving ch is famil iar territory, you need to change the edge of the Earth image is t he boundary berween day and
units you use to measu re sizes. All scientists, including astrono- night- the sunset line. T his is a good exan1ple of how a photo
mers, use the metric system of un its because it is \veil understood can give you visual clues co understanding a concept. Special
\vorld\vide and, more important, because it simplifies calcula- questions called " Lear ning to Look" at the end of each chapter
tions. If you are not al ready fam iliar with the metric system, or give you a chance to use your o\vn imagination to connect
if you need a review, study Appendix A before reading on. images with explanations about astronom ical objects.
In n1etric un its, t he image in Figure J.J is about 16 n1eters Enlarge your field of view by another factor of I 00, and you
across, and the I- mi le diameter of Figu re 1-2 equals about see a region J,600,000 km wide {Figure 1·5). Earth is the small
1.6 kilometers. You can see that a kilon1eter {abbreviated km) is blue dot in the center, and the Moon, the dian1eter of wh ich is
a bit less than C\vo-th irds of a mile- a short \Valk across a only one-fourth of Earth 's, is an even smaller dot along its orbit

• Figure 1·1 This familiar scene is an area about 52 feet • Figure 1· 2 The field of view is 1 mile (1.6 km) wide. This
(16 meters) wide. box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-1.

2 PART 1 I Exploring t he Sky

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A Figure 1· 3 The field of view is 160 km wide. This box • A Figure 1·4 The field of view is 16,000 km wide. This box •
represents the relative size of Figure 1-2. represents the relative size of Figure 1-3.

380,000 kn1 a,vay. (The relative sizes of Earth and Moon are measurement. For example, the average distance from Earth co the
shown in the inset at the bottom right of Figure 1-5.) Sun is a unit of distance called the astronomical unit (AU); an
The nun1bers in the preceding paragraph are so large chat it AU is equal co 1.5 X 108 kn1. Using chat term, you can express
is inconven ient to w rite chem out. Soon you will be using num- the average distance from Mercury co the Sun as about 0.39 AU
bers even larger than these co describe the U niverse; rather than and the average distance from Venus to the Sun as about 0.72 AU.
,vricing such astronomical numbers as they are in the p revious These distances are averages because the orbits of the planets are
paragraph, it is more convenient co write chen1 in scientific not perfect circles. This is especially apparent in the case of Mercury.
notation. T h is is noth ing n1ore than a simple way co ,vrice very Its orbit carries it as close co the Sun as 0.3 1 AU and as fur away as
big or very small numbers ,vich ouc using lots of zeros. For 0.47 AU. You can see the variation in the distance from Mercury co
example, in scientific notation 380,000 becon1es 3.8 X 105. If the Sun in Figure 1-6. Earth's orbit is more circular than Mercury's;
you are not furnil iar with scientific notation, read the section on its distance from the Sun varies by only a few percent.
"Powers of IO Notation" in Appendix A. The Un iverse is coo big
co describe ,vichouc using scientific notation.
When you once again enlarge your field of vie,v by a factor
of I 00 (Figure 1·6), Earth, the Moon, and the Moon's o rbit chat
filled the previous figure are indistinguishable in the blue doc at
lo,ver left of the new figure. Now you can see the Sun and nvo
ocher p lanets chat are part of our Solar System. Our Solar
System consists of the Sun, its family of p lanets, and some
smaller bodies such as moons, astero ids, and comets.
Earth , Venus, and Mercury are p lanets, which are spherical,
nonlun1 inous bodies chat orbit a scar and sh ine by reflected light.
Venus is about the size of Earth, and Mercury has slightly more
than one-th ird of Ear th's diameter. On ch is diagram, they
are both coo small co be portrayed as anyth ing but tiny docs. The
Sun is a star, a self-lun1inous ball of hoc gas. Even though the
Sun is about I 00 ti mes larger in d ian1ecer than Earth (inset
at bottom right of Figure 1-6), it, coo, is no more than a doc in
ch is d iagram. Figure 1-6 represents an area with a diameter of
1.6 X 10 8 km.
Another way astronomers sin1plify descriptions and calcula- A Figure 1-S The field of view is 1.6 million km wide. This
tions chat require large numbers is co define larger un its of box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-4.

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 3

Enlarge your field of vie,v again by a factor of I 00, and you a fairly average neighborhood in the Universe. Although there
can see the enti re p lanetary region of ou r Solar System are n1any billions of stars like the Sun, none is close enough to
(Figure 1· 7). The Sun, Mercury, Venus, and Earth lie so close be visible in this d iagram, wh ich sho,vs a region only 11,000 AU
together t hat you cannot see t hen1 separately at th is scale. You in d ian1eter. Sta rs in the Sun's neighborhood are rypically sepa-
can see only the brighter, n1o re w idely separated objects such as rated by d istances about 30 times larger than that.
Mars, the next planet outwa rd. Mars is only 1.5 AU from the In Figure 1-9 , your field of vie\v has expanded again by a factor
Sun, but Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are farther from of I 00 to a diameter of I. I million AU. The Sun is at the center,
the Sun, so they are easier to locate in th is diagram. They are and at this scale you can see a few of the nearest scars. These stars
cold ,vorlds that are fur from the Sun's ,varmth. Light from the are so distant that it is not convenient to give their distances in AU.
Sun reaches Earth in only 8 minutes, but it takes more th an To express distances so large, astronon1ers defined a ne\v un it of
4 hours to reach Neptune. distance, the light-year. One light-year (ly) is the distance that light
You can ren1ember the order of the planets fron1 the Sun travels in one year, approxin1ately 9.5 X 10 12 km or 63,000 AU.
outward by remembering a simple sentence such as: My Very It is a Common Misconception that a light-year is a un it of time,
Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles {perhaps you can come
up with a better one). The first letter of each ,vord is the same as
the first letter of a p lanet's nan1e: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jup iter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The list of planets once
included Pluto, b ut in 2006, astronomers attending an interna-
tional scientific congress made the decision that Pluto should be
redefined as a dwarf planet. Pluto n1eets son1e of the criteria to
be considered a p lanet, but not others. Pluto is now known to be
just one of a group of small objects that have been discovered
circling the Sun beyond Neptune.
When you again en large you r field of vie,v by a factor of
100, the Solar Systen1 vanishes {Figure 1·8). T he Sun is only a
po int of light, and all the planets and their orb its are now
cro,vde.d into t he small yellow dot at the center. The p lanets
are too small and too faint to be visib le so near the brilliance
of the Sun.
Notice that no stars are visible in Figure 1-8 except for the A Figure 1 ·8 The fi eld of view is 11,000 AU wide. This box •
Sun. The Sun is a fairly rypical star, and it seen1s to be located in represents the relative size of Figure 1-7.

4 PART 1 I Exploring the Sky

.. .
•
•
• '
• •
•
• •
'" • •

•
• .. •
•
•
• ·,
, •
'.
•
• •
•
'
.. .
'
\11sual • '
' . ..•
.. •-.,, '
• •• .,~-· '
•

"Figure 1·9 The field of view is 17 ly wide. The sizes of the "Figure 1·10 The field of view is 1700 ly wide. This box •
dots representing each star are not to scale. This box • repre- represents the relative size of Figure 1-9.
sents the relative size of Figure 1-8.

and you can sometimes hear the term misused in science fiction The Sun is a relatively faint star chat ,vould not be easily located
movies and TV shows. T he next time you hear someone say, "It in a p hoto at ch is scale.
,viii cake me light-years to finish n1y history paper," you could cell If you again expand your field of vie\v by a factor of I 00, you
the person chat a light-year is a distance, not a time (although see our Galaxy, w ith a visible disk of stars about 80,000 ly in
perhaps chat con1ment ,vouldn't be appreciated) . The diameter of diameter (Figure 1•11) . A galaxy is a great cloud of stars, gas, and
your field of view in Figure 1-9 is 17 ly. dust held together by the comb ined gravity of all of its matter.
Another Common M isconception is ch at scars look like disks Galaxies range fron1 I 000 ly to more than 300,000 ly in diameter,
,vhen seen t hrough a telescope. Although most stars are app rox- and the b iggest ones contain more than a t rillion ( I 0 12) scars. In
imately the same size as th e Sun, they are so far a,vay t hat the night sky, you can se,e our Galaxy as a great, cloudy wheel of
astronomers cannot see chem as anyth ing but points of light. scars ringing the sky. This band of scars is known as the Milky
Even the closest sta r to the Sun-Proxin1a Cent auri , ,vhich is Way, and our home galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy.
only 4.2 ly from Earth-looks like a point of light through the
b iggest telescopes on Earth. Figure 1-9 follows the common
astronom ical practice of making the sizes of th e dots represent
not the sizes of t he stars but their b rightness. T his is how star
images are recorded on photographs. Bright stars n1ake larger
spots on a photograph than faint scars, so the size of a star image
in a photo cells you not how b ig t he star is but rather how
bright it is.
You m ight wonder w hether other stars have families of plan-
ets orbiting around chem as the Sun does. Such objects, cern1ed
extrasolar planets, are very difficult to see because they are gener-
ally sn1all, fai nt, and coo close co the glare of their respective
parent stars. Nevertheless, astronomers have used indirect meth-
ods co find thousands of such objects, although only a handful
have been photographed d irectly.
In Figure 1·10, you expand your field of view by another fac-
to r of I 00, and the Sun and its neighboring scars van ish into the
background of thousands of oth er stars. The field of vie,v is now
1700 ly in dian1eter. Of course, no one has ever journeyed thou-
sands of light-years from Earth to look back and p hotograph our " Figure 1·11 The field of view is 170,000 ly wide. This
neighborhood, so chis is a representative p hotograph of the sky. box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-10.

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 5

1-2 When Is Now?

No\v that you have an idea \vhere you are in space, you m ight
• Figure 1- 12 The field of view is 17 million ly wide. This also like to know w here you are in time. T he scars shone for bil-
box • represents the relative size of Figure 1-11. lions of yea rs before t he first human looked up and wondered

6 PART 1 I Explo ring the Sky

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,vhat they were. To get a sense of your place in time, all you nee.cl Human iry is very new co the Universe. Ou r civil ization on
is a long ribbon. Earth has existed for on ly a flicker of an eyeblink in the history
Imagine stretch ing that ribbon from goal line to goal line of the Universe. As you will discover in the chapters chat follo,v,
down the center of a U.S. foot ball field, a distance of I 00 yards only in the last hundred years or so have astronomers begun to
(about 91 meters) , as shown on the inside front cover of the understand w here we are in space and in ti me.
p rinted book. Imagine that one end of the ribbon represents
today, and the ocher end rep resents the beginn ing of the 1-3 Why Study Astronomy?
Universe- the moment chat astronomers call the Big Bang. In
C hapter 17, Modern Cosn1ology, you will learn about the Big Your exploration of the Universe ,viii help you answer two fun-
Bang and evidence chat the Un iverse is approximately 14 billion damental questions:
years old. You r ribbon rep resents 14 b ill ion years, the entire h is-
W h at a re ,ve?
tory of the Un iverse.
How do we kno,v?
Imagine beginn ing at the goal line labeled BIG BANG and
replaying the entire h istory of the Universe as you ,valk along The question "What are ,ve?" is t he first organ izing t hen1e of this
your ribbon co,vard the goal line labeled TODAY. Astronomers book. Astronomy is important to you because it ,viii tell you ,vhac
have evidence chat the Big Bang in itially filled the enti re Universe you are. Notice that t he question is not "Who are ,ve?" If you
,vith hot, glo,ving gas, but, as the gas cooled and di mmed, the ,vane co kno,v ,vho ,ve are, you may ,vane co talk to a sociologist,
Universe ,vent dark. That all happened along the fi rst half-inch theologian, artist, or poet. "What are ,ve?" is a fundamentally
of the ribbon. There ,vas no light for the next 400 million years, d ifferent question.
until graviry ,vas able co pull son1e of the gas together co form the As you study astronomy, you will learn how you fie into the
first scars. That seems like a lot of years, but if you stick a little h istory of the Un iverse. You ,viii lear n that the atoms in you r
flag beside the ribbon co n1ark the birch of the first scars, it would body had their bi rth in the Big Bang w hen the Universe began.
be not quite 3 yards from the goal line where the Universe's his- Those atoms have been cooked and ren1ade inside generations of
tory began. scars, and now, after more than IO billion years, t hey are inside
You have co walk only about 4 or 5 yards along the ribbon you. Where will t hey be in another IO billion years? This is a
before galaxies forn1e.d in large numbers. Our hon1e galaxy story everyone should kno,v, and astronon1y is the only course
,vould be one of those caking shape. By the time you cross the on campus that can cell you that story.
50-yard line, the Universe is full of galaxies, but the Sun and Every chapter in th is book ends with a short feature titled
Earth have not forn1ed yet. You need to ,valk past the 50-yard "What Are We?" This sun1mary shows ho,v the astronomy in the
line all the way co the ocher 33-yard line before you can finally chapter relates co your part in the story of the Universe.
stick a flag beside the ribbon co mark the fo rmation of the Sun The question "How do we know?" is the second organizing
and planets-ou r Solar Syscem-4.6 billion years ago and about then1e of th is book. It is a question you should ask yourself
9 billion years after the Big Bang. ,vhenever you encounter statements n1ade by so-called experts in
You can carry your flags a fe\v yards further to about the any field. Should you S\vallo,v a d iet supplement recon1n1ended
25-ya rd line, 3.4 bi llion years ago, to mark the earliest firn1 evi- by a TV star? Should you vote fo r a candidate w ho denies that
dence for life on Earth- m icroscopic creatures in the oceans- ,ve face a climate crisis? To understand the ,vorld around you
and you have to walk all the way to t he 3-yard line before you and to make wise decisions for yourself, fo r your fam ily, and for
can mark the emergence of life on land only 0.4 billion your nation, you need co understand how science works.
{400 m illion) years ago. Your dinosaur flag goes inside the 2-yard You can use astronomy as a case study in science. In every
line. Dinosaurs go extinct as you pass the one-half-yard line, chapter of this book, you will find short essays titled "How Do
65 m illion years ago. We Know?" They are designed co help you th ink not about what
What about people? You can put a little flag fo r t he first is known but about how it is known. To do that, these essays ,viii
hun1anl ike creatures, 4 mill ion years ago, only about I inch explain different aspects of scientific thought processes and p ro-
(2.5 cn1) from the goal line labeled TODAY. Civilization, the cedures co help you understand how scientists lea rn about the
bu ilding of cities, began about I 0,000 years ago, so you have co natural world.
t ry co fie that flag in only 0.0026 inch from the goal line. T hat's Over the lase four centuries, a way co understand nature has
less than the t hickness of the page you are reading right no,v. been developed that is called the scientific m ethod {How Do We
Compare t he h istory of human civilization wit h the history of Know? 1-1). You will see th is process appl ied over and over as you
t he Universe. Every war you have ever heard of, the life of every read about exploding stars, coll iding galaxies, and al ien planets.
person w hose name is recorded, and t he construction of every The Universe is very b ig, but it is described by a sn1all set of
structure ever n1ade, from Stonehenge co the bu ilding you are rules, and we humans have found a way co figure out the rules
in right no,v, fits into that 0.0026 inch of the time ribbon. by using a method calle.d science.

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 7

WHAT ARE WE? t.. • .-- ,.

history of the Universe, the story of humanity is generate energy, light the Universe, and create
Participants
only the blink of an eye. This may seem humbling the chemical elements in your body. The
Astronomy gives you perspective on what it at first, but you can be proud of how much we chapters that follow w ill show how you fit into
means to be here on Earth. This chapter has humans have understood in such a short time. that cosmic process.
helped you locate yourself in space and time. Not only does astronomy locate you in Although you are very small and your kind
Once you realize how vast our Universe is, Earth space and time, it places you within the have existed in the Universe for only a short
seems quite small. People on the other side of physical processes that govern the Universe. time, you are an important participant in
the world seem like neighbors. And, in the entire Gravity and atoms work together to make stars, something very large and beautiful.

~ You live on a planet, Earth, which orbits our star, the Sun, once per
SUMMARY yea r. As Earth rotates once per day, you see the Sun rise and set.
~ The Solar System includes the Sun at the center, all of the maj or
1-1 Where Are We? planets that orbit around it-Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune-plus the moons of the planets and
~ You surveyed the Universe by taking a cosmic zoom in which each other obj ects such as asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets like
field of view was 100 times wider than the previous field of view. Pluto, bound to the Sun by its gravity.
~ Astronomers use the metric system because it simplifies calculations, ~ The ast ronomical unit (AU) is the average distance from Earth
and they use scientific notation for very large or very small to the Sun. The light-year (ly) is the distance light can travel in
numbers. one year.

8 PA RT 1 Exploring the Sky

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Another Random Document on
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Southern California," continued the Doctor, "they get their fire wood
in the same way, though they do not have to bother with the little
twigs, as tree growth is enormously rapid in that winter-less climate.
At San Bernardino I have seen many houses standing in large
grounds, with a row of cottonwood trees all around at the edge of
the sidewalk. I have often seen these trees with every limb cut off
close to the stem of the tree—not more than a few feet from it at
farthest. In that way the owner gets his fire wood—he doesn't need
much of it—for three years to come. The trees thus pollarded quickly
put out a host of new branches and as these grow rapidly in a
climate that has no winter, they are ready to be cut again three
years later."
"But if trees grow so rapidly there," asked Tom, "how is it that there
are no woodlands there?"
"Because it is a rainless region. It is a desert simply for a lack of
water, and when men build reservoirs up in the mountains and bring
water down in irrigating ditches that desert literally blossoms like a
rose. The soil is as rich as any down in our valleys and creek low
grounds here, and as there is no winter every living thing grows all
the year round. At Riverside, for example, you find a luxuriance of
growth unmatched anywhere in these mountains. Eucalyptus trees
border all the roads, towering to great heights. Back of them are
orange and lemon groves and still further back vast vineyards in
which the stumps of the vines—for they are cut back to a stump
every year, to make them bear—are from four to six inches in
diameter, so that they need no stakes to support them as vines do
here. Often also there are rows of luxuriant pepper trees flourishing
in the middle of the road. In short, you can nowhere on earth except
in swamps, find a more luxuriant riot of vegetation than at Riverside.
Yet until men made reservoirs and ditches and brought water down
there from the mountains the ground that now supports all this
splendid growth was as bare as the palm of your hand, and when
you drive out of Riverside in any direction, you come instantly to an
absolute desert, without even a weed growing on it, the moment
you pass beyond the line of irrigating ditches."
"Is there much land of that sort?" asked Jack, "land that is fertile I
mean in itself, but is desert because of a lack of water?"
"Millions of acres of it, though much of it has already been
redeemed by irrigation. General Sherman once said that when he
first crossed the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys he could have
bought the whole of them for twenty-five cents, and in fact would
not have given a penny for both. Yet to-day those valleys are the
most productive wheat fields in the world, not even excepting
Minnesota and the Dakotas. In a single year they have been known
to furnish fifty million bushels of wheat for export, after feeding the
Pacific coast fat."
"But is there always water to be had for irrigating purposes?" asked
Jack, who was becoming intensely interested.
"Practically, yes," the Doctor answered. "That is a country of vast
mountain ranges, all the way from the Rockies to the sea, with great
valleys and plains lying between. It is almost always raining or
snowing in the mountains, and indeed the tops of the higher ranges
are nearly always snow clad, even in summer. I remember once
crossing the Utah desert, which lies between the Rocky mountains
proper and the Wassach range. There is no sand or gravel there, but
only a singularly rich soil, barren for lack of rain alone. During the
entire trip across we were never for one minute out of sight of either
a snow storm or a rain storm some where in the mountains that
surround the desert. Obviously enough water falls in the mountains
to make of that desert the very garden spot of America when ever
men take measures to store the water and bring it down to the
desert lands below. The Mormons, who have made a rich farming
region in this way out of the desert west of the Wassach range, have
already begun doing this on the eastern side in a limited way. At
Pleasant Valley they have brought water down from the mountains
and made gardens that are a delight to the eye and mind. They
grow there the finest black Hamburg grapes in the world. But
neither that nor any other of the great deserts can be redeemed
entirely until either the government or some great company able to
spend money by scores of millions shall undertake the work in a
systematic way, selling water rights with every farm. Of course no
farmer can provide a water supply for himself from mountains
twenty miles away, but if a great company or the government would
catch and store the water and sell the right to use it to each farmer,
as is done in parts of Southern California, the major part of what
used to be called 'the great American desert' would soon become
the great American garden. Of course the alkali deserts of Nevada
and worse still, the arid, sandy, gravelly, soilless plains of Arizona
and New Mexico can never be reclaimed in that way. But the regions
that are barren only because they get no rain, can be redeemed and
very certainly will be when this country becomes so crowded with
population that every acre of arable land will be needed."
"But isn't this country pretty badly crowded already?" asked Tom.
"Crowded? No," answered the Doctor. "It is very sparsely settled
instead. This country has a population of only twenty people to the
square mile, while Belgium has 529 and England 540 to the square
mile. Long before we fill up to any such extent as that all our arid
lands that are fit for cultivation will be watered from the mountains,
and regions where now even a cactus cannot grow will produce
wheat, corn, cattle and fruits in lavish abundance. But I say, boys,
we've talked till after eleven o'clock. This will never do; let's get to
bed."
CHAPTER XXVII
Some Features of the Situation
Every morning Tom "prowled," as he put it, all around the camp,
"just to see how things are," he said.
Two mornings after the talk reported in the last chapter Tom found,
out under the bluff, a big bag of rye meal or rather of rye coarsely
ground for whiskey making purposes. He dragged it over the hard
snow to camp and opened it. In its mouth he found a piece of paper
and written upon it in rude letters was the following:

Tom called all the boys into conference before deciding what to do
with this present. He said to them:
"Bill's ideas of morality are somewhat confused. In his eagerness to
render me some return for my act in letting him go back to his 'little
gal' on parole, he wanted to give me the meal I brought to camp the
other morning. It never occurred to him that as the meal didn't
belong to him, he had no right to give it to me, and all I could say to
him was utterly futile as an effort to make him take a moral or
rational view of the case. Now I am seriously afraid our friend Bill
stole this rye meal. That would perfectly fit in with his ideas of
morality, gratitude and all that sort of thing. Still we don't know that
he did steal it. After all I did pay him a double price for the meal we
got, and possibly he has applied part of the surplus payment to the
purchase of this additional supply from his criminal friends the
distillers. After all I have no means of knowing that he ever paid the
original owners of that first meal any part of the money that I gave
him for it. He couldn't see at the time why he shouldn't steal it for
me, and so he may have stolen this."
"Well," said the Doctor, "you honestly paid him for the former supply
of meal, insisting that you wouldn't take it at all unless you paid for
it. He understands that perfectly. He has a sufficient sense of
honesty now to bring you an additional bag on the ground that you
paid an excessive price for the former supply and that he wants to
make it 'skwar.' I don't see how we can go behind that, especially as
we cannot possibly return the meal either to him or to its owners if
he stole it. Our only option is to eat the stuff or take it back out
there to the foot of the bluff and leave it there to rot."
After some further discussion it was decided to eat the rye meal as
practically the only thing that could be done with it.
One week later another bag of meal—corn meal this time—was
found out under the bluff, but with it came no explanation of any
kind. Thus the bread supply in Camp Venture was made secure for a
time at least, and for a meat supply the guns did all that was
necessary—especially Tom's gun, for Tom spent many of his hours
wandering over the mountains in search of game, and Tom rarely
sought game in vain.
It was coming on to be March now, and the weather had greatly
moderated. The snow was melting off the mountains and the spring
rains were falling freely.
"Our meal will run out before long," said the Doctor one night, "but
the time is near at hand when we can send a boy down the
mountain to bring up a pack mule with some supplies."
"Indeed you can't," said Tom.
"But why not?" asked the Doctor.
"Simply because there are some mountain torrents in the way, that
no human being could pass, even if he had one of your big
steamships to help him in the crossing."
"But I saw no mountain torrents on our way up," said the Doctor.
"Certainly not," answered Tom, "for they weren't mountain torrents
then, but the dry beds of streams. But now it is different. It would
be as impossible now for us to 'git down out'n the mountings' as to
fly to the moon—unless we went down over the cliffs there,
following the chute. And of course we couldn't bring a pack mule up
that way. No, we've got to stick it out and live on what we can get
till our work is done, and then—as the spring is coming on and the
way is blocked by the torrents of which I spoke,—we've got to make
our way over the cliffs down there by the chute, for we simply
cannot get down the mountain by the way we came."
"How do you know this, Tom?" asked Harry.
"Why, I've tried it. You see any road down the mountain that
furnishes an easy way is sure to be crossed by creeks that are dry in
the summer and fall, but raging whirlpools when spring melts the
snow and sends millions of gallons of water every minute down the
steep inclines. I count myself a strong swimmer. But I could no more
swim across one of those sluiceways than I could climb up a
sunbeam to the rainbow. I tell you we can get nothing from down
below now, and I tell you that we can't ourselves go down the
mountain by the way by which we came up, for two or three months
to come."
"What are we to do, then, Tom?" asked the Doctor.
"Well, first, we're to feed ourselves as best we can till we've finished
our work; and then we're to go down the mountain on its steep side
along the chute. That will involve a great deal of toil and some
danger. We shall have to let ourselves down over cliffs by hanging on
to bushes, with the certainty that if the bushes give way we shall be
dashed to pieces on the rocks below. But that's the only way we can
get down the mountain unless we are willing to wait for summer."
"Well, the question is not an immediately pressing one," said Jack.
"We've got a lot of work ahead of us yet, and we've got plenty of
game and plenty of bread stuffs in camp."
"Plenty of game, yes," said the Doctor. "But as for bread stuffs, I
don't think we have more than a peck or so left."
The next morning Tom, in his "prowlings" found two big bags of corn
and rye meal lying there under the bluff. "It's a case of bread cast
upon the waters returning to us after many days," said Tom.
CHAPTER XXVIII
The Capture of Camp Venture
Tom had miscalculated the weather, misled as every body is apt to
be by the calendar. As he had not at all anticipated, the softness of
early March presently gave way to a severe cold wave, which not
only put an end to the spring rains, but stopped the melting of the
snow upon the mountains and dried up those torrents that had
alone blocked the way down the mountain since the great snowdrift
barriers had disappeared.
"I take it all back, fellows," he said, one night. "I didn't look for such
weather as this in March. But any how any fellow in the party can go
down the mountain now. Whether he ever gets back again or not is
a question not easily determined. A very little thaw would make that
impossible."
"My view," said the Doctor, "is that we'd better not risk it. This cold
weather simply cannot last long at this season of the year, and we
can't spare any boy from our company. We have two bags of meal in
camp—enough to last us three or four weeks—and of course Tom's
gun will provide us with meat. It seems to me it would be
exceedingly unwise to send any one of our number down the
mountain and not only unwise but wholly unnecessary. What do you
think, boys?"
Every boy in the party shared the Doctor's opinion, and so it was
decided not to send one of the company down the mountain at this
time, although the weather conditions were especially favorable for
the moment at least. They proved also to be favorable to something
else.
Just before daylight the next morning Jim, who was on guard,
quitted his post and came hurriedly into the house. He waked his
comrades, saying:
"Get up quickly, boys, and get your guns. The moonshiners have
completely surrounded Camp Venture."
Ten seconds later all the boys were out on the platform, fully armed.
It was still too dark to see men even at a short distance, but low
voices could be heard in every direction round the camp. The boys
themselves consulted only in whispers.
Jack took command, of course.
"Don't shoot, boys, even if they shoot at us," he said. "They can do
little damage that way, as we have this wooden barrier to stop their
bullets. What we've got to look out for is a rush, and we must
reserve our fire to repel that with."
"Hadn't some of us better go to the rear of the house?" asked Harry.
"They may rush us from that direction."
"No," answered Jack. "There's no opening to the house on that side;
and we have no barrier there to fight behind. If they attack from
that direction we must fight from inside the house. Suppose you go
in Harry and knock out three or four pieces of chinking about breast
high, so as to give us a port hole to fire through. Keep a keen look
out through the crack, and if they advance from that direction call us
at once. But don't any of you shoot, front or rear, till they make a
rush."
As he spoke, two or three shots came from the enemy in front, the
bullets burying themselves harmlessly in the wooden barrier well
below the feet of the boys, as they stood on the platform, for the
barrier could not be seen in the darkness, and the men shooting
aimed at about where they thought a man's breast would be if he
stood upon the ground.
The temptation to return the fire was almost irresistible, particularly
to Tom, who had his magazine rifle in hand. But Jack resolutely
insisted upon reserving fire in order to be ready to repel a charge
whenever it should come.
The light was now growing stronger and here and there it was
possible to make out one of the enemy, crouching behind a rock or
in some little depression of the ground. Enough of them could be
seen by this time to show clearly that they outnumbered the
garrison of Camp Venture more than four or five to one. Somebody
remarked upon this fact, whereupon Jack replied, still speaking in a
whisper:
"That's true! But if they make the rush that I'm expecting they won't
outnumber us much by the time they get here."
As the light grew still stronger, Tom set his gun down, ejaculating
"Well, well, well."
"What is it, Tom?" asked the Doctor.
"Why, those aren't moonshiners, but revenue officers and soldiers!"
A little further scrutiny convinced the boys that Tom's keen eyes had
seen aright. The bullets were still pattering now and then against the
wooden parapet, but evidently the enemy was not yet ready to make
the charge which alone could give him possession of the fortress.
Tom felt in his pocket, drew out a handkerchief and tied it to the end
of his gun. Then he descended the little ladder to the ground.
"What are you going to do Tom?" asked Jack.
"Why, I'm going out under a flag of truce to explain to those fellows
what a stupid blunder they've made. They've mistaken Camp
Venture for an illicit distillery, as if anybody would set up a still in
such an open place as this."
"But wait, Tom! It is still so dark that they may not see your flag of
truce. They may all fire at you at once. Wait till broad daylight
comes."
"Yes," answered Tom, "and in the meantime those fellows may make
their charge,—they're forming for it now,—and in that case we'll
have to shoot half of them. No, I'm going out with my flag of truce
now, and I'll simply have to take the chances of getting shot."
With that he passed around the end of the barrier and sallied forth,
holding his flag of truce above him and calling as he went "Truce!
Truce! A flag of truce! I bear a flag of truce! Don't shoot!"
Nevertheless several bullets from improved army rifles passed
uncomfortably close to him—one of them cutting a hole through the
top of one of his boots—before the officer in command of the
assailing party could be made to understand the nature of Tom's
mission. At last he understood it and calling to Tom to halt where he
stood, which was about midway between the two forces—the
lieutenant who commanded the troops, hoisted another white
handkerchief and went out to meet the boy.
To him Tom explained the nature and purpose of Camp Venture and
invited him and his party to come in and inspect the place for
themselves.
The lieutenant looked at him incredulously at first, and then
laughed.
"That's a good one on us!" he said presently, "if what you say is
true."
"I never tell lies!" said Tom, in resentment.
"I don't believe you do," said the officer. "You don't look it, anyhow.
But of course we mustn't take any risk of being caught in a trap. So
I'll send a squad of my men with you to inspect. Here, Sergeant
Malby; take a detail of four men and go with this young man to the
camp yonder. In the meantime, my boy, I'll detain that magazine
rifle of yours, if you please, till I satisfy myself."
Tom handed over his gun and led the sergeant and his squad into
Camp Venture. As daylight had now fully come, the soldiers had little
trouble in satisfying themselves that there was no still there, and
that the company consisted only of five boys and the Doctor. The
sergeant so reported to the lieutenant and that officer was disposed
to be satisfied. Not so the three revenue agents, however.
"It's a fishy story these fellows tell," said the chief of them, "and I
for one don't intend to be drawn into a trap. There may be no still
and only a small company of boys in that cabin, but who knows how
many stills there may be hidden around here, or how many
moonshiners may be hiding about us, ready to massacre us?"
"All right," said the lieutenant, in some disgust at the revenue
officer's timidity. "I'll settle all that. Stay here, men, and wait for
orders."
With that he strode off alone to the cabin and entered it. He there
explained the situation to the boys and said:
"I'm afraid I shall have to ask you fellows to go out there and stack
your arms, considering yourselves under arrest till our timid friends
of revenue officers can make a tour of inspection all about your
camp under the armed escort of my men. They were so sure that
they had surprised a still here that they can't get over the notion. So
we must humor them."
The boys readily consented to the plan. They marched out to a point
designated by the lieutenant and there stacked their arms, over
which the lieutenant summoned two of his men to stand guard.
Then he bade the revenue officers come on, and under escort of his
file of soldiers they minutely scrutinized the entire camp. The felled
trees not yet chopped into shape for sending down the mountain;
the large quantity of ties and cordwood that were piled near the
chute; the multitude of stumps from which timber had been recently
cut; the great piles of brush left over from the chopping; and finally
the chute itself, now nearly worn out with use—all these attested the
character of the camp and indicated an industry on the part of its
occupants, such as no company of moonshiners ever displayed.
At last the Lieutenant said to the chief revenue officer, with some
show of impatience:
"Aren't you satisfied, yet? Why don't you look under these boys'
finger nails? How do you know they haven't some stills secreted
there?"
"Yes, I'm satisfied with all but one thing," answered the agent of the
excise.
"What's that?" asked Jack. "Whatever it is, I'll try to satisfy you
concerning it."
"Why, I don't understand, if you aren't engaged in any crooked
business, what you built that fortification for. If you didn't feel the
need of resisting the government agents, what need had you for a
barrier like that to shoot behind?"
"We built that to protect ourselves against moonshiners," answered
Jack.
"But why should moonshiners disturb you?" asked the still
incredulous revenue agent.
"Because they believed when we first came up here that we were
spies of the internal revenue and most of them still believe it. They
began by ordering us to quit the mountains and when we wouldn't
they sent men to shoot at us. One of our party is still suffering from
a bullet wound received at their hands. When we found that we
must defend ourselves we erected that barrier to help us. Now that
you have come up here we'll need it you may be sure."
"Why?" asked the revenue officer.
"Because they'll never believe now that we didn't send for you and
bring you here. They'll make ceaseless war on us now."
Meanwhile the Lieutenant was examining the fortification. Presently
he turned to Jack and said:
"Will you allow me to suggest an improvement in your defensive
work?"
"Certainly," answered Jack. "We shall be very glad."
"Well the top of your parapet is level. Whenever you shoot over it
you must expose your head, neck and shoulders above it. Now if you
raise it by ten or twelve inches and then cut embrasures or notches
in the top of it to shoot through you can put up a fight with far less
exposure of your persons."
The suggestion was so obviously a good one that Jack determined
on the instant to adopt it.
"I'll do that, Lieutenant, as soon as you release us from arrest and
let us have our guns again."
"Oh, I forgot that," answered the Lieutenant. "Here sentinel," to the
man who had been posted outside, "tell Sergeant Malby to send
those guns back to the house, and to withdraw you from duty here.
Young men, you are released from arrest."
Then turning to the chief revenue officer, for whose timid lack of
sagacity he had obviously the profoundest contempt, he asked:
"What's your program now?"
"Well I'm going to clear this whole mountain of stills."
"How long do you reckon it will take?" asked the Lieutenant.
"Well a week or two weeks perhaps."
"And what provisions have you made for your commissariat for such
a length of time?"
"What do you mean?"
"Why, I have forty men here and I'm under your orders, to do
whatever you say, but every one of my forty men has a mouth to
feed, and under my orders I brought only three days' rations in the
haversacks. If you intend to keep us up here for a week or two,
ought you not to have made some provision for a food supply?"
"Why didn't you look after that?" asked the revenue officer.
"Because it was none of my business. I'm a soldier. I obey orders.
My orders were to take three days' cooked rations and march my
men up here to support the revenue officers in whatever they
undertook."
"That's always the way," said the revenue man. "The troops always
fail us at the critical moment. That's why our efforts to break up
moonshining always come to nothing."
"Pardon me, sir," answered the officer rising in his wrath. "I'll trouble
you to take that back. The troops under my command have not
failed you and they will not. We have nothing to do with collecting
the revenue. That's your business. Ours is merely to fight anybody
that resists you. That duty we are ready to do just so long as you
may desire. We'll force a way for you to any part of these mountains
that you may desire to visit and we'll keep it up for a year if you
wish. But in the meantime somebody must provide my men with
food!"
"If that's the way you look at the matter," said the revenue officer,
"we might as well go down the mountain at once."
"It isn't a question of how I look at the matter," answered the
lieutenant, impatiently. "I tell you I'm ready and my men are ready
for any service you may assign to us. But I tell you also that we
must have something to eat, and it is your duty to arrange it."
"But how can I?"
"Would it be impertinent in me to suggest," asked the lieutenant,
"that you ought to have thought of that before you began your raid?
If you had said to the commandant that your expedition was likely to
occupy a week or two he would have ordered the commissary to
furnish me with two or three weeks' provisions and the quarter-
master to supply enough stout pack mules to carry them. As it was,
you represented this as a two days' trip and he ordered me to carry
three days' rations in the haversacks."
"Well, we'd better retreat at once," answered the revenue officer.
"But why? It isn't even yet too late to repair your blunder. Why can't
you send one of your men down the mountain at once to bring up a
train of pack mules loaded with provisions? He can be back here in
less than two days if he hurries."
"But I don't know—" began the man.
"I don't care what you know or don't know," answered the young
West Pointer. "I simply tell you that as soon as my men run out of
rations I'll march them down the hill again. It is my duty to see that
they don't starve."
"But if I send a man down the mountain," answered the revenue
agent, "some moonshiner might shoot him on the way."
"Very probably," answered the lieutenant. "That's a risk that men
engaged in the revenue service are bound to take, I suppose. But if
you request it, I will send a squad of four soldiers to guard your man
on the way down and to protect the pack train on its way back."
Manifestly the revenue officer was anxious to "git down out'n the
mountings," but he feared the report which in that case the angry
and disgusted lieutenant would probably make, even more than he
feared the moonshiners. Still he hesitated to detail one of his men to
go down the mountain under escort of a corporal and three men.
This matter being still unsettled, the lieutenant said:
"Now, what next?"
"How do you mean?"
"Why, what is your next move?"
"Well, I suppose we must remain here till the provisions come, if we
decide to send for them," answered the man.
The lieutenant shrugged his shoulders, and for the moment
remained silent. Presently he said:
"Of course that's for you to determine. But for myself I can't see why
you should deliberately waste two days giving the moonshiners time
in which to rip out their stills and bury them where even your
sagacity will never find them. I don't see why you shouldn't utilize
the time of waiting for supplies in finding and capturing stills.
However that is none of my business. Will you tell me where you
wish to make your headquarters, so that I may pitch my camp
accordingly?"
At that moment bullets began pattering in the camp and the
lieutenant instantly leaped to his feet and hurried to the platform of
the parapet. Using his field glass he presently located the points
from which the firing came. Then calmly but quickly he descended
and called to Sergeant Malby:
"Form the men in open order out there under the bluff."
Then he strode away hurriedly to the bluff and hastily examined it,
selecting the points at which it was easiest of ascent. With a few
quietly given orders, he mounted to the top of the rock, and in half a
minute more his men, crouching down to shield themselves from the
fire, were in line of battle by his side.
"I'm going to see that," said Tom, seizing his rifle and hurrying to
the line of troops. "It's better than a game of chess."
By this time, under the lieutenant's calmly uttered instructions—for
there seemed to be no suggestion of excitement in his voice or
manner—two small squads had been thrown forward from the right
and left of the line, and were rapidly creeping up the mountain, with
the evident purpose of getting to the rear of the moonshiners.
Meantime the lieutenant stood up with his glass to his eyes,
minutely observing the progress of his flanking parties. By his orders
his men all lay down, taking advantage of every rock and inequality
of the ground for protection, and delivering a steady fire all the time.
Presently the lieutenant lowered his glass and turning, saw little Tom
standing erect by his side.
"This will never do, my boy!" he exclaimed. "Lie down quick or one
of those mountaineers will pick you off with his rifle."
"Lie down; quick!"

"I can stand up as long as you can, Lieutenant," answered Tom,

"even if I am not a soldier."
"But it is my duty to stand just now," said the lieutenant. "I must
direct this operation and strike from here the moment my flanking
parties reach proper positions."
"And it is my pleasure to stand," answered Tom, "to see how you do
it."
The lieutenant again brought his glass to his eyes. Then he lowered
it and looked earnestly at Tom, who still stood erect by his side,
paying no heed to the rain of bullets about him.
"Why aren't you at West Point?" he asked. "You're the sort we want
in the army."
Then, without waiting for an answer, the lieutenant again looked
through his glass and seeing that his flanking parties had gained the
positions desired in rear of the mountaineers, he ordered the whole
line to advance as rapidly as possible. At the same time the flanking
parties closed in upon the rear of the mountaineers, and five
minutes later the action ended in the surrender of all the
moonshiners.
Tom saw it all, but when it was over he discovered a pain in his left
ear, and, feeling, found that a small-bore bullet had passed through
what he called the flap of it, boring a hole as round as if it had been
punched with a railroad conductor's instrument.
The captured mountaineers were brought at once to Camp Venture.
Two of them were dead and three severely wounded. To these last
and to two of the lieutenant's men who had also received bullets in
their bodies, the Doctor ministered assiduously. The unwounded
mountaineers were placed in a hastily constructed "guard house,"
built just under the bluff.
CHAPTER XXIX
A Puzzling Situation
No sooner was the action over and the wounded men attended to
than the lieutenant again talked with the revenue officer. That
person was more halting and irresolute than ever. He had hidden, in
a crouching position behind the barrier during the fight, and Jack,
seeing him thus screened, had said to him:
"Perhaps you now begin to understand why we needed our
protective work;" but the man made no answer. The lieutenant said
to him after the mélee:
"Now that I have two of my own men and three of the mountaineers
severely wounded, I cannot march down the mountain. I shall stay
here and answer any duty call you may make upon me. But I must
have food for my men and for your prisoners. Are you going to
provide it or are you not?"
The man who was not only irresolute but an arrant coward as well,
hesitated. He pleaded for "time to think."
"But while you are thinking," answered the soldier, "we'll all starve.
Are you ready to send one of your men down the mountain under
escort or are you not? Yes or no, and I'll act accordingly."
"Well, you see, this fuss will bring all the moonshiners in the
mountains down upon us," answered the man, "and really,
Lieutenant, I don't think it would be prudent just now, to weaken
your force by detaching any of your men. We might all be butchered
here at any moment."
The military officer was exasperated almost beyond endurance by
the manifest cowardice and obstinacy of the revenue agent. He was
on the point of breaking out into denunciation, but he restrained
himself and called to a sentinel instead. When the sentinel came he
said to him:
"Tell Sergeant Malby to report to me," and when the sergeant
touched his hat and stood "at attention," the lieutenant said:
"Go at once and make out a requisition for one month's supplies for
all the troops and all the prisoners, and for pack mules enough to
bring the stuff up the mountain. Order Corporal Jenkins to report to
me with a detail of four men, equipped for active work,
immediately."
Then borrowing writing materials from the boys, he wrote a hurried
note to his commandant below, relating the events that had
occurred and setting forth the circumstances in which he was
placed. By the time that this was done, the sergeant returned with
the requisition ready for signature, and the corporal reported with
his squad. With a few hurried instructions to the corporal, the
lieutenant sent him down the mountain, specially charging him to
hurry both going and coming. "You see we've got all these prisoners
to feed—seven of them, not counting the wounded—as well as
ourselves. We'll all be starving in another twenty-four hours. So
make all haste."
Then the lieutenant sought out the boys, who had gone to work at
their chopping—all of them except the Doctor, who was still busy
over the wounded men,—for Ed was now well enough to do a little
work each day, under orders to avoid severe strains and heavy
lifting.
When the officer sought out Jack and asked him for a conference,
Jack called the other boys about him, explaining:
"Our camp is sort of a republic, Lieutenant, in which all have an
equal voice, while each does the thing that he can do better than
anybody else can. So with your permission I will call all the boys
together for our talk."
The lieutenant assented and all sat down on the logs that were lying
about.
"We're in a rather awkward position," said the military man. "That
revenue agent asked our commandant for some soldiers to protect
him in raiding a still up here. He gave us the impression that it would
take one day to come up here and do the work, and one day for our
return. So I was ordered to take half a company, with three days'
cooked rations, and accompany the revenue officers. They knew just
where your camp was, and they thought they knew that it was the
still they wanted.
"Now the irresolute—Well never mind that. The revenue agent insists
upon staying in the mountains for an indefinite time, and now that
two of my men and three of our prisoners are severely wounded and
in the hands of your good young Doctor, I am not reluctant to stay.
But we must have food, and that sublimated idiot has provided none
and is afraid even to send after any. So I have myself sent a squad
down the mountain with a requisition. They will return just as
quickly as possible, but I don't see how it will be possible for them to
get back under two, or more—probably three days. So I want to ask
you to lend us some provisions, which I will return the moment the
caravan gets here."
"But we have no provisions!" said Jack, in consternation. "Our total
supply consists of less than two bags of meal and perhaps half a
dozen squirrels and rabbits. That wouldn't go far among so many."
"I'll tell you what," broke in Tom. "If the lieutenant will lend me two
men to help carry, I'll go foraging and see what I can bring in in the
way of game."
Jack explained to the military man that Tom had been from the first
the camp's reliance for meat supplies, and that incidentally he had
secured all the meal that was then in camp.
"Excellent!" exclaimed the lieutenant. "We have more bread than
anything else, and we needn't borrow any of your meal. But if your
brother—by the way, it was you who stood by me in the fight out
there this morning, wasn't it? Are you much hurt?"
"Oh, no," answered Tom. "One of those moonshiners thought I
ought to wear earrings, and so he pierced my left ear with a bullet,
that's all," said Tom, whose ear the Doctor had carefully disinfected
and bandaged.
"But why aren't you at West Point?" again asked the officer. "I never
saw a cooler hand or a boy that the army so clearly needed. Why
aren't you at West Point?"
"Because I can't get an appointment," said Tom.
"Why can't you get an appointment?"
"Because I have no political influence. You see my father, while he
lived, was very active in politics, and he belonged to a party just the
opposite of the one our present Congressman belongs to."
"Would you like to go?" asked the lieutenant.
"Very much, indeed," answered Tom. "I want just the sort of
education they give there."
"Could you stand the entrance examinations—say a year hence?"
"Yes. I could stand them now. I went all over that ground when I
first tried to get an appointment."
"Well now," broke in Jack, "this isn't getting meat. Tom, go hunting
immediately, and keep on going hunting till the famine in this camp
is over. I haven't a doubt the lieutenant will lend you the men you
want to help carry game."
"Certainly!" answered the lieutenant, beckoning to a sentinel to
come to him.
"Tell Sergeant Malby to send me two strong men instantly."
Tom took two guns with him, requiring one of the soldiers to carry
the rifle, while he carried the shot gun, double loaded, for big or
little game. It was now about noon, and the hunting party did not
return till after dark. When they did they brought with them as the
spoil of our young Nimrod's guns, a half grown bear, a deer weighing
perhaps a hundred and fifty pounds, three wild turkeys and a big
string of hares and squirrels. Besides these Tom was laboriously
dragging by a string a big wild boar.
"That boar's a disputed bird," he said. "This soldier, Johnson, and I
fired at him at the same instant. He set out to rip Johnson open with
his tusks, like a vest with no buttons on it, and Johnson fired to
protect himself. At the same moment I fired a charge of buckshot
into the beast. Johnson's bullet struck him in the neck, just about
where I fondly imagine the jugular vein or something else of that
sort to be, while my nine buckshot striking him just behind the left
fore leg, went through him about where his heart ought to be if it's
in the right place. Anyhow the animal gave up the ghost in an
astonishing hurry, and possibly the Doctor might find out, by a post
mortem examination, which shot killed him. But in my humble
opinion the time necessary for that can be better spent in preparing
the gentleman for the table. I move that we roast him whole and
invite the soldiers to dine with us! He's big enough to go round."
It did not take long to carry that motion or to begin carrying it into
effect. The lieutenant ordered the company cook to assist Ed in
preparing the wild boar and roasting him. Ed carefully saved the
"giblets" for future use, a proceeding which gave the company cook
a totally new economic suggestion in the use of animals killed for
food. Then the two required the other soldiers to build a great fire
out-of-doors, and to erect a pole frame work near it, from which
they hung the boar to roast. Ed gave the cook still another good
suggestion by thrusting a dripping pan under the hog and catching
all he could of the fat that fell from the animal.
"What do you do that for?" asked the company cook.
"For two reasons," answered Ed. "First, because I want all this fat to
cook with and to use as butter hereafter. You've no idea how far it
goes when people are on short rations. Secondly, because if all this
fat fell upon these glowing coals it would blaze up and our hog
would be scorched and burned. You are a company cook and I never
was anything of the sort. But I honestly believe I could teach you
some things about cooking."
"Of course you could," said the soldier. "And perhaps I could teach
you some also. I could show you how to bake bread on a barrel
head, or even on a ramrod, only we don't have ramrods since these
new-fangled breech-loading guns came into use."
Two or three hours later, at ten o'clock, the big porker was roasted
"to a turn," and Jack, recognizing the necessity of maintaining
military distinctions in all that related to association in military life,
invited the lieutenant to take the night dinner with him and his
companions inside the house, leaving the soldiers to dine out of
doors, in accordance with their custom. So Jack asked Ed to cut off a
ham and some other choice parts of the wild boar and send them
into the hut. There the boys and the lieutenant dined together, with
the three revenue officers for additional guests.
The lieutenant had no very kindly feelings for the chief revenue
officer, because he had discovered him to be a coward, and a brave
man never likes to touch elbows with a coward, at dinner or any
where else. On the other hand the chief revenue officer had no very
kindly feelings for the lieutenant, because he knew that the
lieutenant had found him out for the coward and incapable that he
was, and it is not in human nature for any man to feel kindly toward
another who has found him out to that extent.
Nevertheless the dinner passed off pleasantly enough until the
lieutenant, at its end, asked of the revenue agent:
"Are you going to raid any stills to-night?"
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1 Here and Now 1 HOW DO WE KNOW?

6 Light and Telescopes 101

7-2 Interactions of Light and Matter 131

9 The Family of Stars 170 ~2 Basic Scientific Data 194

10 The Interstellar Medium 199

Sunspots and the Solar Magnet ic Cycle 154-155

13 The Deaths of Stars 262

14 Neutron Stars and Black Holes 286

15 The Milky Way Galaxy 31 O HOW DO WE KNOW?

17 Modern Cosmology 364 19-2 Studying an Unseen World 429

PART 4 : THE SOLAR SYSTEM

18-1 A Survey of the Solar System 396 Galaxy Classification 338-339

2 1 Venus and Mars 464

22 Jupiter and Saturn 493 VENUS 475

and the Kuiper Belt 524 NEPTUNE 537

23-1 Uranus 525

23-1 Scientific Discoveries 526

Append ix B Observing the Sky A· 11

viii A Note to Students

Dana Backman taught in the physics and astronomy department at

Mike Seeds was a professor of physics and astronomy at Franklin

Abo ut the Authors xi

2 PART 1 I Exploring t he Sky

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 3

4 PART 1 I Exploring the Sky

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 5

1-2 When Is Now?

6 PART 1 I Explo ring the Sky

Chapter 1 I Here and Now 7

WHAT ARE WE? t.. • .-- ,.

8 PA RT 1 Exploring the Sky

"I can stand up as long as you can, Lieutenant," answered Tom,

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