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vi • Preface

how OM is integral to all organizations. Interfunctional coordination and decision mak-

ing have become the norm in today’s business environment. Throughout each chapter we
discuss information flow between business functions and the role of each function in the
organization.
The text also illustrates the linkages and integration between the various OM topics. Our
end-of-chapter feature entitled “Within OM: How It All Fits Together” describes how the
chapter topic is related to other OM decisions. It addresses the issue that OM topics are
linked and interdependent, not independent of one another.
As supply chain management (SCM) has taken on an increasingly important role, the
end-of-chapter section titled “The Supply Chain Link” explains the relationships between
the specific chapter topic covered and supply chain management.

3. Help Students to Understand the Concepts

This course remains challenging for students to take and professors to teach. Students
often have no prior exposure to operations concepts and little real business experience.
They have a broad spectrum of quantitative sophistication and often find the math in the
course extremely challenging. Therefore, a chief goal of the text and supplement package is
to help students with these concepts. We begin each chapter with an example from every-
day life, often a consumer or personal example, to help students intuitively understand what
the chapter will be about. Then we explain each concept clearly and carefully, with enough
depth for non-majors. Sustainability in operations is highlighted at the end of each chapter.
The new edition is focused on helping students by offering problem-solving hints and
tips as part of the solution to most examples and solved problems throughout the entire
text. Two unique supplements support student comprehension. A “Quantitative Survival
Guide,” available as an optional supplement packaged with the text, provides “help with
the math” for all chapters. WileyPLUS Learning Space (available on-line via a password in an
optional package with the book) provides plenty of homework practice, feedback for stu-
dents, an e-book, and much more. In addition, algorithmic homework problems have been
designed for each chapter in order to provide unlimited practice opportunity.

Organization and Content of the Book

We have arranged the topics in the book in progressive order from strategic to tactical. Early in
the book we cover operations topics that require a strategic perspective and a cultural change
within the organization, such as supply chain management, total quality management, and
just-in-time systems. Progressively we move to more tactical issues, such as work management,
inventory management, and scheduling concerns. We recognize that most faculty will select the
chapters relevant to their needs. To make it easier for students and faculty, each chapter can
stand alone. Any specific knowledge needed for a chapter is summarized at the beginning of
each chapter, with specific topic and page references for easy review.

Balanced Coverage of Quantitative

and Qualitative Topics
We have tried to find a balance between the quantitative and qualitative treatment and
coverage of OM topics. To meet students’ needs, this text presents the application of OM con-
cepts through the extensive use of practical and relevant business examples. We eliminated
from the printed book coverage of topics less frequently covered at the introductory level.
 Preface • vii

However, complete supplementary chapters on spreadsheet modeling, optimization, mas-

ter production scheduling, rough-cut capacity planning, and waiting line models are avail-
able on the book’s Web site (www.wiley.com/college/reid).

Integrated Technology Perspective

Advances in e-commerce and the Internet are transforming the business environment, and
we integrate these concepts in every chapter. We discuss a range of topics from enterprise
resource planning (ERP) and electronic data interchange (EDI) to quality issues of buying
goods on-line.

Changes to this Edition

We have made a number of changes to this edition in order to make the text as current,
user-friendly, and relevant as possible. In particular we have updated company examples,
technology, big data analytics, and added some supply chain management issues.
Company Examples: Since our last edition we have observed many changes in organi-
zations that we had used as examples. Some companies have gone out of business while
others, such as Amazon.com and Dell Computer Corporation, have changed their strate-
gies. In order to offer the most current text we have made updates in company examples
across all chapters.
Technology: One of the biggest changes we are witnessing relates to changes in technology.
We have updated discussions with regard to the latest technologies that impact operations man-
agement. This includes discussions of 3D Printing, new generation robotics and automation,
and advancements in radio frequency identification (RFID) in Chapter 3.
Big Data Analytics: Big data analytics is having a tremendous impact on digitizing oper-
ations. We have incorporated the latest on big data analytics in Chapters 1 and 3. In Chapter
8 we have added an entire section on predictive analytics and forecasting.
Supply Chain Management Issues: Since our last edition the proposed new shipping facil-
ity in Mexico has been canceled, while the Panama Canal is currently being widened. We discuss
the ramifications on materials being shipped from Asia to the United States in Chapter 4.
In addition, several chapters have been reorganized to facilitate a better flow. During the
past five editions, we have added many new topics. This sixth edition better integrates
those topics into the chapters. We continue to emphasize inter-functional coordination and
decision making, and have updated a number of features as shown below.
Before You Begin. In order to help students when solving quantitative problems, the fea-
ture called “Before You Begin,” placed immediately prior to the solution of most in-chapter
example problems and end-of-chapter solved problems. Emphasizing our focus on strong
pedagogy, this feature provides problem-solving tips and hints that the student should
consider before proceeding to solve the problem.
Supply Chain Link. To emphasize the increasingly important role of supply chain man-
agement, there is a section on supply chain management and expanded coverage of supply
chain and services in every chapter.
Sustainability Link. In order to address the latest challenges facing business, we have
included “The Sustainability Link” feature. This feature discusses how the subject of the
chapter directly ties to today’s sustainability concerns and challenges, providing specific
business examples that illustrate the issues.
 viii • Preface

Problem Solving. While our goal is to provide balanced coverage of quantitative and
qualitative topics, the new edition further emphasizes and integrates problem solving to
help students experience the course more successfully. We provide algorithmic homework
problems for every chapter of the text (via WileyPLUS Learning Space) for unlimited practice
opportunities, include problem-solving help in the book (“Before You Begin”) and on-line
via WileyPLUS Learning Space, and provide step-by-step solved problems in the book and
on-line. We also provide “help with math” as needed via WileyPLUS Learning Space. We
believe that these changes to the new edition greatly enhance student learning.

Features of the Book

c05TotalQualityManagement.indd Page 162 7/10/15 12:07 PM user /208/WB01651/9781118952610/ch05/text_s

We have developed our pedagogical features to implement and reinforce the goals discussed
previously and address the many challenges in this course.

Pedagogy that Provides an Integrated Approach

Chapter Opening Vignettes and Within OM: How
C
IIt All Fits Together To help students intuitively under-
veryone has had experiences of poor quality when dealing with business sstand the topic, each chapter begins with a description of
E organizations. These experiences might involve an airline that has lost
a passenger’s luggage, a dry cleaner that has left clothes wrinkled or
stained, poor course offerings and scheduling at your college, a purchased product
a personal problem that can be solved using the concepts
discussed in the chapter. Our objective is to attract the
d
that is damaged or broken, or a pizza delivery service that is often late or delivers aattention of students by starting with a personal example
the wrong order. The experience of poor quality is exacerbated when employees of
the company either are not empowered to correct quality inadequacies or do not
tto which they can relate. We demonstrate that OM is not
seem willing to do so. We have all encountered service employees who do not seem just about operating a plant or a business, but that it is
ju
to care. The consequences of such an attitude are lost customers and opportunities rrelevant in everything that we do. An end-of-chapter sec-
for competitors to take advantage of the market need.
Successful companies understand the powerful impact customer-defined
ttion titled “Within OM: How It All Fits Together” describes
quality can have on business. For this reason, many competitive firms continually how the chapter topic is related to other OM decisions.
h
increase their quality standards. For example, Ford Motor Company’s focus on qual- IIt emphasizes the point that OM decisions are not made
independently
i of one another, but that they are linked
together and are dependent on one another.
p
Links
L to Practice Other OM texts have many boxes
quality problems. Open discussion is promoted, and criticism is not allowed. Although the
functioning of quality circles is friendly and casual, it is serious business. Quality circles are
and
a sidebars, which make it difficult for students to
not mere “gab sessions.” Rather, they do important work for the company and have been
very successful in many firms.

LINKSTO understand
u what they need to know. Furthermore, the
The importance of excep-
tional quality is demonstrated
PRACTICE
THE WALT DISNEY
many
m examples frequently interrupt the flow of the text
by The Walt Disney Company
in the operation of its theme
COMPANY parks. The focus of the parks is
www.disney.com and
a make a chapter difficult to read and assimilate.
customer satisfaction. This is
© Dennis MacDonald/Alamy

accomplished through metic-

We
W recognize the importance of including “real-world”
ulous attention to every detail,
with particular focus on the
examples,
e but believe they should be integrated into
role of employees in service
delivery. Employees are viewed
the
t stream of the text instead of interrupting the text.
as the most important orga-
nizational resource, and great
Therefore,
T we have developed embedded boxes titled
“Links
“Li k tto P Practice,
ti ” which
hi h provide
id brief
b examples from actual companies in every chapter.
Embedded by both content and design into the general text discussion, each provides a
concise and relevant example without interrupting the flow of the text.
Current textbooks typically do not use business examples to which students can relate.
The typical examples provided are from large corporations such as General Motors, IBM,
or Xerox. Primarily using these types of examples creates the impression for students that
this is a field that is either beyond their reach or irrelevant to their needs. We have found
that students understand the concepts better when these concepts are also presented in a
context that is smaller in scale. The examples chosen range from large multinational organi-
zations to small local businesses.
 Preface • ix
ments of the company. A company cannot achieve high quality if its accounting is inaccu
OM across the Organization and Cross-Func- rate or the marketing department is not working closely with customers. TQM requires the
close cooperation of different functions in order to be successful. In this section we look at
tional Icons Unique to this book is an end-of-chap- the involvement of these other functions in TQM.
Marketing plays a critical role in the TQM process by providing key inputs that make
MKT

ter summary titled “OM across the Organization” that TQM a success. Recall that the goal of TQM is to satisfy customer needs by producing the
exact product that customers want. Marketing’s role is to understand the changing needs
and wants of customers by working closely with them. This requires a solid identification
highlights the relationship between OM and key busi- of target markets and an understanding of whom the product is intended for. Sometimes,
apparently small differences in product features can result in large differences in customer
ness functions, such as accounting, finance, human appeal. Marketing needs to accurately pass customer information along to operations, and
operations needs to include marketing in any planned product changes.
resources, information technology, management, mar- Finance is another major participant in the TQM process because of the great cost con-
FIN
sequences of poor quality. General definitions of quality need to be translated into specific
keting, and purchasing. This section is designed to help dollar terms. This serves as a baseline for monitoring the financial impact of quality efforts
and can be a great motivator. Recall the four costs of quality discussed earlier. The first two
students understand the close relationship of opera- costs, prevention and appraisal, are preventive costs; they are intended to prevent inter-

tions management with other business functions and appreciate the critical
i t th iti l iimpactt OM has h
on other business functions. In addition, a cross-functional icon is used throughout the text
to highlight sections in the text where the relationships between OM and other key business
functions are discussed.
Cases Each chapter ends with four cases that reinforce the issues and topics discussed in
the chapter. The first two cases are within the text, while the other two are on-line cases.
The cases can provide the basis for group discussion or can be assigned as individual exer-
cises for students. Many cases conclude with a list of questions for students to answer.
In addition, each chapter offers a unique interactive learning exercise titled “Internet
Challenge” where students are provided with a short case and given specific Internet assignments.
Interactive Cases There are two Web-based cases
Interactive Case: Virtual Company www.wiley.com/college/reid
for this edition. The first case features an Internet site
On-line Case: Cruise International, Inc. beginning to end. We need your help in bringing ideas
for a simulated cruise company that has hired a student Assignment: Total Quality Management (TQM) at Cruis- together on how to measure quality in a service organi-
ing International, Inc. For this assignment, you will work zation.” This assignment will enhance your knowledge
intern to help solve operations problems. The second again with Meghan Willoughby, Chief Purser aboard of the material in Chapter 5 of your textbook while pre-
the Friendly Seas I. You know the assignment has some- paring you for your future assignments.
case features an Internet site for a simulated consult- thing to do with quality, but you aren’t quite sure what. To access the Web site:
You meet Meghan aboard the ship. She greets you and • Go to www.wiley.com/college/reid
ing company that works in the medical industry that says, “Let me tell you a bit about what you’ll be doing
for us. We’ve been working on quality measures for sev-
• Click Student Companion Site
eral years, and now must focus on quality even more as • Click Virtual Company/Cruise International, Inc.
has hired a student to help solve operations problems. our industry becomes more competitive. We need to • Click Consulting Assignments
make sure that our guests receive quality service from • Click Service Package and Processes at CII
In both cases, the students are given assignments that
require them to use information provided at the book
Web site to develop solutions. These exercises offer students
d h
hands-on d experience in the h
areas of supply chain management, statistical quality control, forecasting, just-in-time,
aggregate planning, inventory management, scheduling, and project management, and help
tie all the topics in the book together in a service environment.

Pedagogy to Help Students Master the Course

Learning Objectives At the beginning of each Learning
chapter, students are provided with a short statement of Objectives
what they need to either know or review from previous After studying this chapter
chapters, referring students to specific topic information. you should be able to:
1 Explain the meaning of total
This enables students to review previous material neces- quality management (TQM).
sary to understand the topic being covered. 2 Identify costs of quality

Before You Go On Sections strategically placed

BEFORE YOU GO ON
within every chapter summarize key material the stu- Today’s concept of quality, called total quality management and external failure costs, which are costs that the company
dent should know before continuing. Often the material (TQM), focuses on building quality into the process, as op-
posed to simply inspecting for poor quality after production.
hopes to prevent. You should understand the evolution of
TQM and the notable individuals who have shaped our knowl-

in chapters can be overwhelming. We felt that breaking TQM is customer driven and encompasses the entire compa-
ny. Before you go on, you should know the four categories of
edge of quality. Last, you should know the seven concepts of
the TQM philosophy: customer focus, continuous improve-
quality costs. These are prevention and appraisal costs, which ment, employee empowerment, use of quality tools, product
up the chapter with a brief summary of key material is are costs that are incurred to prevent poor quality, and internal design, process management, and managing supplier quality.

highly beneficial in aiding learning and comprehension.

Key Terms and Definitions Key terms and concepts are highlighted in boldface when
they are first explained in the text, are defined in the margin next to their discussion in the
text, and are listed at the end of the chapter with page references.
x • Preface

Before You Begin Most example problems within the chapters, and end-of-chapter
solved problems, have a feature called “Before You Begin.” The feature provides students
with problem-solving tips and hints they need to consider before solving the problem. The
purpose is to help students with their problem-solving ability.
SSolved Problems Numerous solved problems are
Solved Problems (See student companion site for Excel template.)

PROBLEM 1 Solution:
pprovided, complete with step-by-step explanations to
An office security system at Delco, Inc. has two compo-
nent parts, both of which must work for the system to
Part 1 Part 2
eensure students understand the process and why the
function. Part 1 has a reliability of 80 percent, and part
2 has a reliability of 98 percent. Compute the reliability
R1 = 0.80 R2 = 0.98
pproblem is solved in a particular way. Where appropri-
of the system.
Before You Begin: Before you begin solving reliability The reliability of the system is
aate, we provide a series of steps for problem solving and
problems, it is best to first draw a diagram of the compo-
t R b th t th t f t i d
Rs = R1 X R2 ooffer problem-solving tips.

Teaching and Learning Resources

Our supporting material has been designed to make learning OM easier for students and
teaching OM easier for faculty.

Book Companion Site www.wiley.com/college/reid

An extensive Web site has been developed in support of Operations Management. The site
is available at www.wiley.com/college/reid, and offers a range of information for instruc-
tors and students.

For Instructors
• Instructor’s Manual: Includes a suggested course outline, teaching tips and strat-
egies, war stories, answers to all end-of-chapter material, brief description of the
additional resources referenced in the Interactive Learning box, additional in-class
exercises, and tips on integrating the theory of constraints.
• Solutions Manual: A complete set of detailed solutions is provided for all problems.
• Virtual Company Cases Instructor’s Materials: Include accompanying Instruc-
tor’s Manual with answers to exercises and Excel solutions.
· Test Bank: A comprehensive Test Bank comprised of approximately 1700 questions
that consist of multiple choice, true-false, essay questions, and open-ended problems
for each chapter. The Test Bank is also available in a computerized version that allows
instructors to customize their exams.
• PowerPoint Lecture Slides: PowerPoint Slides are available for use in class. Full-
color slides highlight key figures from the text as well as many additional lecture out-
lines, concepts, and diagrams. Together, these provide a versatile opportunity to add
high-quality visual support to lectures.
• Operations Management Video Series: The video package, including Wiley’s own
Student OM Videos, offers video selections that tie directly to the theme of operations
management and bring to life many of the examples used in the text. Videos can be
viewed within WileyPLUS Learning Space.
 Preface • xi

For Students
• Supplemental Chapters: The supplement chapters include Supplement A: Spread-
sheet Modeling: An Introduction; Supplement B: Introduction to Optimization; Sup-
plement C: Waiting Line Models; Supplement D: Master Scheduling and Rough-Cut
Capacity Planning.
• Excel Spreadsheets: Templates are provided so that students can model and solve
problems presented in the textbook. A spreadsheet icon appears next to those exam-
ples and problems in the textbook that have an accompanying Excel template avail-
able on the student Web site. Step-by-step directions are provided. Directions prompt
students as they work through each spreadsheet. Expected outcomes and questions
are also given.

WileyPlus Learning Space

What is WileyPLUS Learning Space? It is a place where students can learn, collaborate, and
grow. Through a personalized experience, students create their own study guide while they
interact with course content and work on learning activities.
WileyPLUS Learning Space combines adaptive learning functionality with a dynamic new
e-textbook for your course—giving you tools to quickly organize learning activities, manage
student collaboration, and customize your course so that you have full control over content
as well as the amount of interactivity between students.
You can:
• Assign activities and add your own materials
• Guide students through what is important in the e-textbook by easily assigning specific
content
• Set up and monitor collaborative learning groups
• Assess student engagement
• Benefit from a sophisticated set of reporting and diagnostic tools that give greater
insight into class activity
Learn more at www.wileypluslearningspace.com. If you have questions, please con-
tact your Wiley representative.

Acknowledgments
Operations Management, Sixth Edition, benefits from insights provided by a dedicated group
of operations management educators from around the globe who carefully read and cri-
tiqued draft chapters of this and previous editions. We are pleased to express our apprecia-
tion to the following colleagues for their contributions:
Charles Foley, Columbus State Community College; Nicholas C. Georgantzas, Fordham Uni-
versity Business Schools; Gregory A. Graman, Michigan Technological University; Roger Dean
lles, The University of Memphis; Tony R. Johns, Clarion University of Pennsylvania; Anita Lee-
Post, University of Kentucky; Douglas Schneiderheinze, Lewis and Clark Community College.
Yossi Aviv, Washington University in St. Louis; Kevin Caskey, SUNY New Paltz; Scott T. Crino,
United States Military Academy; Phillip C. Fry, Boise State University; Thomas F. Gattiker,
Boise State University; Christian Grandzol, Bloomsburg University; Samuel Hazen, Tar-
leton State University; James He, Fairfield University; John Jensen, University of Southern
Maine; Mark Kesh, University of Texas at El Paso; Anita Lee-Post, University of Kentucky;
xii • Preface

Winston T. Lin, SUNY Buffalo; Jaideep Motwani, Grand Valley State University; Fariborz
Y. Partovi, Drexel University; Tamara Reid, Seattle University; Dmitriy Shaltayev, Christo-
pher Newport University; Marilyn Smith, Winthrop University; Robert J. Vokurka, Texas A&M
University–Corpus Christi; Pamaela J. Zelbst, Sam Houston State University.
Dennis Agboh, Morgan State University; Karen Eboch, Bowling Green State University; Greg
Graman, Michigan Technological University; GG Hegde, University of Pittsburgh; Seung-Lae
Kim, Drexel University; John Kros, East Carolina University; Anita Lee-Post, University of
Kentucky; David Little, High Point University; Robert Vokurka, Texas A&M University; John
Wang, Montclair State University.
Ajay Aggarwal, Millsaps College; Nezih Altay, University of Richmond; Suad Alway, Chicago
State University; Robert Amundsen, New York Institute of Technology; Gordon Bagot, Califor-
nia State University, Los Angeles; Cliff Barber, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis
Obispo; Hooshang Beheshti, Radford University; Prashanth Bharadwaj, Indiana University of
Pennsylvania; Joe Biggs, California Polytechnic State University; Debra Bishop, Drake Univer-
sity; Vincent Calluzzo, Iona College; James Campbell, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Kevin
Caskey, SUNY New Paltz; Sohail Chaudhry, Villanova University; Chin-Sheng Chen, Florida
International University; Kathy Dhanda, University of Portland; Barb Downey, University of
Missouri–Columbia; Joe Felan, University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Wade Ferguson, Western
Kentucky University; Teresa Friel, Butler University; Daniel Heiser, DePaul University; Lewis
Hofmann, The College of New Jersey; Lisa Houts, California State University, Fullerton; Tony
Inman, Louisiana Tech University; Richard Insinga, SUNY Oneonta; Tim Ireland, Oklahoma
State University; Mehdi Kaighobadi, Florida Atlantic University; Hale Kaynak, The University of
Texas–Pan American; William Coty Keller, St. Josephs College; Robert Kenmore, Keller Grad-
uate School of Management; Jennifer Kohn, Montclair State University; Dennis Krumwiede,
Idaho State University; Kevin Lewis, University of Wyoming; Ardeshir Lohrasbi, University of
Illinois at Springfield; Chris McDermott, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; John Miller, Mer-
cer University; Ajay Mishra, SUNY Binghamton; Ken Murphy, Florida International University;
Abraham Nahm, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire; Len Nass, New Jersey City University;
Joao Neves, The College of New Jersey; Susan Norman, Northern Arizona University; Muham-
mad Obeidat, Southern Polytechnic State University; Barbara Osyk, The University of Akron;
Taeho Park, San Jose State University; Eddy Patuwo, Kent State University; Carl Poch, North-
ern Illinois University; Leonard Presby, William Paterson University; Will Price, University of
the Pacific; Randy Rosenberger, Juniata College; George Schneller, Baruch College–CUNY;
LW Schell, Nicholls State University; Kaushik Sengupta, Hofstra University; William Sherrard,
San Diego State University; Samia Siha, Kennesaw State University; Susan Slotnick, Cleveland
State University; Ramesh Soni, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Ted Stafford, University
of Alabama in Huntsville; Peter Sutanto, Prairie View A&M University; Fataneh Taghabon-
i-Dutta, University of Michigan–Flint; Nabil Tamimi, University of Scranton; John Visich,
Bryant College; Tom Wilder, California State University, Chico; Peter Zhang, Georgia State
University; Faye X. Zhu, Rowan University.
David Alexander, Angelo State University; Stephen L. Allen, Truman State University; Jerry
Allison, University of Central Oklahoma; Suad Alwan, Chicago State University; Tony Arre-
ola-Risa, Texas A&M University; Gordon F. Bagot, California State University–Los Angeles;
Brent Bandy, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Joseph R. Biggs, California Polytechnic State
University at San Luis Obispo; Jean-Marie Bourjolly, Concordia University; Ken Boyer, DePaul
University; Karen L. Brown, Southwest Missouri State University; Linda D. Brown, Middle Ten-
nessee State University; James F. Campbell, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Cem Canel, Uni-
versity of North Carolina at Wilmington; Chin-Sheng Chen, Florida International University;
 Preface • xiii

Louis Chin, Bentley College; Sidhartha R. Das, George Mason University; Greg Dobson, Uni-
versity of Rochester; Ceasar Douglas, Grand Valley State University; Shad Dowlatshahi, Univer-
sity of Missouri–Kansas City; L. Paul Dreyfus, Athens State University; Lisa Ferguson, Hofstra
University; Mark Gershon, Temple University; William Giauque, Brigham Young University;
Greg Graman, Wright State University; Jatinder N.D. Gupta, Ball State University; Peter Haug,
Western Washington University; Daniel Heiser, DePaul University; Ted Helmer, F. Theodore
Helmer and Associates, Inc.; Lew Hofmann, The College of New Jersey; Lisa Houts, California
State University–Fresno; Tim C. Ireland, Oklahoma State University; Peter T. Ittig, University of
Massachusetts–Boston; Jayanth Jayaram, University of Oregon; Robert E. Johnson, University of
Connecticut; Mehdi Kaighobadi, Florida Atlantic University; Yunus Kathawala, Eastern Illinois
University; Basheer Khumawala, University of Houston; Thomas A. Kratzer, Malone College;
Ashok Kumar, Grand Valley State University; Cynthia Lawless, Baylor University; Raymond
P. Lutz, University of Texas at Dallas; Satish Mehra, University of Memphis; Brad C. Meyer,
Drake University; Abdel-Aziz M. Mohamed, California State University–Northridge; Charles
L. Munson, Washington State University; Kenneth E. Murphy, Florida International Univer-
sity; Jay Nathan, St. Johns University; Harvey N. Nye, University of Central Oklahoma; Susan E.
Pariseau, Merrimack College; Carl J. Poch, Northern Illinois University; Claudia H. Pragman,
Minnesota State University; Willard Price, University of the Pacific; Feraidoon Raafat, San
Diego State University; William D. Raffield, University of St. Thomas; Ranga Ramasesh, Texas
Christian University; Paul H. Randolph, Texas Tech University; Robert M. Saltzman, San Fran-
cisco State University; George O. Schneller IV, Baruch College– CUNY; A. Kimbrough Sher-
man, Loyola College in Maryland; William R. Sherrard, San Diego State University; Chwen
Sheu, Kansas State University; Sue Perrott Siferd, Arizona State University; Samia M. Siha,
Kennesaw State University; Natalie Simpson, SUNY Buffalo; Barbara Smith; Niagara College;
Victor E. Sower, Sam Houston State University; Linda L. Stanley, Our Lady of the Lake Univer-
sity; Donna H. Stewart, University of Wisconsin–Stout; Manouchehr Tabatabaei, University
of Tampa; Nabil Tamimi, University of Scranton; Larry Taube, University of North Carolina–
Greensboro; Giri K. Tayi, SUNY Albany; Charles J. Teplitz, University of San Diego; Timothy L.
Urban, The University of Tulsa; Michael L. Vineyard, Memphis State University; John Visich,
University of Houston; Robert Vokurka, Texas A&M University; George Walker, Sam Houston
State University; John Wang, Montclair State University; Theresa Wells, University of Wiscon-
sin–Eau Claire; T.J. Wharton, Oakland University; Barbara Withers, University of San Diego;
Steven A. Yourstone, University of New Mexico.

Special Thanks
We would also like to personally thank and acknowledge the work of our supplements
authors, who worked diligently to create a variety of support materials for both instructors
and students.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Mark Sullivan, AIA, NCARB, of Mark
Sullivan Architects, and Susan O’Hara, RN, MPH, of O’Hara HealthCare Consultants, who
generously contributed a simulation showing the before and after designs of an ambulatory
surgery unit. A working example of the Extend simulation they used to optimize the design
of the renovated facility is available on the Web site.
We would like to offer special acknowledgment to the publishing team at Wiley for their
creativity, talent, and hard work. Their great personalities and team spirit have made work-
ing on the book a pleasure. Special thanks go to Lisé Johnson, Executive Editor; Jennifer
xiv • Preface

Manias, Sponsoring Editor; and Suzie Pfister, Senior Production Editor, for all their efforts.
We could not have done it without you.
Other Wiley staff who contributed to the text and media include: Allison Morris,
Product Design Manager; Tom Nery, Senior Designer; Billy Ray, Senior Photo Editor; and
Amanda Dallas, Market Solutions Assistant.
About the Authors
R. Dan Reid is Associate Professor Emeritus of Operations Nada R. Sanders is Distinguished Professor of Supply
Management at the Whittemore School of Business and Eco- Chain Management at the D’Amore-McKim School of Busi-
nomics at the University of New Hampshire. He holds a Ph.D. ness at Northeastern University. She holds a Ph.D. in Opera-
in Operations Management from The Ohio State University, tions Management from The Ohio State University, an M.B.A.
an M.B.A. from Angelo State University, and a B.A. in Business from The Ohio State University, and a B.S. degree in Mechan-
Management from the University of Maryland. During the ical Engineering from Franklin University. She has taught for
past twenty years, he has taught at The Ohio State University, more than twenty-five years at a variety of academic insti-
Ohio University, Bowling Green State University, Otterbein tutions including The Ohio State University, Wright State
College, and the University of New Hampshire. University, Texas Christian University, and Lehigh University,
Dr. Reid’s research publications have appeared in numer- in addition to lecturing to various industry groups. She has
ous journals such as the Production and Inventory Man- designed and taught classes for undergraduates, graduates,
agement Journal, Mid-American Journal of Business, Cornell and executives on topics such as operations management,
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Hospitality operations strategy, forecasting, and supply chain manage-
Research and Education Journal, Target, and the OM Review. ment. She has received a number of teaching awards and is a
His research interests include manufacturing planning and Fellow of the Decision Sciences Institute.
control systems, quality in services, purchasing, and supply Dr. Sanders has extensive research experience and
chain management. He has worked for, or consulted with, has published in numerous journals such as Decisions
organizations in the telecommunications, consumer elec- Sciences, Journal of Operations Management, Sloan Man-
tronics, defense, hospitality, and capital equipment indus- agement Review, Omega, Interfaces, Journal of Behavioral
tries. Dr. Reid has served as Program Chair and President Decision Making, Journal of Applied Business Research,
of the Northeast Region of the Decision Sciences Institute and Production & Inventory Management Journal. She has
(NEDSI) and as Associate Program Chair and Proceedings authored chapters in books and encyclopedias such as
Editor of the First International DSI Conference, and held the Forecasting Principles Handbook (Kluwer Academic
numerous positions within DSI. He has been the Program Publishers), Encyclopedia of Production and Manufactur-
Chair and Chair of the Operations Management Division of ing Management (Kluwer Academic Publishers), and the
the Academy of Management. Dr. Reid has also served as Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (John
President of the Granite State Chapter of the American Pro- Wiley & Sons). Dr. Sanders has served as Vice President
duction and Inventory Control Society. He has been a board of Decision Sciences Institute (DSI), President of the Mid-
member of the Operations Management Association and west Decision Sciences Institute, and has held numerous
the Manchester Manufacturing Management Center. Dr. other positions within the Institute. In addition to DSI, Dr.
Reid is a past Editor of the OM Review. Sanders is active in the Production Operations Manage-
Dr. Reid has designed and taught courses for undergrad- ment Society (POMS), APICS, INFORMS, Council of Supply
uates, graduates, and executives on topics such as resource Chain Management Professions (CSCMP), and the Inter-
management, manufacturing management, introduction national Institute of Forecasters (IIF). She has served on
to operations management, purchasing management, and review boards and/or as a reviewer for numerous journals
manufacturing planning and control systems. In 2002 Dr. including Decision Sciences, Journal of Business Logistics,
Reid received a University of New Hampshire Excellence in Production Operations Management, International Journal
Teaching Award. of Production Research, Omega, and others. In addition, Dr.
Sanders has worked and/or consulted for companies in
the telecommunications, pharmaceutical, steel, automo-
tive, warehousing, retail, and publishing industries, and is
frequently called upon to serve as an expert witness.

xv
Contents
Preface v CHAPTER 2
Operations Strategy and
About the Authors xv
Competitiveness 28

CHAPTER 1 The Role of Operations Strategy 29

The Importance of Operations
Introduction to Operations Management 1
Strategy 30
What is Operations Management? 2 Developing a Business Strategy 30
Differences between Manufacturing Mission 30
and Service Organizations 5 Environmental Scanning 31
Operations Management Decisions 6 Core Competencies 32
Historical Development 10 Putting It Together 33
Why OM? 10 Developing an Operations
Historical Milestones 10 Strategy 34
The Industrial Revolution 10 Competitive Priorities 35
Scientific Management 12 The Need for Trade-Offs 38
The Human Relations Movement 12 Order Winners and Qualifiers 38
Management Science 13 Translating Competitive Priorities into Production
The Computer Age 13 Requirements 39
Just-in-Time 14 Strategic Role of Technology 40
Total Quality Management 14 Types of Technologies 40
Business Process Reengineering 14 Technology as a Tool for Competitive
Flexibility 14 Advantage 41
Time-Based Competition 15 Productivity 41
Supply Chain Management 15 Measuring Productivity 41
Global Marketplace 16 Interpreting Productivity Measures 44
Sustainability and Green Operations 17 Productivity and Competitiveness 44
Electronic Commerce 17 Productivity and the Service Sector 45
Outsourcing and Flattening of the World 17 Operations Strategy Within OM: How it All
Big Data Analytics 18 Fits Together 45
Today’s OM Environment 18 Operations Strategy Across the
Operations Management in Practice 19 Organization 46
Within OM: How It All Fits THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 46
Together 20 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 47
OM Across the Organization 20 Chapter Highlights 47
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 22 Key Terms 47
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 22 Formula Review 48
Chapter Highlights 23 Solved Problems 48
Key Terms 23 Discussion Questions 49
Discussion Questions 24 Problems 49
CASE: Prime Bank of Massachusetts 50
CASE: Hightone Electronics, Inc. 24
CASE: Boseman Oil and Petroleum
CASE: Creature Care Animal Clinic
(A) 25 (BOP) 51
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 52
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 26
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Demonstrating Your
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Understanding Strategic
Knowledge of OM 26 Differences 52
Selected Bibliography 26 Selected Bibliography 53
 Contents • xvii

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4
Product Design and Process Selection 54 Supply Chain Management 98
Product Design 55 Basic Supply Chains 99
Design of Services versus Goods 55 Components of a Supply Chain for a
The Product Design Process 56 Manufacturer 100
Idea Development 56 A Supply Chain for a Service Organization 102
Product Screening 58 The Bullwhip Effect 104
Preliminary Design and Testing 59 Issues Affecting Supply Chain
Final Design 60 Management 106
Factors Impacting Product Design 60 E-commerce and Supply Chains 106
Design for Manufacture 60 Consumer Expectations and Competition Resulting from
Product Life Cycle 61 E-commerce 108
Concurrent Engineering 62 Globalization 110
Remanufacturing 64 Infrastructure Issues 111
Process Selection 64 Government Regulation and E-commerce 113
Types of Processes 64 Green Supply Chain Management 113
Designing Processes 67 The Role of Purchasing 116
Process Performance Metrics 69 Traditional Purchasing and E-purchasing 116
Linking Product Design and Process Selection 72 Sourcing Decisions 120
Product Design Decisions 72 Insourcing versus Outsourcing Decisions 121
Competitive Priorities 74 Developing Supplier Relationships 123
Facility Layout 74 How Many Suppliers? 124
Product and Service Strategy 76 Developing Partnerships 125
Degree of Vertical Integration 76 Supplier Management Ethics 129
Technology Decisions 77 The Role of Warehouses 130
Information Technology 77 Crossdocking 132
Automation 78 Radio Frequency Identification Technology
E-manufacturing 80 (RFID) 134
Designing Services 82 Third-Party Service Providers 135
How Are Services Different from Implementing Supply Chain
Manufacturing? 82 Management 135
How Are Services Classified? 83 Strategies for Leveraging Supply Chain
The Service Package 84 Management 136
Differing Service Designs 84 Supply Chain Performance Metrics 137
Product Design and Process Selection Supply Chain Management Within OM:
Within OM: How It All Fits How It All Fits Together 139
Together 86 SCM Across the Organization 140
Product Design and Process Selection THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 140
Across the Organization 87 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 140
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 88 Chapter Highlights 141
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 88 Key Terms 142
Chapter Highlights 88 Formula Review 142
Key Terms 89 Solved Problems 142
Formula Review 89 Discussion Questions 144
Solved Problems 90 Problems 144
Discussion Questions 91 CASE: Electronic Personal Heart Rate Monitors Supply
Problems 92 Chain Management Game 145
CASE: Biddy’s Bakery (BB) 94 CASE: Supply Chain Management At Durham
CASE: Creature Care Animal Clinic (B) 95 International Manufacturing Company (DIMCO) 148
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 96 INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 148
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Country Comfort INTERNET CHALLENGE: Global
Furniture 96 Shopping 149
Selected Bibliography 96 Selected Bibliography 149
xviii • Contents

CHAPTER 5 Descriptive Statistics 187

Total Quality Management 151 The Mean 188
The Range and Standard Deviation 188
Defining Quality 152 Distribution of Data 188
Differences between Manufacturing and Service Statistical Process Control Methods 189
Organizations 153 Developing Control Charts 189
Cost of Quality 154 Types of Control Charts 190
The Evolution of Total Quality Management Control Charts for Variables 191
(TQM) 156 Mean (x-Bar) Charts 191
Quality Gurus 156 Range (R) Charts 194
The Philosophy of TQM 160 Using Mean and Range Charts Together 196
Customer Focus 160 Control Charts for Attributes 197
Continuous Improvement 160 p-Charts 198
Employee Empowerment 162 c-Charts 201
Use of Quality Tools 163 Process Capability 203
Product Design 166 Measuring Process Capability 203
Process Management 170 Six Sigma Quality 208
Managing Supplier Quality 171 Acceptance Sampling 210
Quality Awards and Standards 171 Sampling Plans 210
The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Operating Characteristic (OC) Curves 211
(MBNQA) 171 Developing OC Curves 213
The Deming Prize 172 Average Outgoing Quality 214
ISO 9000 Standards 173 Implications for Managers 216
ISO Standards for Sustainability How Much and How Often to Inspect 216
Reporting 174 Where to Inspect 217
Why TQM Efforts Fail 174 Which Tools to Use 217
Total Quality Management (TQM) Within OM: Statistical Quality Control in Services 217
How It All Fits Together 175 Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Within OM:
Total Quality Management (TQM) Across the How It All Fits Together 219
Organization 175 Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Across the
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 176 Organization 219
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 176 THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 220
Chapter Highlights 177 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 220
Key Terms 177 Chapter Highlights 221
Formula Review 178 Key Terms 221
Solved Problems 178 Formula Review 222
Discussion Questions 179 Solved Problems 222
Problems 179 Discussion Questions 227
CASE: Gold Coast Advertising Problems 227
(GCA) 180 CASE: Scharadin Hotels 230
CASE: Delta Plastics, Inc. (A) 181 CASE: Delta Plastics, Inc. (B) 231
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 232
Company 182 INTERNET CHALLENGE: Safe-Air 232
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Snyder Selected Bibliography 233
Bakeries 183
Selected Bibliography 183

CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 6 Just-in-Time and Lean Systems 234
Statistical Quality Control 185
The Philosophy of JIT 235
What Is Statistical Quality Control? 186 Eliminate Waste 235
Sources of Variation: Common and Assignable A Broad View of Operations 236
Causes 187 Simplicity 236
 Contents • xix

Continuous Improvement 236 CHAPTER 8

Visibility 237 Forecasting 267
Flexibility 237
Elements of JIT 237 Principles of Forecasting 268
Just-in-Time Manufacturing 237 Steps in the Forecasting Process 268
Total Quality Management (TQM) 239 Types of Forecasting Methods 269
Respect for People 240 Qualitative Methods 271
Just-in-Time Manufacturing 241 Quantitative Methods 272
The Pull System 241 Time Series Models 272
Kanban Production 241 Forecasting Level or Horizontal
Variations of Kanban Production 243 Pattern 275
Small Lot Sizes and Quick Setups 245 Forecasting Trend 283
Uniform Plant Loading 246 Forecasting Seasonality 286
Flexible Resources 246 Causal Models 289
Facility Layout 247 Linear Regression 289
Total Quality Management 249 Multiple Regression 293
Product versus Process 249 Measuring Forecast Accuracy 293
Quality at the Source 250 Forecast Accuracy Measures 293
Preventive Maintenance 250 Tracking Signal 295
Work Environment 251 Selecting the Right Forecasting
Respect for People 251 Model 296
The Role of Production Forecasting Software 297
Employees 251 Predictive Analytics and Forecasting 298
Lifetime Employment 252 Combining Forecasting 299
The Role of Management 253 Collaborative Planning, Forecasting, and
Supplier Relationships 254 Replenishment (CPFR) 299
Benefits of JIT 255 Forecasting Within OM: How It All Fits
Implementing JIT 256 Together 300
JIT in Services 258 Forecasting Across the
Improved Quality 258 Organization 301
Uniform Facility Loading 258 THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 301
Use of Multifunction Workers 258 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 302
Reductions in Cycle Time 258 Chapter Highlights 302
Minimizing Setup Times and Parallel Key Terms 303
Processing 258 Formula Review 303
Workplace Organization 259 Solved Problems 304
JIT and Lean Systems Within OM: How It Discussion Questions 308
All Fits Together 259 Problems 308
JIT and Lean Systems Across the CASE: Bram-Wear 312
Organization 259 CASE: The Emergency Room (Er) At Northwest
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 260
General (A) 313
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 314
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 260
INTERNET CHALLENGE: On-line Data
Chapter Highlights 261 Access 315
Key Terms 261 Selected Bibliography 315
Formula Review 262
Solved Problems 262
Discussion Questions 262
Problems 263 CHAPTER 9
CASE: Katz Carpeting 263 Capacity Planning and Facility Location 316
CASE: Dixon Audio Systems 265
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 265 Capacity Planning 317
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Truck-Fleet, Why Is Capacity Planning Important? 317
Inc. 266 Measuring Capacity 318
Selected Bibliography 266 Capacity Considerations 320
xx • Contents

Making Capacity Planning Decisions 323 Step 5: Assign Tasks to Workstations

Identify Capacity Requirements 324 (Balance the Line) 374
Develop Capacity Alternatives 325 Step 6: Compute Efficiency, Idle Time, and Balance
Evaluate Capacity Alternatives 325 Delay 375
Decision Trees 325 Other Considerations 376
Location Analysis 328 Group Technology (Cell) Layouts 377
What Is Facility Location? 328 Facility Layout Within OM: How It All
Factors Affecting Location Decisions 329 Fits Together 378
Globalization 331 Facility Layout Across the Organization 378
Making Location Decisions 332 THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 379
Procedure for Making Location Decisions 332 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 379
Procedures for Evaluating Location Alternatives 333 Chapter Highlights 380
Capacity Planning and Facility Location Within Key Terms 380
OM: How It All Fits Together 343 Formula Review 380
Capacity Planning and Facility Location Across Solved Problems 381
the Organization 343 Discussion Questions 383
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 344 Problems 384
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 344 CASE: Sawhill Athletic Club (A) 388
Chapter Highlights 344 CASE: Sawhill Athletic Club (B) 389
Key Terms 345 INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual
Formula Review 345 Company 390
Solved Problems 345 INTERNET CHALLENGE: DJ and Associates,
Discussion Questions 348 Inc. 391
Problems 348 Selected Bibliography 391
CASE: Data Tech, Inc. 351
CASE: The Emergency Room (ER) At Northwest General
(B) 352 CHAPTER 11
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 353
INTERNET CHALLENGE: EDS Office Supplies, Inc. 354
Work System Design 392
Selected Bibliography 354 Work System Design 393
Job Design 393
Job Design 393
CHAPTER 10 Machines or People? 395
Facility Layout 355 Level of Labor Specialization 395
Eliminating Employee Boredom 396
What Is Layout Planning? 356
Team Approaches to Job Design 397
Types of Layouts 356
The Alternative Workplace 398
Process Layouts 356
The Work Environment 400
Product Layouts 358
Methods Analysis 400
Hybrid Layouts 359
Work Measurement 402
Fixed-Position Layouts 359
Developing Standards 404
Designing Process Layouts 360
Developing a Standard Work
Step 1: Gather Information 360
Sampling 411
Step 2: Develop a Block Plan 363
Learning Curve Theory 414
Step 3: Develop a Detailed Layout 366
Compensation 415
Special Cases of Process Layout 366
Group Incentive Plans 417
Warehouse Layouts 366
Incentive Plan Trends 417
Office Layouts 369
Work System Design Within OM: How It
Designing Product Layouts 370
All Fits Together 418
Step 1: Identify Tasks and Their Immediate Predecessors 370
Work System Design Across the
Step 2: Determine Output Rate 372 Organization 418
Step 3: Determine Cycle Time 372
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 419
Step 4: Compute the Theoretical Minimum Number of
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 419
Stations 374
Chapter Highlights 420
 Contents • xxi

Key Terms 421 CHAPTER 13

Formula Review 421 Aggregate Planning 483
Solved Problems 421
Discussion Questions 424 Business Planning 484
Problems 425 Aggregate Planning Options 486
CASE: The Navigator III 428 Demand-Based Options 487
CASE: Northeast State University 428 Capacity-Based Options 488
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 429 Evaluating the Current Situation 489
INTERNET CHALLENGE: E-commerce Job Design 430 Aggregate Plan Strategies 490
Selected Bibliography 430 Level Aggregate Plan 490
Chase Aggregate Plan 491
Hybrid Aggregate Plan 492
CHAPTER 12 Developing the Aggregate Plan 492
Inventory Management 432 Aggregate Plans for Companies with Tangible Products 494
Aggregate Plans for Companies with Nontangible
Basic Inventory Principles 433 Products 497
How Manufacturers Use Inventory 433
Aggregate Planning Within OM: How It All Fits
Inventory in Service Organizations 435 Together 502
Inventory Management Objectives 436 Aggregate Planning Across the Organization 502
Customer Service 436
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 503
Cost-Efficient Operations 437
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 503
Minimum Inventory Investment 438
Relevant Inventory Costs 440 Chapter Highlights 503
ABC Inventory Classification 442 Key Terms 504
Inventory Record Accuracy 445 Solved Problems 504
Determining Order Quantities 446 Discussion Questions 510
Non-mathematical Techniques for Determining Order Problems 511
Quantity 447 CASE: Newmarket International Manufacturing
Mathematical Models for Determining Order Quantity 448 Company (A) 513
CASE: JPC, Inc.: Kitchen Countertops
The Single-Period Inventory Model 459
Manufacturer 514
Why Companies Don’t Always Use the Optimal Order
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 515
Quantity 461
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Cruising 515
How a Company Justifies Smaller Order Quantities 462
Selected Bibliography 516
Determining Safety Stock Levels 463
The Periodic Review System 466
Comparing Continuous Review Systems and Periodic Review
Systems 468 CHAPTER 14
Inventory Management within OM: How It All Resource Planning 517
Fits Together 468
Inventory Management across the Enterprise Resource Planning 518
Organization 469 The Evolution of ERP Systems 520
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 469 The Benefits and Costs of ERP 522
The Benefits of ERP Systems 522
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 470
The Costs of ERP Systems 523
Chapter Highlights 470
Key Terms 471 Material Planning Systems 524
Formula Review 471 An Overview of Material Planning Systems 524
Solved Problems 472 Objectives of MRP 525
Discussion Questions 476 Types of Demand 525
Problems 476 The Operating Logic of MRP 527
CASE: Fabqual Ltd. 480 How MRP Works 532
CASE: Kayaks!Incorporated 480 Action Notices 536
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 481 Comparing Different Lot Size Rules 536
INTERNET CHALLENGE: Community Fund-Raiser Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP) 538
(A) 482 Resource Planning Within OM: How It All Fits
Selected Bibliography 482 Together 540
xxii • Contents

Resource Planning Across the INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 587

Organization 540 INTERNET CHALLENGE: Batter Up 587
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 541 Selected Bibliography 588
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 541
Chapter Highlights 542 CHAPTER 16
Key Terms 542
Project Management 589
Formula Review 543
Solved Problems 543 The Project Life Cycle 590
Discussion Questions 546 Project Management Concepts 591
Problems 547 Step 1: Describe the Project 592
CASE: Newmarket International Manufacturing Step 2: Diagram the Network 593
Company (B) 549 Step 3: Estimate the Project’s Completion Time 595
CASE: Desserts By J.B. 551 Step 3 (a): Deterministic Time Estimates 595
INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 551
Step 3 (b): Probabilistic Time Estimates 598
INTERNET CHALLENGE: The Gourmet
Step 4: Monitor the Project’s Progression 603
Dinner 552
Estimating the Probability of Completion
Selected Bibliography 552
Dates 604
Reducing Project Completion Time 606
Crashing Projects 606
CHAPTER 15 The Critical Chain Approach 609
Adding Safety Time 609
Scheduling 553
Wasting Safety Time 609
Basic Scheduling Concepts 554 Project Management Within OM: How It
Scheduling High-Volume Operations 554 All Fits Together 611
Scheduling Low-Volume Operations 555 Project Management OM Across the
Shop Loading Methods 556 Organization 611
Developing a Schedule of Operations 560 THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 612
Scheduling Performance Measures 561 THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 612
Using Different Priority Rules 564 Chapter Highlights 612
Sequencing Jobs through Two Work Centers 567 Key Terms 613
Optimized Production Technology 569 Formula Review 613
Scheduling Bottlenecks 569 Solved Problems 614
Theory of Constraints 571 Discussion Questions 618
Scheduling Issues for Service Problems 618
Organizations 572 CASE: The Research Office Moves 621
Scheduling Techniques for Service Organizations 572 CASE: Writing A Textbook 622
Scheduling Employees 573 INTERACTIVE CASE: Virtual Company 623
Developing a Workforce Schedule 574 INTERNET CHALLENGE: Creating Memories 623
Scheduling Within OM: Putting It All Selected Bibliography 624
Together 576
Scheduling Across the Organization 576 Appendix A
THE SUPPLY CHAIN LINK 577 Solutions to Odd-Numbered Problems 625
THE SUSTAINABILITY LINK 577
Chapter Highlights 577 Appendix B
Key Terms 578 The Standard Normal Distribution 647
Formula Review 578
Solved Problems 578 Appendix C
Discussion Questions 582
p-Chart 648
Problems 583
CASE: Air Traffic Controller School (ATCS) 586 NAME INDEX 651
CASE: Scheduling At Red, White, And Blue Fireworks
Company 586 SUBJECT INDEX 654
 Contents • xxiii

To view Supplemental Chapters A-D, please visit www. CASE: Exeter Enterprises B25
wiley.com/college/reid or your WileyPLUS Learning Selected Bibliography B26
Space course.
SUPPLEMENT C
SUPPLEMENT A Waiting Line Models C1
Spreadsheet Modeling: An Introduction A1 Elements of Waiting Lines C2
Links to Practice: Waiting for Fast Food C2
What Are Models? A2
The Customer Population C3
The Spreadsheet Modeling Process A3
Evaluating the Spreadsheet Model A4 The Service System C3
Constructing the Model A6 Arrival and Service Patterns C5
Assessing Our Model A8 Waiting Line Priority Rules C5
Using the Model for Analysis A10 Waiting Line Performance Measures C6
Single-Server Waiting Line Model C6
Using Data Tables A13
Multiserver Waiting Line Model C9
Graphing the Model Results A16
Changing Operational Characteristics C12
Multiple-Criteria Decision Making A17
Larger-Scale Waiting Line Systems C13
Relative and Absolute Cell Referencing A19
Waiting Line Models Within OM: How It All Fits
Entering Formulas in the Model A20
Together C14
Useful Spreadsheet Tips A25
Supplement Highlights C14
Important Excel Formulas A25
Key Terms C15
Spreadsheet Modeling Within OM:
How It All Fits Together A27 Formula Review C15
Supplement Highlights A27 Solved Problems C15
Key Terms A28 Discussion Questions C18
Discussion Questions A28 Problems C18
Problems A28 CASE: The Copy Center Holdup C19
CASE: Diet Planning A30
Selected Bibliography C19
Selected Bibliography A31
SUPPLEMENT D
Master Scheduling and Rough-Cut Capacity
SUPPLEMENT B Planning D1
Introduction to Optimization B1
Master Production Scheduling D2
Optimization B2 MPS as a Basis of Communication D2
Algebraic Formulation B3 Objectives of Master Scheduling D3
Examining the Formulation B6 Developing an MPS D4
Spreadsheet Model Development B7 Rough-Cut Capacity Planning D5
Testing the Model B8 Evaluating and Accepting the MPS D8
Solver Basics B8 Using the MPS D9
Setting Up and Running Solver B9 Stabilizing the MPS D12
Solving the Problem B12 Master Production Scheduling and Rough-Cut
Interpreting the Solution B13 Capacity Planning within OM: How It All Fits
Solver Solution Reports B14 Together D14
Outcomes of Linear Programming Problems B16 Supplement Highlights D14
Optimization Within OM: How It All Fits Key Terms D15
Together B17 Formula Review D15
Supplement Highlights B18 Solved Problems D15
Key Terms B18 Discussion Questions D20
Solved Problems B18 Problems D20
Discussion Questions B23 CASE: Newmarket International Manufacturing
Problems B24 Company (C) D22
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 FIG. 243.—METHOD OF SHAPING AND HOLDING LOG FOR QUARTER
SAWING.

Beautifully finished furniture in quartered oak has always excited the

pleasure, and piqued the curiosity of the uninformed as to how this result
is obtained. Fig. 243 illustrates the method of sawing to produce this
effect. The log is simply divided longitudinally into four quarters, and the
quarter sections are then cut by the vertical plane of the saw at an
oblique angle to the sawed sides, which brings to the surface of the
boards the peculiar flecks or patches of the wood’s grain so much
admired when finished and polished.
 FIG. 244.—AUTOMATIC BAND RIP SAW.

The Band Saw is an endless belt of steel having teeth formed along one
edge and traveling continuously around an upper and lower pulley, with
its toothed edge presented to the timber to be cut, as seen in Fig. 244,
which represents a form of band saw made by the J. A. Fay & Egan
Company, of Cincinnati. A form of band saw is found as early as 1808, in
British patent No. 3,105, to Newberry. On March 25, 1834, a French
patent was granted for a band saw to Etiennot, No. 3,397. The first
United States patent for a band saw was granted to B. Barker, January 6,
1836, but it remained for the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century to
give the band saw its prominence in woodworking machines. That it did
not find general application at an earlier period was due to the difficulty
experienced in securely and evenly joining the ends of the band. For
many years the only moderately successful band saws were made in
France, but expert mechanical skill has so mastered the problem that in
recent years the band saw has gone to the very front in wood-sawing
machinery. To-day it is in service in sizes from a delicate filament, used
for scroll sawing and not larger than a baby’s ribbon, to an enormous
steel belt 50 feet in peripheral measurement, and 12 inches wide,
traveling over pulleys 8 feet in diameter, making 500 revolutions per
minute, and tearing its way through logs much too large for any circular
saw, at the rate of nearly two miles a minute. A modern form of such a
saw is seen in Fig. 245. Prescott’s patents, Nos. 368,731 and 369,881, of
1887; 416,012, of 1889, and 472,586 and 478,817, of 1892, represent
some of the important developments in the band saw.

FIG. 245.—MODERN BAND SAW FOR LARGE TIMBER.

When the band saw is applied to cutting logs the backward movement of
the carriage would, if there were any slivers on the cut face of the log, be
liable to force those slivers against the smooth edge of the band saw, and
distort and possibly break it. To obviate this the saw carriage is provided
with a lateral adjustment on the back movement called an “off-set,” so
that the log returns for a new cut out of contact with the saw. Examples
of such off-setting are found in patents to Gowen, No. 383,460, May 29,
1888, and No. 401,945, April 23, 1889, and Hinkley, No. 368,669, August
23, 1887. A modern form of the band saw, however, has teeth on both its
edges, which requires no off-setting mechanism, but cuts in both
directions. An example of this, known as the telescopic band mill, is made
by the Edward P. Allis Company, of Milwaukee.
A saw which planes, as well as severs, is shown in patents to Douglass,
Nos. 431,510, July 1, 1890, and 542,630, July 16, 1895. Steam power
mechanism for operating the knees is shown in patent to Wilkin, No.
317,256, May 5, 1885. Means for quarter sawing in both directions of log
travel are shown in patent to Gray, No. 550,825, December 3, 1895.
Means for operating log turners and log loaders appear in patents to Hill,
No. 496,938, May 9, 1893; No. 466,682, January 5, 1892; No. 526,624,
September 25, 1894, and Kelly, No. 497,098, May 9, 1893. A self cooling
circular saw is found in patent to Jenks, No. 193,004, July 10, 1877;
shingle sawing machines in patents to O’Connor, No. 358,474, March 1,
1887, and No. 292,347, January 22, 1884, and Perkins, No. 380,346, April
3, 1888; and means for severing veneer spirally and dividing it into
completed staves, are shown in patent to Hayne, No. 509,534, November
28, 1893.
Planing Machines.—While the saw plays the initial part of shaping the
rough logs into lumber, it is to the planing machine that the refinements
of woodworking are due. Its rapidly revolving cutter head reduces the
uneven thickness of the lumber to an exact gauge, and simultaneously
imparts the fine smooth surface. The planing machine is organized in
various shapes for different uses. When the cutters are straight and
arranged horizontally, it is a simple planer. When the cutters are short
and arranged to work on the edge of the board they are known as
edgers; when the edges are cut into tongues and grooves it is called a
matching machine; and when the cutters have a curved ornamental
contour it is known as a molding machine, and is used for cutting the
ornamental contour for house trimmings and various ornamental uses.
The planing machine was one of the many woodworking devices invented
by General Bentham. His first machine, British patent No. 1,838, of 1791,
was a reciprocating machine, but in his British patent No. 1,951, of 1793,
he described the rotary form along with a great variety of other
woodworking machinery.
Bramah’s planer, British patent No. 2,652, of 1802, was about the first
planing machine of the Nineteenth Century. It is known as a transverse
planer, the cutters being on the lower surface of a horizontal disc, which
is fixed to a vertical revolving shaft, and overhangs the board passing
beneath it, the cutters revolving in a plane parallel with the upper surface
of the board. The planing machine of Muir, of Glasgow, British patent No.
5,502, of 1827, was designed for making boards for flooring, and
represented a considerable advance in the art.
With the greater wooded areas of America, the rapid growth of the young
republic, and the resourceful spirit of its new civilization, the leading
activities in woodworking machinery were in the second quarter of the
Nineteenth Century transferred to the United States, and a phenomenal
growth in this art ensued. Conspicuous among the early planing machine
patents in the United States was that granted to William Woodworth,
December 27, 1828. This covered broadly the combination of the cutting
cylinders, and rolls for holding the boards against the cutting cylinders,
and also means for tongueing and grooving at one operation. The
revolving cutting cylinder had been used by Bentham thirty-five years
before, and rollers for feeding lumber to circular saws were described in
Hammond’s British patent No. 3,459, of 1811, but Woodworth did not
employ his rolls for feeding, as a rack and pinion were provided for that,
but his rolls had a co-active relation with a planer cylinder, or cutter head,
in holding the board against the tendency of the cutter head to pull the
board toward it. A patent was granted to Woodworth for these two
features in combination, which patent was reissued July 8, 1845, twice
extended, and for a period of twenty-eight years from its first grant,
exerted an oppressive monopoly in this art, since it covered the
combination of the two necessary elements of every practical planer.
Following the Woodworth patent came a host of minor improvements,
among which were the Woodbury patents, extending through the period
of the third quarter of the Nineteenth Century, and prominent among
which is the patent to J. P. Woodbury, No. 138,462, April 20, 1873,
covering broadly a rotary cutter head combined with a yielding pressure
bar to hold the board against the lifting action of the cutter head.
In modern planing machinery the climax of utility is reached in the so-
called universal woodworker. This is the versatile Jack-of-all-work in the
planing mill. It planes flat, moulded, rabbeted, or beaded surfaces; it
saws with both the rip and crosscut action; it cuts tongues and grooves;
makes miters, chamfers, wedges, mortises and tenons, and is the general
utility machine of the shop.
In Fig. 246 is shown a well known form of planing machine. Its work is to
plane the surfaces of boards, and to cut the edges into tongues and
groves, such as are required for flooring. This machine planes boards up
to 24 inches wide and 6 inches thick, and will tongue and grove 14 inches
wide.

FIG. 246.—24-INCH SINGLE SURFACER AND MATCHER.

Wood Turning.—To this ancient art Blanchard added, in 1819, his very
ingenious and important improvement for turning irregular forms. A few
efforts at irregular turning had been made before, but in the arts
generally only circular forms had been turned. With Blanchard’s
improvement, patented January 20, 1820, any irregular form, such as a
shoe-last, gun-stock, ax-handle, wheel-spokes, etc., could be smoothly
and expeditiously turned and finished in any required shape. In the
ordinary lathe the work is revolved rapidly, and the cutting tool is held
stationary, or only slowly shifted in the hand. In the Blanchard lathe the
work is hung in a swinging frame, and turned very slowly to bring its
different sides to the cutting action, and the cutting tool is constructed as
a rapidly revolving disk, against which the work is projected bodily by the
oscillation of the swinging frame, to accommodate the irregularities of the
form. In order to do this automatically, a pattern or model of the article
to be turned was also hung in the swinging frame, and made to slowly
revolve and bear against a pattern wheel, which, acting upon the
swinging frame carrying the work, caused it to advance to or recede from
the cutting disc exactly in proportion to the contour of the model, and
thus cause the revolving cutters to cut the block as it turns synchronously
with the model, to a shape exactly corresponding to said model.

FIG. 247.—BLANCHARD LATHE.

In Fig. 247 is shown a perspective view of Blanchard’s lathe, as patented

January 20, 1820. H is a swinging frame, carrying the model T of a shoe
last, and a roughed-out block U, partly converted into a shoe last. A
sliding frame, fed horizontally by a screw, carries a pattern wheel K, that
bears against the pattern T, and a rotary cutter E, acting against the
roughed-out block U. The revolving disk-shaped cutter E is rotated by a
pulley and belt from a drum, which latter is made long enough to
accommodate the travel of the frame. The pattern T and block U are
advanced to contact respectively, with pattern wheel K and cutter E by
the swinging action of frame H, and as the pattern T and block U are
slowly revolved, the travel of T against K is made to react on frame H and
regulate the advance of U against E, with the result that the rough block
U is cut to the identical shape of the pattern T.
Among modern developments in this art may be mentioned the patents
to Kimball, No. 471,006, March 15, 1892, and No. 498,170, May 23,
1893, the latter showing ingenious means whereby shoe lasts of the
same length, but varying widths, may be turned. A polygonal-form lathe
is shown in patent to Merritt, No. 504,812, September 12, 1893; a
multiple lathe in patents to Albee, No. 429,297, June 3, 1890, and Aram,
No. 550,401, November 26, 1895; a tubular lathe in patent to Lenhart,
No. 355,540, January 4, 1887; and a spiral cutting lathe in patent to
Mackintosh, No. 396,283, January 15, 1889.

FIG. 248.—MORTISING MACHINE.

Mortising Machines have exercised an important influence in mill work in

the joining of the stiles in doors, sashes and blinds, and in the making of
furniture. The Fay & Egan machine is seen in Fig. 248. The self acting
mortising machine was among the numerous early contributions of Gen.
Bentham in woodworking machinery, and was described in his British
patent No. 1,951, of 1793, a number of them having been made by him
for the British Admiralty. Brunel’s mortising machine for making ships’
blocks is another early form described in British patent No. 2,478, of
1801. As representing novel departures in this art, the endless chain
mortising machine shown in Douglas patent, No. 379,566, March 20,
1888, may be mentioned, and reissue patent, No. 10,655, October 27,
1885, to Oppenheimer, and No. 461,666, October 20, 1891, to Charlton,
are examples of mortising augers.
Special Woodworking Machines.—Of these there have been great
numbers and variety. No sooner does an article become extensively used
than a machine is made for turning it out automatically. Indeed,
machines for cheaply turning out articles have, in many cases, led the
way to popular use of the article by the extreme cheapness of its
production.
Among various automatic machines for making special articles may be
mentioned those for making clothes pins, scooping out wood trays,
pointing skewers, dovetailing box blanks, cutting sash stile pockets,
cutting and packing toothpicks, making matches, boxing matches,
duplicating carvings, cutting bungs, cutting corks, making umbrella sticks,
making brush blocks, boring chair legs, screw-driving machines, box
nailing machines, making cigar boxes, nailing baskets, wiring box blanks,
applying slats, gluing boxes, gluing slate frames, making veneers,
bushing mortises, covering piano hammers, making staves and barrels,
making fruit baskets, etc.
It is impossible to give in any brief review a proper conception of the
immensity of the woodworking industry in the United States. It is
estimated in the Patent Office that about 8,000 patents have been
granted for woodworking machines. Besides this there are about 5,000
patents in the separate class of wood sawing, about an equal number for
woodworking tools, and these, with other patented inventions in wood
turning, coopering, or the making of barrels, wheelwrighting, and other
minor classes, give some idea of the activity in this great field of industry.
The exports of wood and wooden manufactures from the United States in
1899 amounted to $41,489,526, of which $15,031,176 were for finished
boards, $4,107,350 for barrels, staves and heads, and $3,571,375 for
household furniture, but this is only an insignificant portion, for with a
prosperous country, an abundance of wood, and a thrifty and ambitious
nation of home builders, the home consumption has been incalculable.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
Metal Working.

Early Iron Furnace—Operations of Lord Dudley, Abraham Darby and Henry Cort—
Neilson’s Hot Blast—Great Blast Furnaces of Modern Times—The Puddling Furnace
—Bessemer Steel and the Converter—Open Hearth Steel—Siemens’ Regenerative
Furnace—Siemens-Martin Process—Armor Plate—Making Horse Shoes—Screws and
Special Machines—Electric Welding, Annealing and Tempering—Coating with Metal—
Metal Founding—Barbed Wire Machines—Making Nails, Pins, etc.—Making Shot—
Alloys—Making Aluminum, and Metallurgy of Rarer Metals—The Cyanide Process—
Electric Concentrator.

ake away iron and steel from the resources of modern life, and the

T whole fabric of civilization disintegrates. The railroad, steam engine

and steamship, the dynamo and electric motor, the telegraph and
telephone, agricultural implements of all sorts, grinding mills,
spinning machines and looms, battleships and firearms, stoves and
furnaces, the printing press, and tools of all sorts—each and every one
would be robbed of its essential basic material, without which it cannot
exist. Steam and electricity may be the heart and soul of the world’s life,
but iron is its great body. King among metals, it gives its name to the
present cycle, as the “Iron Age,” and the Nineteenth Century has crowned
it with such refinements of shape, and endowed it with such attributes of
utility, and such grandeur of estate, that its powers in organized
machinery have, for effective service, risen to all the functions and dignity
of human capacity—except that of thought.
A crude gift of nature, in the mountain side, it remained, however, a
sodden mass until extracted, refined, and wrought into shape by the
genius of man. Yielding to the magical touch of invention, it has been
cast in moulds into cannon, mills, plowshares, and ten thousand articles;
it has been drawn into wire of any fineness and length to form cables for
great suspension bridges; it has been rolled into rails that grill the
continents; into sheets that cover our roofs; and into nails that hold our
houses together. It has been wrought into a softness that lends its
susceptible nature to the influence of magnetism, and has been hardened
into steel to form the sword and cutting tool. From the delicate hair
spring of a watch to the massive armor plate of a battleship, it finds
endless applications, and is nature’s most enduring gift to man—
abundant, cheap, and lasting.
Metallurgy is an ancient art, and the working of gold, silver and copper
dates back to the beginning of history. Being found in a condition of
comparative purity, and needing but little refinement, they were, for that
reason, the first metals fashioned to meet the wants of man. Iron,
somewhat more refractory, appeared later, but it also has an early history,
and is mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible (Genesis iv., 22), in
which reference is made to Tubal Cain as an artificer in brass and iron.
The iron bedstead of Og, King of Bashan, is another reference. That it
was known to the Egyptians and the Greeks at least 1000 B. C., seems
reasonably certain. The Assyrians were also acquainted with iron, as is
clearly established by the explorations of Mr. Layard, whose contributions
to the British Museum of iron articles from the ruins of Ninevah include
saws, picks, hammers, and knives of iron, which are believed to be of a
date not later than 880 B. C.
Iron ore is usually found in the form of an oxide (hematite), and its
reduction to the metallic form consists in displacing the oxygen, which is
effected by mixing carbon in some form with the ore, and subjecting the
mixture to a high heat by means of a blast. The carbon unites with the
oxygen and forms carbonic acid gas, which escapes, while the metallic
iron fuses and runs out at the bottom of the furnace, and when collected
in trough-shaped moulds, is known as pig iron.
 FIG. 249.—PRIMITIVE IRON FURNACE OF HINDOSTAN.

The first iron furnaces were known as air bloomeries, and had no forced
draft. The first step of importance in iron making was the forced blast. An
early form of blast furnace is shown in Fig. 249, which represents an iron
furnace of the Kols, a tribe of iron smelters in Lower Bengal and Orissa.
An inclined tray terminates at its lower end in a furnace inclosure.
Charcoal in the furnace being well ignited, ore and charcoal resting on
the tray are alternately raked into the furnace. The blowers are two
boxes, connected to the furnace by bamboo pipes, and provided with skin
covers, which are alternately depressed by the feet and raised by cords
from the spring poles. Each skin cover has a hole in the middle, which is
stopped by the heel of the workman as the weight of the person is
thrown upon it, and is left open by the withdrawal of the foot as the
cover is raised. The heels of the workman, alternately raised, form
alternately acting valves, and the skin cover, when depressed, acts as a
bellows. The fused metal sinks to a basin in the bottom of the furnace,
and the slag or impurities run off above the level of the basin at the side
of the furnace.
The great modern art of iron working dates from Lord Dudley’s British
patent, No. 18, of 1621, which related to “The mistery, arte, way and
meanes of melting iron owre, and of makeing the same into cast workes
or barrs with seacoales or pittcoales in furnaces with bellowes of as good
condicon as hath bene heretofore made of charcoale.”
The next step of importance after the blast furnace was the substitution
of coke for coal for the reduction of the ore, which was introduced by
Abraham Darby, about 1750.
Next came the conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. This was mainly
the work of Mr. Henry Cort, of Gosport, England, who, in 1783-84,
introduced the processes of puddling and rolling, which were two of the
most important inventions connected with the production of iron since
the employment of the blast furnace. Mr. Cort obtained British patents
No. 1,351, of 1783, and No. 1,420, of 1784, for his invention. His first
patent related to the hammering, welding, and rolling of the iron, while in
his second patent he introduced what is known as the reverberatory
furnace, having a concave bottom, into which the fluid metal is run from
the smelting furnace, and which is converted from brittle cast iron,
containing a certain per cent. of carbon, into wrought iron, which has the
carbon eliminated, and is malleable and tough. This process is called
puddling, and consists in exposing the molten metal to an oxidizing
current of flame and air. The metal boils as the carbon is burned out, and
as it becomes more plastic and stiff it is collected into what are called
blooms, and these are hammered to get rid of the slag, and are reduced
to marketable shape as wrought iron by the process described in his
previous patent. Mr. Cort expended a fortune in developing the iron trade,
and was one of the greatest pioneers in this art.
The first notable development of the Nineteenth Century was the
introduction of the hot air blast in forges and furnaces where bellows or
blowing apparatus was required. This was the invention of J. Beaumont
Neilson, of Glasgow, and was covered by him in British patent No. 5,701
of 1828. This consisted in heating the air blast before admitting it to the
furnace, and it so increased the reduction of refractory ores in the blast
furnace as to permit three or four times the quantity of iron to be
produced with an expenditure of little more than one-third of the fuel.
 FIG. 250.—MODERN HOT BLAST FURNACE.

An illustration of a modern blast furnace plant is given in Fig. 250. A is

the furnace, in which the iron ore and fuel are arranged in alternate
layers. The hot air blast comes in through pipes t at the bottom, called
tuyeres. As gas escapes through the opening b at the top, it is first
cleared of dust in the settler and washer B, and then passes through the
pipe C to the regenerators D D D, where it is made to heat the incoming
air. The gas mixed with some air burns in the regenerators, and, after
heating a mass of brick within the regenerators red hot, escapes by the
underground passageway to the chimney on the right. When the bricks
are sufficiently hot in one of the regenerators, gas is turned off
therefrom, and into another regenerator, and fresh air from pipe H is
passed through the bricks of the heated regenerator, and being heated
passes out pipe F at the top and thence to the pipe G and tuyeres t, to
promote the chemical reactions in the blast furnace.
In the earlier blast furnaces a vast amount of heat was allowed to escape
and was wasted. The utilization of this heat engaged the attention of
Aubertot in France, 1810-14; Teague in England (British patent No.
6,211, of 1832); Budd (British patent No. 10,475, of 1845), and others.
To enable the escaping hot gases to be employed for heating the hot
blast regenerators a charging device is now used, as seen at a in Fig.
250, in which the admission of ore and fuel is regulated by a large conical
valve, and the gases are compelled to pass out at b and be utilized.
Among the world’s largest blast furnaces may be mentioned the Austrian
Alpine Montan Gesellschaft, which concern owns thirty-two furnaces. This
is said to be the largest number owned by any one concern in the world,
but most of them are of small size and run on charcoal iron. The furnaces
of the United States are, however, of the largest yield, and the leading
ones of these are:
No. Annual capacity
Furnaces. in tons.
Carnegie Steel Co. 17 2,200,000
Federal Steel Co. 19 1,900,000
Tennessee Coal and Iron Co. 20 1,307,000
National Steel Co. 12 1,205,000

The present annual output of pig iron in the United States is about ten
million tons, of which these four companies make about one-half.
 FIG. 251.—PUDDLING FURNACE.

When the iron runs from the bottom of the blast furnace it is allowed to
flow into trough-like moulds in the sand of the floor, and forms pig iron.
Pig iron can be remelted and cast into various articles in moulds, but it
cannot be wrought with the hammer, nor rolled into rails or plates, nor
welded on the anvil, because it is still a compound of iron and carbon
with other impurities, and is crystalline in character. To bring it into
wrought iron, which is malleable and ductile, it is puddled and refined,
which involves chiefly the burning out of the carbon and silicon. The pig
iron is remelted (see Fig. 251) in the tray-shaped hearth b from the heat
of the fire in the reverberatory furnace a, the reverberatory furnace being
one in which the materials treated are exposed to the heat of the flame,
but not to contact with the fuel. The hot flame mixed with air beating
down upon the melted iron on hearth b for two hours or so, burns out
the silicon and carbon, the process being facilitated by stirring and
working the mass with tools. During the operation the oxygen of the air
combines with the carbon and forms carbonic acid gas, which, in
escaping from the metal, appears to make it boil. When the iron parts
with its carbon it loses its fluidity and becomes plastic and coherent, and
is formed into balls called blooms. These blooms consist of particles of
nearly pure iron cohering, but retaining still a quantity of slag or vitreous
material, and other impurities, which slag, etc., is worked out while still,
hot by a squeezing, kneading, and hammering process to form wrought
iron that may be worked into any shape between rolls or under the
hammer.

FIG. 252.—BESSEMER CONVERTER

DURING THE “BLOW.”

Bessemer Steel.—Steel is a compound of iron and carbon, standing

between wrought iron and cast iron. Wrought iron has, when pure,
practically no carbon in it, while cast iron has a considerable proportion in
excess of steel. Steel making consists mainly in so treating cast iron as to
get rid of a part of the carbon and other impurities. Of all methods of
steel making, and in fact of all the steps of progress in the art of metal
working, none has been so important and so far reaching in effect as the
Bessemer process: It was invented by Henry Bessemer, of England, in
1855. About fifty British patents were taken by Mr. Bessemer relating to
various improvements in the iron industry, but those representing the
pioneer steps of the so-called Bessemer process are No. 2,321, of 1855;
No. 2,768, of 1855, and No. 356, of 1856. The process is illustrated in
Figs. 252, 253 and 254. The converter in which the process is carried out
is a great bottle-shaped vessel 15 feet high and 9 feet wide, consisting of
an iron shell with a heavy lining of refractory material, capable of holding
eight or more tons of melted iron, and with an open neck at the top
turned to one side. It is mounted on trunnions, and is provided with gear
wheels by which it may be turned on its trunnions, so that it may be
maintained erect, as in Fig. 252, or be turned down to pour out the
contents into the casting ladle, as in Figs. 253 and 254. At the bottom of
the converter there is an air chamber supplied by a pipe leading from one
of the trunnions, which is hollow, and a number of upwardly discharging
air openings or nozzles send streams of air into the molten mass of red
hot cast iron. The red hot cast iron contains more or less carbon and
silicon, and the air uniting with the carbon and silicon burns it out, and in
doing so furnishes the heat for the continuance of the operation. When
the pressure of air is turned into the mass of molten iron a tongue of
flame increasing in brilliancy to an intense white, comes roaring out of
the mouth of the converter, and a violent ebullition takes place within,
and throws sparks and spatters of metal high in the air around, producing
the impression and scenic effect of a volcano in eruption. In fifteen
minutes the volume and brilliancy of the flame diminish, and this
indicates the critical moment of conversion into tough steel, which must
be adjusted to the greatest nicety. When the carbon is sufficiently burned
out the blast is stopped and the converter turned down to receive a
quantity of ferro-manganese or spiegeleisen (a compound of iron
containing manganese), which unites with and removes the sulphur and
oxide of iron, and then the lurid monster, with its breath of fire abated,
and its energy exhausted, bows its head and vomits forth its charge of
boiling steel, to be wrought or cast into ten thousand useful articles.
 FIG. 253.—POURING THE MOLTEN METAL.

FIG. 254.—SIDE VIEW, SHOWING TURNING GEARS.

Like most all valuable inventions, Mr. Bessemer’s claim to priority for the
invention was contested. An American inventor, William Kelly, in an
interference with Mr. Bessemer’s United States patent, successfully
established a claim to the broad idea of forcing air into the red hot cast
iron, and United States patent No. 17,628, June 23, 1857, was granted to
Mr. Kelly. The honor of inventing and introducing a successful process and
apparatus for making steel by this method, however, fairly belongs to Mr.
Bessemer, to whose work was to be added the valuable contribution of
Robert F. Mushet (British patent No. 2,219, of 1856) of adding
spiegeleisen, a triple compound of iron, carbon and manganese, to the
charge in the converter. This step served to regulate the supply of carbon
and eliminate the oxygen, and completed the process of making steel.
The Holly converter, covered by United States patents No. 86,303, and
No. 86,304, January 26, 1869, represented one of the most important
American developments of the Bessemer converter.
The importance of Bessemer steel in its influence upon modern
civilization is everywhere admitted. It has so cheapened steel that it now
competes with iron in price. Practically all railroad rails, iron girders and
beams for buildings, nails, etc., are made from it at a cost of between
one and two cents per pound.
In recognition of the great benefits conferred upon humanity by this
process, Queen Victoria conferred the degree of knighthood upon the
inventor, and his fortune resulting from his invention is estimated to have
grown for some time at the rate of $500,000 a year. In a historical sketch
of the development of his process, delivered by Sir Henry Bessemer in
December, 1896, before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers at
New York, Mr. Bessemer was reported as saying that the annual
production of Bessemer steel in Europe and America amounted to
10,000,000 tons. The production of Bessemer steel in the United States
for 1897 was for ingots and castings 5,475,315 tons, and for railroad rails
1,644,520 tons. The extent to which steel has displaced iron is shown by
the fact that in the same year iron rails to the extent of 2,872 tons only
were made, as compared with more than a million and a half tons of
Bessemer steel.
In the popular vote taken by the Scientific American, July 25, 1896, as to
what invention introduced in the past fifty years had conferred the
greatest benefit upon mankind, Bessemer steel was given the place of
honor.
A recent improvement in the handling of iron from the blast furnace is
shown in Fig. 255. Heretofore, the iron was run in open sand moulds on
the floor and allowed to cool in bars called “pigs,” which were united in a
series to a main body of the flow, called a “sow.” To break the “pigs” from
the “sow,” and handle the iron in transportation, was a very laborious and
expensive work. The illustration shows two series of parallel trough
moulds, each forming an endless belt, running on wheels. The molten
cast iron is poured direct into these moulds, and as they travel along they
pass beneath a body of water, which cools and solidifies the iron into
pigs, and then carries them up an incline and dumps them directly into
the cars.

FIG. 255.—CASTING AND LOADING PIG IRON.

Open Hearth Steel is not so cheap as Bessemer steel, but it is of a finer

and more uniform quality. Bessemer steel is made in a few minutes by
the most energetic, rapid and critical of processes, while the open hearth
steel requires several hours, and its development being thus prolonged it
may be watched and regulated to a greater nicety of result. For railroad
rails and architectural construction Bessemer steel still finds a great field
of usefulness, but for the finest quality of steel, such as is employed in
making steam boilers, tools, armor plate for war vessels, etc., steel made
by the open hearth process is preferred. It consists in the decarburization
of cast iron by fusion with wrought iron, iron sponge, steel scrap, or iron
oxide, in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace heated with gases, the
flame of which assists the reaction, and the subsequent recarburization or
deoxidation of the bath by the addition, at the close of the process, of
spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese. The period of fusion lasts from four to
eight hours. The advantages over the Bessemer process are, a less
expensive plant and the greater duration of the operation, permitting, by
means of sampling, more complete control of the quality of the product
and greater uniformity of result.
The British patents of Siemens, No. 2,861, of 1856; No. 167, of 1861, and
No. 972, of 1863, for regenerative furnaces, and the British patents of
Emile and Pierre Martin, No. 2,031, of 1864; No. 2,137, of 1865, and No.
859, of 1866, represent the so-called Siemens-Martin process, which is
the best known and generally used open hearth process.

FIG. 256.—SIEMENS REGENERATIVE FURNACE.

The Siemens Regenerative Furnace, in which this process is carried out, is

seen in Fig. 256. Four chambers, C, E, E′, C′, are filled with fire brick
loosely stacked with spaces between, in checker-work style. Gas is forced
in the bottom of chamber C, and air in bottom of chamber E, and they
pass up separate flues, G, on the left, and being ignited in chamber D
above, impinge in a flame on the metal in hearth H, the hot gases
passing out flues F on the right, and percolating through and highly
heating the checker-work bricks in chambers E′ and C′. As soon as these
are hot, gas and air are shut off by valves from chambers C and E, and
gas and air admitted to the bottoms of the now hot chambers C′ and E′.
The gas and air now passing up through these chambers C′, E′, become
highly heated, and when burned above the melted iron on hearth H
produce an intense heat. The waste gases now pass down flues G, and
impart their heat to the checker-work bricks in chambers C and E. When
the bricks in E′ C′ become cooled by the passage of gas and air, the
valves are again adjusted to reverse the currents of gas and air, sending
them now through chambers C and E again. In this way the heat
escaping to the smoke stack is stored up in the bricks and utilized to heat
the incoming fuel gases before burning them, thus greatly increasing the
effective energy of the furnace, saving fuel, and keeping the smoke stack
relatively cool.
Armor Plate.—In these late days of struggle for supremacy between the
power of the projectile and the resistance of the battleship, the
production of armor plate has become an interesting and important
industry.
Three methods are employed. One is to roll the massive ingots directly
into plates between tremendous rolls, a single pair of which, such as used
in the Krupp works, are said to weigh in the rough as much as 100,000
pounds. Usually there are three great rollers arranged one above the
other, and automatic tables are provided for raising and lowering the
plates in their passage from one set of rolls to the other. The man in
charge uses a whistle in giving the signals which direct these movements,
and without the help of tongs and levers the glowing blocks move easily
back and forth between the rollers. The men standing on both sides of
the rollers have only to wipe off the plates with brooms and occasionally
turn the plates.
 FIG. 257.—14,000-TON HYDRAULIC PRESS FORGING AN ARMOR PLATE.

The second method utilizes great steam hammers weighing 125 tons,
and striking Titanic blows upon the yielding metal. The most modern
method, however, is by the hydraulic press forge, now used in the shops
of the Bethlehem steel works in the production of Harveyized armor
plate. In Fig. 257 is seen the great 14,000-ton hydraulic press-forge
squeezing into shape a port armor plate for the battleship “Alabama.”
After leaving the forge, the plate is trimmed to shape by the savage bite
of a rotary saw and planer, seen in Figs. 258 and 259, whose insatiable
appetites tear off the steel like famished fiends. The plate is then taken to
be Harveyized by cementation, hardening, and tempering, as seen in
Figs. 260, 261, and 262. The 125-ton mass of metal representing the
plate in the rough, and weighing more than a locomotive, is thus handled
and brought to shape with an ease and dispatch that inspires the
observer with mixed emotions of admiration and awe.
 FIG. 258.—ROTARY SAW, CUTTING HEAVY ARMOR PLATE.

FIG. 259.—ROTARY PLANER, TRIMMING HEAVY ARMOR PLATE.

 FIG. 260.—THE CEMENTATION FURNACE.

FIG. 261.—HARDENING THE PLATE BY JETS OF WATER.

 FIG. 262.—OIL TEMPERING.

Making Horse Shoes.—Anthony’s patent, April 8, 1831; Tolles’, of October

24, 1834, and H. Burden’s, of November 23, 1835, were pioneers in
horse-shoe machines. Mr. Burden took many subsequent patents, and to
him more than any other inventor belongs the credit of introducing
machine-made horse shoes, which greatly cheapened the cost of this
homely, but useful article. Nearly 400 United States patents have been
granted for horse-shoe machines.
Making Screws, Bolts, Nuts, Etc.—Screw-making according to modern
methods began between 1800-1810 with the operations of Maudsley.
Sloan, in 1851, and Harvey, in 1864, made many improvements in
machines, operating upon screw blanks. The gimlet-pointed screw, which
allows the screw to be turned into wood without having a hole bored for
it, was an important advance in the art. It was the invention of Thomas J.
Sloan, patented August 20, 1846, No. 4,704, and was twice re-issued and
extended. In later years the rolling of screws, instead of cutting the
threads by a chasing tool, has attained considerable importance, and
provides a simpler and cheaper method of manufacture. Knowles’ United
States patent of April 1, 1831, re-issued March 1, 1833, described such a
process, while Rogers, in patents No. 370,354, September 20, 1887; No.
408,529, August 6, 1889; No. 430,237, June 17, 1890, and No. 434,809,
August 19, 1890, added such improvement in the process as to make it
practical.
In the great art of metal working the names of Bramah, Whitworth,
Clements and Sellers appear conspicuously in the early part of the
century as inventors of planing, boring and turning machinery for metals.
Our present splendid machine shops, gun shops, locomotive works,
typewriter and bicycle factories, are examples of the wonderful
extensions of this art. In later years the field has been filled so full of
improvements and special machines for special work, that only a brief
citation of a few representative types is possible, and even then selection
becomes a very difficult task. Many special tools, particularly those
designed for bicycle work, have been devised, as exhibited by patent to
Hillman, August 11, 1891, No. 457,718. In turning car wheels, an
improvement consists in bringing the wheel to be dressed into close
proximity to the edge of a rapidly revolving smooth metal disk, whereby
the surface of the wheel is melted away without there being any actual
contact between the wheel surface and the disk. This is shown in patent
to Miltimore, August 24, 1886, No. 347,951. In metal tube manufacture
three processes are worthy of mention: (1) Passing a heated solid rod
endwise between the working faces of two rapidly rotating tapered rolls,
set with their axes at an angle to each other, as shown in Mannesmann’s
patent, April 26, 1887, No. 361,954 and 361,955. (2) Forcing a tube into
a rapidly rotating die, whereby the friction softens the tube, and the
pressure and rotation of the die spin it into a tube of reduced diameter,
shown in patent to Bevington, January 13, 1891, No. 444,721. (3) Placing
a hot ingot in a die and forcing a mandrel through the ingot, thereby
causing it to assume the shape of the interior of the die, and greatly
condensing the metal, shown in patents to Robertson, November 26,
1889, No. 416,014, and Ehrhardt, April 11, 1893, No. 495,245.
In welding, the employment of electricity constitutes the most important
departure. This was introduced by Elihu Thomson, and is covered in his
patents Nos. 347,140 to 347,142, August 10, 1886, and No. 501,546, July
18, 1893. In annealing and tempering, electricity has also been employed
as a means of heating (see patent to Shaw, No. 211,938, February 4,
1879). It supplies an even heat and uniform temperature, and is much
used in producing clock and watch springs. The making of iron castings
malleable by a prolonged baking in a furnace in a bed of metallic oxide
was an important, but early, step. It was the invention of Samuel Lucas,
and is disclosed in his British patent No. 2,767, of 1804.
The Harvey process of making armor plate is an important recent
development in cementation and case hardening, and is covered by his
United States patents No. 376,194, January 10, 1888, and No. 460,262,
September 29, 1891. It consists, see Fig. 260, in embedding the face of
the plate in carbon, protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to
about the melting point of cast iron, and subsequently hardening the
face. The Krupp armor plate, now rated as the best, is made under the
patent to Schmitz and Ehrenzberger, No. 534,178, February 12, 1895.
In coating with metals, the so-called “galvanizing” of iron is an important
art. This was introduced by Craufurd (British patent No. 7,355, of April
29, 1837), and consisted in plunging the iron into a bath of melted zinc
covered with sal ammoniac. In more recent years the tinning of iron has
become an important industry, and machines have been made for
automatically coating the plates and dispensing with hand labor,
examples of which are found in patents No. 220,768, October 21, 1879,
Morewood; No. 329,240, October 27, 1885, Taylor, et al., and No.
426,962, April 29, 1890, Rogers and Player.
In metal founding the employment of chill moulds is an important step.
Where any portion of a casting is subjected to unusual wear, the mould is
formed, opposite that part of the casting, out of metal, instead of sand,
and this metal surface, by rapidly extracting the heat at that point by
virtue of its own conductivity, hardens the metal of the casting at such
point. The casting of car wheels by chill moulds, by which the tread
portion of the wheel was hardened and increased in wearing qualities, is
a good illustration. Important types are found in patents to Wilmington,
No. 85,046, December 15, 1868; Barr, No. 207,794, September 10, 1878,
and Whitney, re-issue patent, No. 10,804, February 1, 1887.
In wire-working great advances have been made in machines for making
barbed wire fences. The French patent to Grassin & Baledans, in 1861, is
the first disclosure of a barbed wire fence. This art began practically,
however, with the United States patent to Glidden and Vaughan for a
barbed wire machine, No. 157,508, December 8, 1874, re-issued March
20, 1877, No. 7,566, and has assumed great proportions. A machine for
making wire net is shown in patent to Scarles, No. 380,664, April 3, 1888,
and wire picket fence machines are shown in patents to Fultz, No.
298,368, May 13, 1884, and Kitselman, No. 356,322, January 18, 1887.
Machines for making wire nails were invented at an early period, but the
product found but little favor until about 1880, when they began to be
extensively used, and have almost entirely supplanted cut nails for certain
classes of work, since their round cross section and lack of taper give
great holding power and avoid cutting the grain of the wood. In 1897 the
wire nails produced in the United States amounted to 8,997,245 kegs of
100 pounds each, which nearly doubled the output of 1896. The output
of cut nails for the same year was 2,106,799 kegs.
The bending of wire to form chains without welding the links has long
been done for watch chains, etc., but in late years the method has
extended to many varieties of heavy chains. The patents to Breul, No.
359,054, March 8, 1887, and No. 467,331, January 19, 1892, are good
examples.
An interesting class of machines, but one impossible of illustration on
account of their complication, are machines for making pins. In earlier
times pins had their heads applied in a separate operation. Making pins
from wire and forming the heads out of the cut sections began in the
Nineteenth Century with Hunt’s British patent No. 4,129, of 1817. This art
received its greatest impetus, however, under Wright’s British patent No.
4,955, of 1824. A paper of pins containing a pin for every day in the year,
and costing but a few cents, gives no idea to the purchaser of the time,
thought and capital expended in machines for making them, and yet
were it not for such machines, rapidly cutting coils of wire into lengths,
pointing and heading the pins, and sticking them into papers, the world
would be deprived of one of its most ubiquitous and useful articles. Many
tons of pins are made in the United States weekly, and it is said that
20,000,000 pins a day are required to meet the demand.
In the metal working art the making of firearms and projectiles has
grown to wonderful proportions. Cutlery and builders’ hardware is an
enormous branch; wire-drawing, sheet metal-making, forging, and the
making of tools, springs, tin cans, needles, hooks and eyes, nails and
tacks, and a thousand minor articles, have grown to such proportions
that only a bird’s-eye view of the art is possible.
In the making of shot, the old method was to pour the melted metal
through a sieve, and allow it to drop from a tower 180 feet or more in
height. David Smith’s patent, No. 6,460, May 22, 1849, provided an
ascending current of air through which the metal dropped, and which, by
cooling the shot by retarding its fall and bringing a greater number of air
particles in contact with them, avoided the necessity of such high towers.
In 1868, Glasgow and Wood patented a process of dropping the shot
through a column of glycerine or oil. Still another method is to allow the
melted metal to fall on a revolving disk, which divides it into drops by
centrifugal action.
Alloys.—Over 300 United States patents have been granted for various
alloys of metals. The so-called babbit metal was patented in the United
States by Isaac Babbit, July 17, 1839, and in England, May 15, 1843, No.
9,724. This consists of an antifriction compound of tin, 10 parts, copper, 1
part, and antimony, 1 part, and is specially adapted for the lubricated
bearings of machinery. Phosphor bronze, introduced in 1871, combines
80 to 92 parts copper, 7 of tin, and 1 of phosphorus (see United States
patents to Lavroff, No. 118,372, August 22, 1871, and Levi and Kunzel,
No. 115,220, May 23, 1871). The addition of phosphorus promotes the
fluidity of the metal and makes very clean, fine and strong castings. In
alloys of iron, chromium steel is covered by patents to Baur, No. 49,495,
August 22, 1865; No. 99,624, February 8, 1870, and No. 123,443,
February 6, 1872; manganese steel, by Hadfield’s patent, No. 303,150,
August 5, 1884; aluminum steel, by Wittenström’s patent, No. 333,373,
December 29, 1885, and phosphorus steel, by Kunkel’s patent, No.
182,371, September 19, 1876. The most recent and perhaps most
important, however, is nickel steel, used in making armor for battleships.
This is covered by Schneider’s patents, Nos. 415,655, and 415,657,
November 19, 1889.
In 1878 England led the world in the iron industry with a production of
6,381,051 tons of pig iron, as compared with 2,301,215 tons by the
United States. In 1897 the United States leads the world in the following
ratios:

Tons Tons
Pig Iron. Steel.
United States 9,652,680 7,156,957
 Great Britain 8,789,455 4,585,961
Germany 6,879,541 4,796,226
France 2,472,143 1,312,000

The United States made in that year 29.30 per cent. of the world’s
production of pig iron, and 34.58 per cent. of its steel. The total output of
the whole world in that year was 32,937,490 tons pig iron, and
20,696,787 tons of steel.
Metallurgy of Rarer Metals.—Although less in evidence than iron, this has
engaged the attention of the scientist from the earliest years of the
century. The full list of metals discovered since 1800 may be found under
“Chemistry.” The more important only are here given. Palladium and
rhodium were reduced by Wollaston in 1804. Potassium and sodium were
first separated in metallic form by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1807, through
the agency of the voltaic arc; barium, strontium, calcium and boron by
the same scientist in 1808; iodine by Courtois in 1811; selenium by
Berzelius in 1817; cadmium by Stromeyer in 1817; silicon by Berzelius in
1823, and bromium by Balard in 1826. Magnesium was first prepared by
Bussey in 1829. Aluminum was first separated in 1828 by Wohler, by
decomposing the chloride by means of potassium. Oersted, in 1827,
preceded him with important preliminary steps, and Deville, in 1854,
followed in the first commercial applications. In late years the metallurgy
of aluminum has made great advances. The Cowles process heats to
incandescence by the electric current a mixture of alumina, carbon and
copper, the reduced aluminum alloying with the copper. This process is
covered by United States patents to Cowles and Cowles, No. 319,795,
June 9. 1885, and Nos. 324,658 and 324,659, August 18, 1885. It has,
however, for the most parts been superseded by the process patented by
Hall, April 2, 1889, No. 400,766, in which alumina dissolved in fused
cryolite is electrically decomposed.
In the metallurgy of the precious metals probably the most important
step has been the cyanide process of obtaining gold and silver. In 1806 it
was known that gold was soluble in a solution of cyanide of potassium. In
1844 L. Elsner published investigations along this line, and demonstrated
that the solution took place only in the presence of oxygen. McArthur and
Forrest perfected the process for commercial application, and it is now
extensively used in the Transvaal and elsewhere. It is covered by their
British patent, No. 14,174, of 1887, and United States patents No.
403,202, May 14, 1889, and No. 418,137, December 24, 1889, which
describe the application of dilute solutions of cyanide of potassium, not
exceeding 8 parts cyanogen to 1,000 parts of water: the use of zinc in a
fine state of division to precipitate the gold out of solution, and the
preparatory treatment of the partially oxidized ores with an alkali or salts
of an alkali. By this solution-process gold, in the finest state of
subdivision, which could not be extracted by other processes from the
earthy matters, may be recovered and saved in a simple, practical and
cheap way.

FIG. 263.—EDISON MAGNETIC CONCENTRATING WORKS. THE

GIANT CRUSHING ROLLS.
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