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 CHAPTER
Cellular Reproduction:
8 Cells from Cells

Why This Chapter Matters

1. Cell replication is a normal part of maintaining a healthy body.
2. Mitosis and meiosis permit asexual and sexual reproduction.
3. Errors in cell division can lead to cancer, infertility, abortion, or the production of
children with serious genetic disorders.
4. Understanding the details of cell division helps us recognize the causes of these problems
and helps us develop better strategies to address the challenges they produce.
Chapter Objectives
Biology and Society: Virgin Birth of a Dragon
1. Explain what is unusual about Komodo dragon reproduction.
What Cell Reproduction Accomplishes
2. Describe the roles of cell division in living organisms.
3. Compare the cellular processes and cellular products of asexual and sexual reproduction.
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
4. Describe the basic structure of a chromosome. Explain how DNA is packaged into an
elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and folding.
5. Explain how and when chromosomes are duplicated.
6. Describe the key events of each phase of the cell cycle.
7. Describe the key events of each phase of mitosis.
8. Compare the processes of cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
9. Describe how the cell cycle control system normally functions and explain the
consequences of errors in this system.
10. Explain how cancer cells are different from healthy cells of the body.
11. Distinguish between benign and malignant tumors. Explain what is meant by the “slash,
burn, and poison” approach to treating cancer.
12. Explain how you can reduce your risks of developing cancer.
Meiosis, the Basis of Sexual Reproduction
13. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: sex chromosomes versus autosomes,
somatic cells versus gametes, and diploid versus haploid cells.
14. Explain why the production of haploid gametes is necessary in sexually reproducing organisms.
15. Compare the processes and products of meiosis I and meiosis II.
16. Compare the overall processes and products of meiosis and mitosis.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 91
 17. Explain how independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis, random
fertilization, and crossing over contribute to genetic diversity in offspring.
18. Describe the consequences of nondisjunction in autosomes and sex chromosomes.
Evolution Connection: The Advantages of Sex
19. Explain why asexual and sexual reproduction are adaptive.

Lecture Outline
I. Biology and Society: Virgin Birth of a Dragon
1. In 2002, zookeepers at the Chester Zoo were surprised to discover that their Komodo
Dragon laid eggs
a. The female dragon had not been in the company of a male.
b. The eggs developed without fertilization, in a process called parthenogenesis.
c. DNA analysis confirmed that her offspring had genes only from her.
2. A second European Komodo dragon is now known to have reproduced
a. asexually, via parthenogenesis, and
b. sexually.
II. What Cell Reproduction Accomplishes
1. Reproduction
a. may result in the birth of new organisms but
b. more commonly involves the production of new cells.
2. When a cell undergoes reproduction, or cell division, two “daughter” cells are
produced that are genetically identical
a. to each other and
b. to the “parent” cell.
3. Before a parent cell splits into two, it duplicates its chromosomes, the structures that
contain most of the cell’s DNA
4. During cell division, each daughter cell receives one identical set of chromosomes
from the lone, original parent cell
5. Cell division plays important roles in the lives of organisms
6. Cell division
a. replaces damaged or lost cells,
b. permits growth, and
c. allows for reproduction.
7. In asexual reproduction,
a. single-celled organisms reproduce by simple cell division and
b. there is no fertilization of an egg by a sperm.
8. Some multicellular organisms, such as sea stars, can grow new individuals from
fragmented pieces
9. Growing a new plant from a clipping is another example of asexual reproduction
10. In asexual reproduction, the lone parent and its offspring have identical genes

92 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 11. Mitosis is the type of cell division responsible for
a. asexual reproduction and
b. growth and maintenance of multicellular organisms.
12. Sexual reproduction requires fertilization of an egg by a sperm using a special type
of cell division called meiosis
13. Thus, sexually reproducing organisms use
a. meiosis for reproduction and
b. mitosis for growth and maintenance.
14. In a eukaryotic cell
a. most genes are located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus and
b. a few genes are found in DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
III. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
1. In a eukaryotic cell:
2. most genes are located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus and
3. a few genes are found in DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts
A. Eukaryotic Chromosomes
1. Each eukaryotic chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule, typically bearing
thousands of genes
2. The number of chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell depends on the species
3. Chromosomes are
a. made of chromatin, fibers composed of roughly equal amounts of DNA and
protein molecules and
b. not visible in a cell until cell division occurs.
4. The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and folding
5. Histones are proteins used to package DNA in eukaryotes
6. Nucleosomes consist of DNA wound around histone molecules
7. Before a cell divides, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, resulting in two copies
called sister chromatids containing identical genes
8. Two sister chromatids are joined together tightly at a narrow “waist” called the
centromere
9. When the cell divides, the sister chromatids of a duplicated chromosome separate from
each other
10. Once separated, each chromatid is
a. considered a full-fledged chromosome and
b. identical to the original chromosome.
B. The Cell Cycle
1. A cell cycle is the ordered sequence of events that extend
a. from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell
b. to its own division into two cells.
2. The cell cycle consists of two distinct phases:
a. interphase and
b. the mitotic phase.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 93
 3. Most of a cell cycle is spent in interphase
4. During interphase, a cell
a. performs its normal functions,
b. doubles EVERYTHING in its cytoplasm, and
c. grows in size.
5. The mitotic (M) phase includes two overlapping processes:
a. mitosis, in which the nucleus and its contents divide evenly into two daughter
nuclei and
b. cytokinesis, in which the cytoplasm is divided in two.
C. Mitosis and Cytokinesis
1. During mitosis the mitotic spindle, a football-shaped structure of microtubules,
guides the separation of two sets of daughter chromosomes
2. Spindle microtubules grow from structures within the cytoplasm called centrosomes
3. Mitosis consists of four distinct phases:
a. Prophase
b. Metaphase
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase
4. Cytokinesis usually
a. begins during telophase,
b. divides the cytoplasm, and
c. is different in plant and animal cells.
5. In animal cells cytokinesis
a. is known as cleavage and
b. begins with the appearance of a cleavage furrow, an indentation at the equator of the cell.
6. In plant cells, cytokinesis
a. begins when vesicles containing cell wall material collect at the middle of the cell
and then fuse, forming a membranous disk called the cell plate.
D. Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control
1. Normal plant and animal cells have a cell cycle control system that consists of
specialized proteins, which send “stop” and “go-ahead” signals at certain key points
during the cell cycle
2. What Is Cancer?
3. Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle
4. Cancer cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle control system.
5. Cancer cells can form tumors, abnormally growing masses of body cells
6. If the abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor
7. The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site of origin is metastasis
8. Malignant tumors can
a. spread to other parts of the body and
b. interrupt normal body functions.
9. A person with a malignant tumor is said to have cancer

94 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 10. Cancer Treatment
11. Cancer treatment can involve
a. radiation therapy, which damages DNA and disrupts cell division, and
b. chemotherapy, the use of drugs to disrupt cell division.
12. Cancer Prevention and Survival
13. Certain behaviors can decrease the risk of cancer:
a. not smoking,
b. exercising adequately,
c. avoiding exposure to the sun,
d. eating a high-fiber, low-fat diet,
e. performing self-exams, and
f. regularly visiting a doctor to identify tumors early.
E. Meiosis, the Basis of Sexual Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction
a. depends on meiosis and fertilization and
b. produces offspring that contain a unique combination of genes from the parents.
F. Homologous Chromosomes
1. Different individuals of a single species have the same
a. number and
b. types of chromosomes.
2. A human somatic cell
a. is a typical body cell and
b. has 46 chromosomes.
3. A karyotype is an image that reveals an orderly arrangement of chromosomes
4. Homologous chromosomes
a. are matching pairs of chromosomes that
b. can possess different versions of the same genes.
5. Humans have
a. two different sex chromosomes, X and Y, and
b. 22 pairs of matching chromosomes, called autosomes.
G. Gametes and the Life Cycle of a Sexual Organism
1. The life cycle of a multicellular organism is the sequence of stages leading from the
adults of one generation to the adults of the next
2. Humans are diploid organisms with
a. body cells containing two sets of chromosomes and
b. haploid gametes that have only one member of each homologous pair
of chromosomes.
3. In humans, a haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg, during fertilization to form a
diploid zygote
4. Sexual life cycles involve an alternation of diploid and haploid stages
5. Meiosis produces haploid gametes, which keeps the chromosome number from
doubling every generation

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 95
 H. The Process of Meiosis
1. In meiosis,
a. haploid daughter cells are produced in diploid organisms,
b. interphase is followed by two consecutive divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II, and
c. crossing over occurs.
I. Review: Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
1. In mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate only once, during the preceding
interphase
2. The number of cell divisions varies:
a. Mitosis uses one division and produces two diploid cells.
b. Meiosis uses two divisions and produces four haploid cells.
3. All the events unique to meiosis occur during meiosis I
J. The Origins of Genetic Variation
1. Offspring of sexual reproduction are genetically different from their parents and one
another
2. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
3. When aligned during metaphase I of meiosis, the side-by-side orientation of each
homologous pair of chromosomes is a matter of chance
4. Every chromosome pair orients independently of all of the others at metaphase I
5. For any species, the total number of chromosome combinations that can appear in the
gametes due to independent assortment is
a. 2n, where n is the haploid number.
6. For a human,
a. n = 23.
b. With n = 23, there are 8,388,608 different chromosome combinations possible in a
gamete.
K. Random Fertilization
1. A human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety in the
zygote
2. If each gamete represents one of 8,388,608 different chromosome combinations, at
fertilization, humans would have 8,388,608 × 8,388,608, or more than 70 trillion
different possible chromosome combinations
3. So we see that the random nature of fertilization adds a huge amount of potential
variability to the offspring of sexual reproduction
4. Crossing Over
5. In crossing over,
a. nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding
segments and
b. genetic recombination, the production of gene combinations different from those
carried by parental chromosomes, occurs.
L. The Process of Science: Do All Animals Have Sex?
1. Observation: No scientists have ever found male bdelloid rotifers, a microscopic
freshwater invertebrate

96 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 2. Question: Does this entire class of animals reproduce solely by asexual means?
3. Hypothesis: Bdelloid rotifers have thrived for millions of years despite a lack of
sexual reproduction
4. Prediction: Bdelloid rotifers would display much more variation in their pairs of
homologous genes than most organisms
5. Experiment: Researchers compared sequences of a particular gene in bdelloid and
non-bdelloid rotifers
6. Results:
a. Non-bdelloid sexually reproducing rotifers had a nearly identical homologous gene,
differing by only 0.5% on average.
b. The two versions of the same gene in asexually reproducing bdelloid rotifers
differed by 3.5–54%.
7. Conclusion: Bdelloid rotifers have evolved for millions of years without any sexual
reproduction
M. When Meiosis Goes Awry
1. What happens when errors occur in meiosis?
2. Such mistakes can result in genetic abnormalities that range from mild to fatal
3. How Accidents during Meiosis Can Alter Chromosome Number
4. In nondisjunction,
a. the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate at anaphase,
b. producing gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes.
5. Nondisjunction can occur during meiosis I or II
6. If nondisjunction occurs, and a normal sperm fertilizes an egg with an extra
chromosome, the result is a zygote with a total of 2n + 1 chromosomes
7. If the organism survives, it will have
a. an abnormal karyotype and
b. probably a syndrome of disorders caused by the abnormal number of genes.
8. Down Syndrome: An Extra Chromosome 21
9. Down syndrome
a. is also called trisomy 21,
b. is a condition in which an individual has an extra chromosome 21, and
c. affects about one out of every 700 children.
10. The incidence of Down syndrome in the offspring of normal parents increases
markedly with the age of the mother
11. Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes
12. Nondisjunction in meiosis
a. can lead to ABNORMAL numbers of sex chromosomes but
b. seems to upset the genetic balance less than unusual numbers of autosomes, perhaps
because the Y chromosome is very small and carries relatively few genes.
N. Evolution Connection: The Advantages of Sex
1. Asexual reproduction conveys an evolutionary advantage when plants are
a. sparsely distributed and unlikely to be able to exchange pollen or
b. superbly suited to a stable environment.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 97
 2. Asexual reproduction also eliminates the need to expend energy
a. forming gametes and
b. copulating with a partner.
3. Sexual reproduction may convey an evolutionary advantage by
a. speeding adaptation to a changing environment or
b. allowing a population to more easily rid itself of harmful genes.

Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources

What Cell Reproduction Accomplishes

Student Misconceptions and Concerns

1. Students might not immediately see the need for meiosis in sexual reproduction. Consider
an example of what would happen over many generations if gametes were produced by
mitosis. The resulting genetic doubling can be prevented if each gamete has only half the
genetic material of the adult cells.
2. Some basic familiarity or faint memory of mitosis and meiosis might result in a lack of
enthusiasm for mitosis and meiosis in some of your students. Consider beginning such
lectures with important topics related to cellular reproduction. For example, cancer cells
reproduce uncontrollably, stem cells have the capacity to regenerate lost or damaged
tissues, and the study of embryonic stem cells holds great potential but is variously
restricted and regulated.
3. As the authors note, biologists use the term daughter to indicate offspring and not gender.
Students with little experience in this terminology can easily become confused.

Teaching Tips
1. The authors do not use the word clone in this chapter. You might wish to point out to your
students that asexual reproduction produces clones.
2. Consider pointing out that asexual reproduction is common in prokaryotes and single-
celled organisms.
3. You might want to get your students thinking by asking them why eggs and sperm are
different. (This depends on the species, but within vertebrates, eggs and sperm are
specialized for different tasks. Sperm are adapted to move to an egg, donate a nucleus, and
activate development of the egg. Eggs contain a nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the
future zygote. Thus, eggs are typically larger, nonmotile, and full of cellular resources to
sustain cell division and support growth.)
4. Virchow’s principle of “Every cell from a cell” (not specifically addressed in this chapter)
is worth thinking through with your class. Students might expect that like automobiles,
computers, and cell phones, cell parts are constructed de novo and cells are assembled. In
our society, few nonliving products are generated from only existing products (try to think
of such examples). For example, you do not need a painting to paint or a house to construct
a house. Yet, this common expectation exists in biology.

98 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Student Misconceptions and Concerns

1. Students often seem confused by the difference between a DNA molecule and a chromosome.
This is especially problematic in this chapter when discussing DNA replication.
2. Students are often confused by photographs of chromosomes. A chromosome is often
described as a single strand, yet photographs typically show duplicated chromosomes
appearing like the letter “X.” It remains unclear to many students why (a) chromosome
structure is typically different between interphase G1 and stages of division and (b) why
chromosomes are not photographed during interphase (the stage in which chromosomes
are typically first discussed) before the chromosomes replicate.
3. Students do not typically know that all cancers are genetically based. Consider making this
clear early in your discussions. Challenge your students to explain how certain viruses can
lead to cancer (such as HPV, human papillomavirus associated with genital warts and
cervical cancer).

Teaching Tips
1. Mitochondrial DNA is widely used to analyze evolutionary relationships. Students might be
challenged to search the Internet for examples of its use in tracing human evolutionary history.
2. Consider this additional analogy between histones and DNA. DNA is like a very long
piece of thread wrapped around a series of spools (histones). The DNA wraps one spool,
then extends to another spool, repeating this many hundreds of times—all with one
continuous strand of thread.
3. The concepts of DNA replication and sister chromatids are often obstacles for many
students. If you can find twist ties or other bendable wire, you can demonstrate or have
students model the difference between (a) a chromosome before DNA replication and
(b) sister chromatids after DNA replication. One piece of wire will represent a
chromosome before replication. Two twist ties twisted about each other can represent
sister chromatids (even though this is not the actual physical relationship between sister
chromatids). In the model, we have doubled the DNA, but the molecules remain attached.
(You might also want to point out that when sister chromatids are separated, they are
considered separate chromosomes.)
4. In G1, the chromosomes have not replicated. But by G2, chromosomes consist of sister
chromatids. If you have created a demonstration of sister chromatids, relate DNA
replication and sister chromatids to the cell cycle.
5. The cell cycle control system is somewhat like the control device of an automatic washing
machine. Each has a control system that triggers and coordinates key events in the cycle.
However, the components of the control system of a cell cycle are not located in one place,
like a washing machine.
6. Students might keep better track of the sequence of events in a cell cycle by simply
memorizing the letters IPMAT. The first letters of interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase are represented in this made-up word.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 99
 7. Many students think of mitosis and cytokinesis as one process. In some situations, mitosis
occurs without subsequent cytokinesis. Challenge your students to predict the outcome of
mitosis without cytokinesis (multinuclear cells called a syncytium). One place this occurs
is in human development during the formation of the placenta.
8. The authors make an analogy between a drawstring and the mechanism of cytokinesis in
animal cells. Students seem to appreciate this analogy. Have your students think of a
person tightening the drawstring of sweatpants so tight that they pinch themselves in two,
or perhaps nearly so! The analogy is especially good because the drawstring is just beneath
the surface of the sweatpants, and the microfilaments are just beneath the surface of the
cell’s plasma membrane.
9. Chemotherapy has some disastrous side effects. The drugs used to fight cancer attack
rapidly dividing cells. Unfortunately for men, the cells that make sperm are also rapidly
dividing. In some circumstances, chemotherapy can leave a man infertile (unable to
produce viable sperm) but still able to produce an erection.
10. Many other approaches (such as cancer vaccines) are under consideration to fight cancers.
You may wish to explore these as sidelights to your lecture. Good resources include cell
biology and development textbooks.

Meiosis, the Basis of Sexual Reproduction

Student Misconceptions and Concerns

1. How meiosis results in four haploid cells yet mitosis yields two diploid cells is often
memorized but not understood. It can be explained like this. In mitosis and meiosis, the
processes begin with replicated pairs of chromosomes. The two pairs include four items.
Sort this group into two subgroups, and you are back to two pairs. Divide again, and you
have separated four items into four groups of one. All of the details of these two processes,
although eventually addressed, can get in the way of seeing the overall process.
2. Most people have difficulty comprehending large numbers. See Teaching Tips 8–10 below
to help relate these large numbers to aspects of students’ lives.

Teaching Tips
1. Sometimes the most basic questions can challenge students and get them focused on the
subject at hand. Consider asking your students why we expect that dogs produce dogs, cats
produce only more cats, and chickens only produce chickens. Why does “like produce like”?
2. Consider helping students through mitosis and meiosis by developing an analogy to pairs
of shoes. In this case, any given species that is diploid has a certain number of pairs of
shoes, or homologous chromosomes.
3. In the shoe analogy, females have 23 pairs of matching shoes, males have 22 matching
pairs and one odd pair—maybe a sandal and a sneaker!
4. You may wish to ask the class why meiosis is necessary. Why not have a male diploid cell
fertilize a diploid female cell? In short, the answer is that, if this were true, at every
fertilization, we would have genetic doubling.
5. If you wish to continue the shoe analogy, crossing over is somewhat like exchanging the
shoelaces in a pair of shoes. A point to make is that the shoes (chromosomes) before

100 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 crossing over are what you inherited—either from the sperm or the egg; but, as a result of
crossing over, you no longer pass along exactly what you inherited. Instead, you pass
along a combination of homologous chromosomes (or shoes with switched shoelaces). In
this shoe analogy, after exchanging shoelaces, we have recombinant shoes!
6. You might consider emphasizing a crucial difference between the processes of mitosis and
meiosis. In mitosis, sister chromatids separate at metaphase. In meiosis I metaphase, sister
chromatids stay together, and homologous chromosomes separate. After discussing mitosis
and meiosis in class, consider asking your students to sketch the alignment of the
chromosomes at mitosis metaphase and meiosis metaphase I.
7. The number 223 is 8,388,608. This number squared is more than 70 trillion. The authors
rounded down to 8 million for 223 and squared this to estimate 64 trillion possible
combinations. But more precisely, the number of possible zygotes produced by a single
pair of reproducing humans, based solely on independent assortment and random
fertilization, is over 70 trillion!
8. There are currently about 315 million humans living in the United States. If every person
in the United States received $222,222, it would equal $70 trillion. Here is another way to
think of it. If you lived to be 100 years old, and spent $22,181.66 every second of your life,
(or a million dollars every 45 seconds) you would spend about $70 trillion dollars.
9. The impressive nature of such large numbers is lost on most of us who cannot comprehend such
quantities. There are about 64 trillion seconds in 2 million years (actually, 2,028,000 years).
10. Depending on the size of your class, it is likely that at least one of your students is related
to a person with Down syndrome. A student in your class may even enjoy the chance to
talk about their Down syndrome friend or relative.

Key Terms
anaphase chiasma homologous nondisjunction
asexual reproduction chromatin chromosome prophase
autosome chromosome interphase radiation therapy
benign tumor cleavage furrow karyotype sex chromosome
cancer crossing over life cycle sexual reproduction
cell cycle cytokinesis malignant tumor sister chromatid
cell cycle control diploid meiosis somatic cell
system Down syndrome metaphase telophase
cell division fertilization metastasis trisomy 21
cell plate gamete mitosis tumor
centromere genetic recombination mitotic (M) phase zygote
centrosome haploid mitotic spindle
chemotherapy histone nucleosome

Word Roots
a = not or without (asexual: type of reproduction not involving fertilization)
ana = again (anaphase: mitotic stage when sister chromatids separate)
auto = self (autosomes: the chromosomes that do not determine gender)
centro = the center; mere = a part (centromere: the centralized region joining two sister chromatids)

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 101
chemo = chemical (chemotherapy: type of cancer therapy using drugs that disrupt cell division)
chiasm = cross-mark (chiasma: the sites where crossing over has occurred)
chroma = colored (chromosome: DNA-containing structure)
cyto = cell; kinet = move (cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm)
di = two (diploid: cells that contain two homologous sets of chromosomes)
fertil = fruitful (fertilization: process of fusion of sperm and egg cell)
gamet = a wife or husband (gamete: egg or sperm)
haplo = single (haploid: cells that contain only one chromosome of each homologous pair)
homo = like (homologous: like chromosomes that form a pair)
inter = between (interphase: time when a cell metabolizes and performs its various functions)
karyo = nucleus (karyotype: a display of the chromosomes of a cell)
mal = bad or evil (malignant: type of tumor that migrates away from its site of origin)
mei = less (meiosis: the division of a diploid nucleus into four haploid daughter nuclei)
meta = between (metaphase: mitotic stage when the chromosomes are lined up in the cell’s middle)
mito = a thread (mitosis: the division of a diploid cell into two diploid cells)
non = not; dis = separate (nondisjunction: the result when paired chromosomes fail to separate)
pro = before (prophase: mitotic stage when the nuclear membrane first breaks up)
soma = body (somatic: body cells with 46 chromosomes in humans)
telo = end (telophase: final mitotic stage when the nuclear envelope re-forms)
tri = three (trisomy 21: a condition in which a person has three number 21 chromosomes)

Relevant Songs to Play in Class

“Miserable Bastard” (from the album “Two Kinds of Seagulls,” Tom Chapin
Zygote), John Popper “Let’s Talk About Sex,” Salt-N-Pepa
“Reproduction,” Grease 2 Soundtrack “Love Will Tear Us Apart,” Joy Division
“I Want Your Sex,” George Michael “Imitosis,” Andrew Bird

Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions

The Process of Science

13. Suggested answer: Each chromosome lines up singly in mitosis; chromosome replication
and the separation of sister chromatids occur independently for each horse or donkey
chromosome. Therefore, mitotic divisions, starting with the zygote, are not impaired. In
meiosis, however, homologous chromosomes must pair in prophase I. This pairing of
homologous chromosomes cannot occur properly because horse and donkey chromosomes
do not match in number or content. Further, when the homologous pairs line up in
metaphase I of meiosis, there will be one extra chromosome, which will be unpaired.
14. Suggested answer: (a) metaphase, (b) anaphase, (c) telophase, (d) prophase.

102 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Biology and Society
15. Some issues and questions to consider: Could it be that less money is spent on prevention
because effective prevention is so much cheaper? Or because prevention has been tried,
and it does not work well? Are lifestyle changes the kind of measures that could benefit
from a shift in resources? Is prevention an individual matter of avoiding exposure or a
social matter of preventing exposure? How might the answer to this question shape
prevention policy? If more money were devoted to prevention, how could it be used to
encourage you or others to make lifestyle changes? Would prevention work better for
younger or older people? Might older people, already exposed to cancer-causing agents,
actually be harmed by a shift of resources to prevention?
16. Some issues and questions to consider: Is this an issue that needs to be legally regulated? If
one person agrees to such an arrangement, should that person’s right to sell gametes be
halted by laws against this process? Do you think the financial motivation interferes with a
person’s normal judgment on an issue such as this? Sperm donation has virtually no risks
to the donor, but egg donation can be very risky for the donor. What are the risks of
removing eggs? Should there be separate rules for male and female gamete donation?
Should eggs be considered more valuable based on the considerable risk to the donor?

Additional Critical Thinking Questions

The Process of Science

1. Down syndrome is one of the few genetic conditions involving an alteration of
chromosome number that allows fetal development to be completed. Nondisjunction of
autosomes other than chromosome 21 can also occur but is rarely seen in full-term infants
because of spontaneous abortions during fetal development. Why would a child with
trisomy 21 be more likely to come to term than a child with, say, trisomy 3?
Suggested answer: Chromosome 21 is the smallest autosome, so it may be that having
additional copies of the smaller number of genes on 21 is not lethal (though it does have
detrimental effects). The larger the chromosome, the more genes it is likely to have; and
the more additional copies of genes there are, the more likely it is that there will be
resulting problems. Trisomy of large chromosomes, like chromosome 3, is more likely to
be lethal to the developing fetus.
2. Suppose you read in the newspaper that a genetic engineering laboratory has developed a
procedure for fusing two gametes from the same person (two eggs or two sperm) to form a
zygote. The article mentions that an early step in the procedure prevents crossing over
from occurring during the formation of the gametes in the donor’s body. The researchers
are in the process of determining the genetic makeup of one of their new zygotes. Which
of the following predictions do you think they would make? Justify your choice, and
explain why you rejected each of the other choices.
a. The zygote would have 46 chromosomes, all of which came from the gamete donor (its
one parent), so the zygote would be genetically identical to the gamete donor.
b. The zygote could be genetically identical to the gamete donor, but it is much more likely that
it would have an unpredictable mixture of chromosomes from the gamete donor’s parents.
c. The zygote would not be genetically identical to the gamete donor, but it would be
genetically identical to one of the donor’s parents.
d. The zygote would not be genetically identical to the gamete donor, but it would be
genetically identical to one of the donor’s grandparents.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 103
 Suggested answers:
Answer a: No. For this to happen, all of the chromosomes of the two gametes that fused
would have to represent a complete set of the donor’s maternal chromosomes (the ones
that originally came from the donor’s mother) and a complete set of the donor’s paternal
chromosomes (from the donor’s father). It is much more likely that the zygote would be
missing one or more maternal chromosomes and would have an excess of paternal
chromosomes, or vice versa.
Answer b: Correct. Consider what would have to happen to produce a zygote genetically
identical to the gamete donor: The zygote would have to have a complete set of the
donor’s maternal chromosomes and a complete set of the donor’s paternal chromosomes.
The first gamete in this union could contain any mixture of maternal and paternal
chromosomes, but once that first gamete was “chosen,” the second one would have to have
one particular combination of chromosomes—the combination that supplies whatever the
first gamete did not supply. So, for example, if the first three chromosomes of the first
gamete were maternal, maternal, and paternal, the first three of the second gamete would
have to be paternal, paternal, and maternal. The chance that all 23 chromosome pairs
would be complementary in this way is only one in 223 (or one in 8,388,608). Because of
independent assortment, it is much more likely that the zygote would have an
unpredictable combination of chromosomes from the donor’s father and mother.
Answer c: No. First, the zygote could be genetically identical to the gamete donor (see b).
Second, the zygote could not be identical to either of the gamete donor’s parents because
the donor only has half the genetic material of each of his or her parents. For example,
even if the zygote were formed by two gametes containing only paternal chromosomes, the
combined set of chromosomes could not be identical to that of the donor’s father because it
would still be missing half of the father’s chromosomes.
Answer d: No; see answer c.
3. Typical neurons are not able to perform mitosis after maturity. A patient has just been
diagnosed with brain cancer and is undergoing treatment. Based on what you know about
cell division and cancer, why does this seem unusual?
Suggested answer: Since cancer is unregulated cell division, it would seem unusual that
brain cells would become cancerous since they are not supposed to be dividing at all. Most
likely, the cancer has metastasized from another location or originated in glial (supporting)
cells in the brain.

Biology and Society

4. The recent availability of genetic tests for susceptibility to some types of cancer has led
some patients to take extreme measures, such as having a mastectomy when there is a risk,
though not a certainty, of developing breast cancer. If you were a doctor, how would you
advise a patient found to be at high risk for breast cancer?
Some issues and questions to consider: Does the doctor have the responsibility of
educating the patient about all of the preventive and diagnostic measures? Should the
patient’s wishes always be followed, regardless of the outcome? How accurate are the
testing measures for susceptibility? What is the risk of developing breast cancer versus the
risk of having a mastectomy?

104 CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 5. As women age, the cells in their ovaries that ultimately produce eggs also age. The older a
woman is when she becomes pregnant, the older that egg cell is and the more likely it is
that chromosomal damage has occurred. If this is the case and the embryo has a
chromosomal abnormality, the mother’s system may spontaneously abort; however, the
aborting mechanism also becomes defective with age. This is one reason why older
women are more likely to have children born with birth defects than younger women. At
menopause, the woman stops releasing eggs, which ends her fertility. Some
postmenopausal women are now using reproductive technology to go to extreme measures
to have their own biological child. How do you feel about the use of this technology?
Some issues and questions to consider: How risky is pregnancy at an older age? If the
body has naturally stopped releasing eggs, should this be overridden by technology? How
likely is it that the child will have a birth defect? How expensive is the technology? What
are the consequences to a child having much older parents?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 Cellular Reproduction: Cells from Cells 105
Other documents randomly have
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Winckel, November 1913.

TOELICHTING

Ondanks nauwgezetten naspeuringsarbeid blijft een bibliographische schets

als deze, uitteraard steeds voor vervollediging vatbaar. Opgemerkt zij
intusschen, dat naar een bijeenbrengen der talloos vele kleine dagblad-
aankondigingen van publicaties door Van Deyssel in dit overzicht niet werd
getracht.

De lijst van Van Deyssel’s eigen werken is volledig voor zooveel betreft de
opgave van de door hem geschreven boeken en de opsomming zijner
tijdschrift-artikels na het jaar 1918. Het was nog niet mogelijk een lijst
samen te stellen van Van Deyssel’s niet in de „Verzamelde Opstellen”
gebundeld jeugd- en later werk: de vele bijdragen in de eerste jaren van zijn
optreden onder allerlei schuilnamen en letters gepubliceerd in „De Dietsche
Warande”, „Weekblad De Amsterdammer”, „De Portefeuille” etc., zijn niet
in deze Bibliographie te vinden.
 30 September 1922.

1 Daar alle oude jaargangen van dit blad eenige jaren geleden verbrand zijn, is het
onmogelijk den juisten datum en titel van dit „ingezonden stuk” (?) op te sporen. ↑
2 30 exemplaren; niet in den handel geweest. ↑
3 550 exemplaren. ↑
4 100 exemplaren. ↑
5 Ingezonden stuk. ↑
6 „Dont la vente aura lieu les 13e, 14e et 15e mai, 1902”. ↑
7 Uebersetzt von Fr. Gundolf. ↑
8 Polemiek. Van Deventer wordt aangevallen door A. de Graaf (De Kroniek II, pag. 12).
Ook Diepenbrock treedt in het strijdperk (pag. 19). De Graaf antwoordt (pag. 29). Van
Deyssel schrijft „Een woord van verklaring” (pag. 35). Van Deventer neemt de pen op
tegen Diepenbrock (pag. 36). Ten slotte De Graaf tegen Diepenbrock (pag. 46). ↑
9 Naar aanleiding van Van der Goes’ vertaling van Bellamy’s „In het jaar 2000” schrijft
Van Deyssel „Gedachte, Kunst, Socialisme” (Nieuwe Gids, Jaarg. VI, I, pag. 249, en
Verzamelde Opstellen, Bund. III, pag. 41). Van der Goes antwoordt met „Over
Socialistische Aesthetiek I”, (Nieuwe Gids, l. c. pag. 369). Van Deyssel publiceert daarop
„Socialisme” (Nieuwe Gids, Jaarg. VII, I, pag. 365, en Verzamelde Opstellen, Bund. III,
pag. 275). Ten slotte Van der Goes met „Socialistische Aesthetiek II” (Nieuwe Gids, Jaarg.
VII, II, pag. 113). ↑
10 Dit polemiekje tusschen Heyermans en Van Deyssel betreffende den roman
„Diamantstad” is later in het voorbericht tot dat boek opgenomen. ↑
11 Naar aanleiding van een anoniem stuk, zie hierna. ↑
12 C. van Nievelt. ↑
13 Antwoordend ingezonden stuk door Van Deyssel (onder opschrift „Een Liefde”) en
repliek door J. H. Rössing: De Lantaarn, 1 Maart 1888. ↑
14 cf. Ingezonden stuk, Weekblad De Amsterdammer, 15 Jan. 1888. ↑
15 Slechts eenige der meer onbekende, doch belangwekkende, niet speciaal over
Alberdingk Thijm geschreven, maar toch hem behandelende beschouwingen, zijn hier
genoemd. ↑
 INHOUD

Vooraf. Bladz. 5
I. Letterkundige beteekenis van Multatuli en zijn werk. Bladz. 11
II. Multatuli en „De Menschen” Bladz. 41
III. Multatuli en de Vrouwen. Bladz.
167
IV. Polemiek. Konkluzie. Bladz.
247
Bibliographie betreffende K. J. L. Alberdingk Thijm door
Benno J. Stokvis. Bladz. I
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Bladzijde Bron Verbetering
9 eventuëel eventueel
25 schìlderschool schilderschool
29 Jufvrouw Juffrouw
34 Saidjah’s Saïdjah’s
37 etiquette étiquette
41 fantasiën fantasieën
45 hotelhouder hôtelhouder
57 [Niet in bron] „
131 schalk schalksch
145 aankwan aankwam
156 , .
163 Jamben Jambes
180 aange-gebeden aangebeden
248 Mejufvrouw Mejuffrouw
IX, X [Niet in bron] ,
XIV , [Verwijderd]
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