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Higher Order Finite Element Methods With CDROM
Pavel Solin Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Pavel Solin, Karel Segeth, Ivo Dolezel
ISBN(s): 9781584884385, 158488438X
Edition: Har/Cdr
File Details: PDF, 6.27 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
 Higher-Order
Finite Element
Methods

ˇ ´ Rice University, Houston, Texas

PAVEL SOLIN,
KAREL SEGETH, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague
ˇ
IVO DOLEZEL, Czech Technical University, Prague

CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC

A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Studies in Advanced Mathematics

Titles Included in the Series

John P. D’Angelo, Several Complex Variables and the Geometry of Real Hypersurfaces
Steven R. Bell, The Cauchy Transform, Potential Theory, and Conformal Mapping
John J. Benedetto, Harmonic Analysis and Applications
John J. Benedetto and Michael W. Frazier, Wavelets: Mathematics and Applications
Albert Boggess, CR Manifolds and the Tangential Cauchy–Riemann Complex
Goong Chen and Jianxin Zhou, Vibration and Damping in Distributed Systems
Vol. 1: Analysis, Estimation, Attenuation, and Design
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Carl C. Cowen and Barbara D. MacCluer, Composition Operators on Spaces of Analytic Functions
Jewgeni H. Dshalalow, Real Analysis: An Introduction to the Theory of Real Functions and Integration
Dean G. Duffy, Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Dean G. Duffy, Green’s Functions with Applications
Lawrence C. Evans and Ronald F. Gariepy, Measure Theory and Fine Properties of Functions
Gerald B. Folland, A Course in Abstract Harmonic Analysis
José García-Cuerva, Eugenio Hernández, Fernando Soria, and José-Luis Torrea,
Fourier Analysis and Partial Differential Equations
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Peter B. Gilkey, Invariance Theory, the Heat Equation, and the Atiyah-Singer Index Theorem,
2nd Edition
Peter B. Gilkey, John V. Leahy, and Jeonghueong Park, Spectral Geometry, Riemannian Submersions,
and the Gromov-Lawson Conjecture
Alfred Gray, Modern Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces with Mathematica, 2nd Edition
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Steven G. Krantz, The Elements of Advanced Mathematics, Second Edition
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Steven G. Krantz, Real Analysis and Foundations
Steven G. Krantz, Handbook of Typography for the Mathematical Sciences
Kenneth L. Kuttler, Modern Analysis
Michael Pedersen, Functional Analysis in Applied Mathematics and Engineering
Clark Robinson, Dynamical Systems: Stability, Symbolic Dynamics, and Chaos, 2nd Edition
John Ryan, Clifford Algebras in Analysis and Related Topics
Xavier Saint Raymond, Elementary Introduction to the Theory of Pseudodifferential Operators
John Scherk, Algebra: A Computational Introduction
Pavel Šolín, Karel Segeth, and Ivo Doležel, High-Order Finite Element Method
Robert Strichartz, A Guide to Distribution Theory and Fourier Transforms
André Unterberger and Harald Upmeier, Pseudodifferential Analysis on Symmetric Cones
James S. Walker, Fast Fourier Transforms, 2nd Edition
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ÿ
Solín, Pavel.
ÿ
Higher-order Þnite element methods / Pavel Solín, ÿ .
Karel Segeth, Ivo Dolezel
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58488-438-X
ÿ Ivo. III. Title. IV. Series.
1. Finite element method. I. Segeth, Karel. II. Dolezel,

TA347.F5+.S68 2003
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Printed on acid-free paper
We dedicate this book to the memory of Prof. Jindrich Necas (December 14,
1929 { December 5, 2002), an outstanding Czech mathematician and a world-
renowned authority in the eld of partial di erential equations and modern
functional analysis.
Prof. Jindrich Necas contributed substantially to the development of
modern functional analytic methods of solution to elliptic partial di eren-
tial equations in his famous monograph Les methodes directes en theorie des
equations elliptiques (1967). He followed the modern Italian and French school
and enhanced it with important results, for example, by a new \algebraic"
proof of general inequalities of Korn's type and generalized regularity results.
A few years later, in 1973, he published with collaborators the monograph
Spectral Analysis of Nonlinear Operators, which aroused great interest. Prof.
Necas was always intrigued by the problem of regularity of solutions. Out-
standing results in this eld appeared in his book Introduction to the Theory
of Nonlinear Elliptic Equations (1983, 1986).
From the very beginning Prof. Necas devoted great e ort to applications
in mathematical physics and engineering. In 1967 he established a semi-
nar on problems of continuum mechanics that continues to the present day.
From this seminar came the monographs Mathematical Theory of Elastic and
Elastoplastic Bodies: An Introduction (1981, 1983) and Solution of Variational
Inequalities in Mechanics (1982). The latter book was translated into Rus-
sian (1986) and English (1988). Both these monographs also were directed
toward numerical methods of solution based on the nite element method.
This prompted P. G. Ciarlet and J. L. Lions to invite Prof. Necas to write an
article, \Numerical Methods for Unilateral Problems in Solid Mechanics," for
their Handbook of Numerical Analysis (1996).
During the last two decades of his life Prof. Necas' eld of interest changed
from solid to uid mechanics, in particular to problems of transsonic ow.
Using the method of entropic compacti cation and the method of viscosity, he

achieved remarkable results that he published in his monograph Ecoulements
de uide: Compacite par entropie (1989). Recent results of Prof. Necas and
his collaborators have been collected in the book Weak and Measure Valued
Solutions to Evolutionary PDE's (1996).
Besides the above-mentioned monographs, Prof. Necas initiated and pub-
lished more than 180 papers in outstanding mathematical journals and con-
ference proceedings.
An excellent teacher, Prof. Necas in uenced many students and colleagues
with his never-ending enthusiasm. He organized lectures, seminars and two
series of summer schools, and guided many students on the way to their diplo-
mas and Ph.D. theses. They all will remember him with gratitude.
 n and K. Segeth were, at di erent times, students of J. Necas.
Both P. Sol

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Preface

The nite element method is one of the most popular tools for the numerical
solution of engineering problems formulated in terms of partial di erential
equations. The latest developments in this eld indicate that its future lies in
adaptive higher-order methods, which successfully respond to the increasing
complexity of engineering simulations and satisfy the overall trend of simul-
taneous resolution of phenomena with multiple scales.
Among various adaptive strategies for nite elements, the best results can
be achieved using goal-oriented hp-adaptivity. Goal-oriented adaptivity is
based on adaptation of the nite element mesh with the aim of improving
the resolution of a speci c quantity of interest (instead of minimizing the er-
ror of the approximation in some global norm), and hp-adaptivity is based
on the combination of spatial re nements (h-adaptivity) with simultaneous
variation of the polynomial order of approximation (p-adaptivity). There
are nonacademic examples where the goal-oriented hp-adaptivity turned out
to be the only way to resolve the problem on a required level of accuracy
(see, e.g., [185]). Automatic hp-adaptivity belongs to the most advanced top-
ics in the higher-order nite element technology and it is subject to active
ongoing research. We refer the reader to works by Demkowicz et al. (see
[162, 64, 62, 8, 122, 149, 172, 191] and references therein). The goal of this
book is more modest { we present the basic principles of higher-order nite
element methods and the technology of conforming discretizations based on
hierarchic elements in spaces H 1 , H (curl) and H (div). An example of an ef-
cient and robust strategy for automatic goal-oriented hp-adaptivity is given
in Chapter 6.
In the introductory Chapter 1 we review the aforementioned function spaces
and their basic properties, de ne unisolvency of nite elements, formulate con-
formity requirements for nite elements in these spaces, introduce the basic
steps in the nite element procedure, and present several families of orthogo-
nal polynomials. Section 1.3 is devoted to the solution of a one-dimensional
model problem on a mesh consisting of elements of arbitrary polynomial or-
der. The technical simplicity of the one-dimensional case gives the reader
the opportunity to encounter all the important features of higher-order nite
element discretization at the same time.
A database of scalar and vector-valued hierarchic master elements of ar-
bitrary order on the most commonly used reference domains in 2D and 3D
is provided in Chapter 2. This chapter contains many formulae of higher-
order shape functions and is intended for reference rather than for systematic

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC vii

viii
reading. Chapter 3 discusses the basic principles of higher-order nite element
methods in two and three spatial dimensions that the reader was rst exposed
to in Section 1.3. We begin with generalizing the standard nodal interpola-
tion to higher-order hierarchic elements, and describe the design of reference
maps based on the trans nite interpolation technique as well as their polyno-
mial isoparametric approximation. We discuss an approach to the treatment
of constrained approximations (approximations comprising \hanging nodes")
and mention selected software-technical aspects at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 4 is devoted to higher-order numerical quadrature in two and three
spatial dimensions. Numerical quadrature lies at the heart of higher-order -
nite element codes and its proper implementation is crucial for their optimal
performance. In particular the construction of integration points and weights
for higher-order Gaussian numerical quadrature is not at all trivial, since they
are not unique and the question of their optimal selection is extremely diÆ-
cult. For illustration, each newly explored order of accuracy usually means
a new paper in a journal of the numerical quadrature community. Tables of
integration points and weights for all reference domains up to the order of
accuracy p = 20 are available on the CD-ROM that accompanies this book.
Chapter 5 addresses the numerical solution of algebraic and ordinary diffe-
rential equations resulting from the nite element discretization. We present
an overview of contemporary direct and iterative methods for the solution of
large systems of linear algebraic equations (such as matrix factorization, pre-
conditioning by classical and block-iterative methods, multigrid techniques),
and higher-order one-step and multistep schemes for evolutionary problems.
Chapter 6 presents several approaches to automatic mesh optimization and
automatic h-, p- and hp-adaptivity based on the concept of reference solutions.
Reference solutions are approximations of the exact solution that are sub-
stantially more accurate than the nite element approximation itself. We use
reference solutions as robust error indicators to guide the adaptive strategies.
We also nd it useful to recall the basic principles of goal-oriented adaptivity
and show the way goal-oriented adaptivity can be incorporated into standard
adaptive schemes. The mathematical aspects are combined with intuitive ex-
planation and illustrated with many examples and gures.
We assume that the reader has some experience with the nite element
method { say that he/she can solve the Poisson equation ( 4u = f ) in two
spatial dimensions using piecewise-linear elements on a triangular mesh. Since
it is our goal to make the book readable for both engineers and applied re-
searchers, we attempt to avoid unnecessarily speci c mathematical language
whenever possible. Usually we prefer giving references to more diÆcult proofs
rather than including them in the text. A somewhat deeper knowledge of
mathematics (such as Sobolev spaces, embedding theorems, basic inequali-
ties, etc.) is necessary to understand the theoretical results that accompany
some of the nite element algorithms, but some of these can be skipped if the
reader is interested only in implementation issues.

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

 ix

The rst author is indebted to Prof. Leszek Demkowicz (ICES, The Univer-
sity of Texas at Austin) for many motivating discussions on theoretical issues
related to the De Rham diagram, theory of higher-order nite elements and
automatic hp-adaptivity. He further gratefully acknowledges the numerous
suggestions of Prof. Jan Hesthaven (Division of Applied Mathematics, Brown
University, Providence, RI), who despite his many other duties found time
to read the whole manuscript. Especially noteworthy have been the ideas of
Dr. Fabio Nobile (ICES, The University of Texas at Austin), who signi -
cantly in uenced the structure of the rst chapter. Deep appreciation goes to
graduate student Denis Ridzal (Department of Computational and Applied
Mathematics, Rice University, Houston, TX), who gave freely of his time in
investigating the conditioning properties of higher-order shape functions for
various types of nite elements in one and two spatial dimensions.
The authors would like to thank Prof. Ronald Cools (Departement Com-
puterwetenschappen, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium) for providing
them with valuable information related to higher-order numerical quadra-
ture and for his help with the review of Chapter 4. Many thanks are owed
to Jan Haskovec (Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University,
Prague, Czech Republic), Dr. Petr Kloucek (Department of Computational
and Applied Mathematics, Rice University, Houston, TX), Dr. Dalibor Lukas
(Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic), Dr. Andreas Obereder (In-
stitute of Industrial Mathematics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria),
Dr. Tomas Vejchodsky (Mathematical Institute of the Academy of Sciences
of the Czech Republic, Prague), and Martin Ztka (Faculty of Mathematics
and Physics, Charles University, Prague) for their invaluable help with the
review of the manuscript.
The authors would also like to thank Dr. Sunil Nair, Helena Redshaw, Jas-
min Naim and Christine Andreasen (Chapman & Hall/CRC Press) for their
friendly and eÆcient assistance during the nal stage of the publishing process.
The work of the rst author was sponsored partially by the Grant Agency
of the Czech Republic under grants GP102/01/D114 and 102/01/0184, and
partially by the TICAM Postdoctoral Fellowship Award. Several results from
TICAM Reports No. 02-32 and No. 02-36 are included. The second and
third authors acknowledge partial nancial support of the Grant Agency of
the Czech Republic under grants 201/01/1200 and 102/01/0184.

Our e orts could never have been successful without the understanding, pa-
tience and support of our families, for which we are deeply grateful.

Houston and Praha, March 2003 P. Soln, K. Segeth, I. Dolezel

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Finite elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Function spaces H 1 , H (curl) and H (div) . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Unisolvency of nite elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Finite element mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.4 Finite element interpolants and conformity . . . . . . 8
1.1.5 Reference domains and reference maps . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.6 Finite element discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.7 Method of lines for evolutionary problems . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Orthogonal polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 The family of Jacobi polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.2 Legendre polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.3 Lobatto shape functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.4 Kernel functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.5 Horner's algorithm for higher-order polynomials . . . 27
1.3 A one-dimensional example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.1 Continuous and discrete problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.2 Transformation to reference domain . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3 Higher-order shape functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.4 Design of basis functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.5 Sparsity structure and connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.3.6 Assembling algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.3.7 Compressed representation of sparse matrices . . . . . 42
2 Hierarchic master elements of arbitrary order 43
2.1 De Rham diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 H 1 -conforming approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.1 One-dimensional master element Ka1 . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.2 Quadrilateral master element Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.3 Triangular master element Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.4 Brick master element KB1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2.5 Tetrahedral master element KT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2.6 Prismatic master element KP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3 H (curl)-conforming approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.3.1 De Rham diagram and nite elements in H (curl) . . . 79
2.3.2 Quadrilateral master element Kqcurl . . . . . . . . . . . 80

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC xi

xii
2.3.3 Triangular master element Ktcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.3.4 Brick master element KBcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.3.5 Tetrahedral master element KTcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.3.6 Prismatic master element KPcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.4 H (div)-conforming approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.4.1 De Rham diagram and nite elements in H (div) . . . 105
2.4.2 Quadrilateral master element Kqdiv . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.4.3 Triangular master element Ktdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.4.4 Brick master element KBdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.4.5 Tetrahedral master element KTdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.4.6 Prismatic master element KPdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.5 L2-conforming approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5.1 De Rham diagram and nite elements in L2 . . . . . . 121
2.5.2 Master elements for L2-conforming approximations . . 121
3 Higher-order nite element discretization 125
3.1 Projection-based interpolation on reference domains . . . . . 125
3.1.1 H 1 -conforming elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.1.2 H (curl)-conforming elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.1.3 H (div)-conforming elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.2 Trans nite interpolation revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.2.1 Projectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.2.2 Bipolynomial Lagrange interpolation . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2.3 Trans nite bivariate Lagrange interpolation . . . . . . 147
3.3 Construction of reference maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.3.1 Mapping (curved) quad elements onto Kq . . . . . . . 148
3.3.2 Mapping (curved) triangular elements onto Kt . . . . 152
3.3.3 Mapping (curved) brick elements onto KB . . . . . . . 153
3.3.4 Mapping (curved) tetrahedral elements onto KT . . . 155
3.3.5 Mapping (curved) prismatic elements onto KP . . . . 157
3.3.6 Isoparametric approximation of reference maps . . . . 158
3.3.7 Simplest case { lowest-order reference maps . . . . . . 159
3.3.8 Inversion of reference maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.4 Projection-based interpolation on physical mesh elements . . 161
3.5 Technology of discretization in two and three dimensions . . 163
3.5.1 Outline of the procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.5.2 Orientation of master element edge and face functions 164
3.5.3 Transformation of master element polynomial spaces . 172
3.5.4 Design of global basis functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.5.5 Minimum rules for higher-order FE discretizations . . 183
3.5.6 Enumeration of functions and connectivity arrays . . . 184
3.5.7 Variational formulation on the reference domain . . . 185
3.5.8 Local and global assembling procedures . . . . . . . . 187
3.5.9 Static condensation of internal DOF . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.6 Constrained approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

 xiii
3.6.1 Continuous constrained approximation in 2D . . . . . 194
3.6.2 Vector-valued constrained approximation in 2D . . . . 200
3.6.3 Continuous constrained approximation in 3D . . . . . 203
3.6.4 Vector-valued constrained approximation in 3D . . . . 212
3.7 Selected software-technical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.7.1 Data structure for hp-adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.7.2 One-irregular mesh division algorithms . . . . . . . . . 215
4 Higher-order numerical quadrature 217
4.1 One-dimensional reference domain Ka . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.1.1 Newton-Cotes quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.1.2 Chebyshev quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.1.3 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.1.4 Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.2 Reference quadrilateral Kq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.1 Composite Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.2 Economical Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.3 Tables of Gauss quadrature points and weights . . . . 232
4.3 Reference triangle Kt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.3.1 Translation of quadrature to the ref. quadrilateral Kq 234
4.3.2 Newton-Cotes quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3.3 Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3.4 Tables of Gauss integration points and weights . . . . 237
4.4 Reference brick KB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.4.1 Composite Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.4.2 Economical Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.4.3 Tables of Gauss integration points and weights . . . . 241
4.5 Reference tetrahedron KT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.5.1 Translation of quadrature to the reference brick KB . 243
4.5.2 Economical Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.5.3 Tables of Gauss integration points and weights . . . . 246
4.6 Reference prism KP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.6.1 Composite Gauss quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5 Numerical solution of nite element equations 251
5.1 Direct methods for linear algebraic equations . . . . . . . . . 252
5.1.1 Gaussian elimination and matrix factorization . . . . . 252
5.1.2 Banded systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.1.3 General sparse systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.1.4 Fast methods for special systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.2 Iterative methods for linear algebraic equations . . . . . . . . 265
5.2.1 ORTHOMIN and steepest descent methods . . . . . . 265
5.2.2 Conjugate gradient and biconjugate gradient methods 269
5.2.3 MINRES and GMRES methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.2.4 Classical iterative methods and preconditioning . . . . 274

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

xiv
5.2.5 Block iterative methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.2.6 Multigrid methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.3 Choice of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4 Solving initial value problems for ordinary di erential equations 290
5.4.1 Method of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.4.2 Multistep methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.4.3 One-step methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6 Mesh optimization, reference solutions and hp-adaptivity 297
6.1 Automatic mesh optimization in one dimension . . . . . . . 298
6.1.1 Minimization of projection-based interpolation error . 299
6.1.2 Automatic mesh optimization algorithms . . . . . . . 302
6.1.3 Automatic h-adaptive mesh optimization . . . . . . . 304
6.1.4 Automatic p-adaptive mesh optimization . . . . . . . 310
6.1.5 Automatic hp-adaptive mesh optimization . . . . . . . 311
6.2 Adaptive strategies based on automatic mesh optimization . 314
6.2.1 Reference solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.2.2 A strategy based on automatic mesh optimization . . 316
6.2.3 Model problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.2.4 Automatic h-adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.2.5 Automatic p-adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.2.6 Automatic hp-adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.3 Goal-oriented adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.3.1 Quantities of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.3.2 Formulation of the dual problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.3.3 Error control in quantity of interest . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.3.4 Selected nonlinear and unbounded functionals . . . . . 327
6.4 Automatic goal-oriented h-, p- and hp-adaptivity . . . . . . . 329
6.4.1 Automatic goal-oriented adaptive strategies . . . . . . 330
6.4.2 Example: average of solution over a subdomain . . . . 331
6.4.3 Goal-oriented and energy-driven h-adaptivity . . . . . 332
6.4.4 Goal-oriented and energy-driven hp-adaptivity . . . . 335
6.5 Automatic goal-oriented hp-adaptivity in two dimensions . . 337
6.5.1 Mesh optimization step in two dimensions . . . . . . . 338
6.5.2 Example: singular solution in the L-shape domain . . 341
6.5.3 Goal-oriented and energy-driven h-adaptivity . . . . . 343
6.5.4 Goal-oriented and energy-driven hp-adaptivity . . . . 348
6.5.5 Comparison of convergence in the quantity of interest 353
References 359
Author index 375
Subject index 379

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

List of Tables

2.1 Scalar hierarchic shape functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.2 Scalar hierarchic shape functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3 Scalar hierarchic shape functions of KB1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4 Scalar hierarchic shape functions of KT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5 Scalar hierarchic shape functions of KP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of Kqcurl . . . . . . . 82
2.7 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of Ktcurl . . . . . . . 87
2.8 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KBcurl . . . . . . . 91
2.9 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KTcurl . . . . . . . 96
2.10 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KPcurl . . . . . . . 103
2.11 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of Kqdiv . . . . . . . . 108
2.12 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of Ktdiv . . . . . . . . 110
2.13 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KBdiv . . . . . . . . 113
2.14 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KTdiv . . . . . . . . 117
2.15 Vector-valued hierarchic shape functions of KPdiv . . . . . . . . 120
3.1 Hierarchic basis functions in various function spaces . . . . . 178
4.1 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 1 . . . . . 220
4.2 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 2 . . . . . 220
4.3 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 3 . . . . . 220
4.4 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 4 . . . . . 221
4.5 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 5 . . . . . 221
4.6 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 6 . . . . . 221
4.7 Closed Newton-Cotes quadrature on Ka , order n = 7 . . . . . 221
4.8 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 3 . . . . . . . . . 223
4.9 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 4 . . . . . . . . . 223
4.10 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 5 . . . . . . . . . 223
4.11 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 6 . . . . . . . . . 223
4.12 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 7 . . . . . . . . . 224
4.13 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 8 . . . . . . . . . 224
4.14 Chebyshev quadrature on Ka , order n + 1 = 10 . . . . . . . . 224
4.15 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 3 . . . . 225
4.16 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 5 . . . . 226
4.17 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 7 . . . . 226
4.18 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 9 . . . . 226
4.19 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 11 . . . . 226

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC xv

xvi
4.20 Lobatto (Radau) quadrature on Ka, order 2n 3 = 13 . . . . 226
4.21 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.22 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.23 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 7 . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.24 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.25 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 11 . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.26 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 13 . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.27 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 15 . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.28 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 17 . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.29 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 19 . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.30 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 21 . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.31 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 23 . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.32 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 31 . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.33 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 39 . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.34 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 47 . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.35 Gauss quadrature on Ka , order 2n 1 = 63 . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.36 Min. numbers of Gauss quadrature points on Kq . . . . . . . 232
4.37 Gauss quadrature on Kq , order p = 0; 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.38 Gauss quadrature on Kq , order p = 2; 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.39 Gauss quadrature on Kq , order p = 4; 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.40 Gauss quadrature on Kq , order p = 6; 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.41 Min. numbers of Gauss quadrature points on Kt . . . . . . . 238
4.42 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.43 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.44 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.45 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.46 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.47 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.48 Gauss quadrature on Kt , order p = 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.49 Min. numbers of Gauss quadrature points on KB . . . . . . . 241
4.50 Gauss quadrature on KB , order p = 0; 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.51 Gauss quadrature on KB , order p = 2; 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.52 Gauss quadrature on KB , order p = 4; 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.53 Gauss quadrature on KB , order p = 6; 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.54 Min. numbers of Gauss quadrature points on KT . . . . . . . 246
4.55 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.56 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.57 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.58 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.59 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.60 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.61 Gauss quadrature on KT , order p = 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.1 Projection-based interp. error err2 for the p-adaptive scheme 314

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

List of Figures

1.1 An example of a nonunisolvent nite element . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Gauss-Lobatto nodal points in equilateral triangles . . . . . . 6
1.3 Examples of hanging nodes in 2D and 3D . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Linear Lagrange and Crouzeix-Raviart elements . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Sample mesh consisting of two triangular elements . . . . . . 14
1.6 Continuous Lagrange interpolant on K 1 [ K 2 . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Discontinuous Crouzeix-Raviart interpolant on K 1 [ K 2 . . . 15
1.8 Reference map for a quadrilateral element . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9 Legendre polynomials L0 ; L1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10 Legendre polynomials L2 ; L3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.11 Legendre polynomials L4 ; L5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.12 Legendre polynomials L6 ; L7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.13 Legendre polynomials L8 ; L9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.14 Lobatto shape functions l0 ; l1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.15 Lobatto shape functions l2 ; l3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.16 Lobatto shape functions l4 ; l5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.17 Lobatto shape functions l6 ; l7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.18 Lobatto shape functions l8 ; l9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.19 Example of a Dirichlet lift function for 1D problems . . . . . 30
1.20 Quadratic nodal shape functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.21 Cubic nodal shape functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.22 Conditioning properties of various types of shape fns. in 1D . 36
1.23 Vertex basis functions in the hierarchic case . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.24 Vertex nodal basis functions for piecewise-quadratic approx. . 38
1.25 An example of a hierarchic quadratic bubble basis function . 38
1.26 An example of a hierarchic cubic bubble basis function . . . . 38
2.1 The reference quadrilateral Kq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2 Vertex functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3 Quadratic edge functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Cubic edge functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Fourth-order edge functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6 Fifth-order edge functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.7 Sixth-order edge functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.8 Quadratic bubble function of Kq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.9 Cubic bubble functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC xvii

xviii
2.10 Fourth-order bubble functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.11 Fifth-order bubble functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.12 Sixth-order bubble functions of Kq1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.13 The reference triangle Kt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.14 Vertex functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.15 Quadratic edge functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.16 Cubic edge functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.17 Fourth-order edge functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.18 Fifth-order edge functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.19 Sixth-order edge functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.20 Standard cubic and fourth-order bubble functions of Kt1 . . . 59
2.21 Standard fth-order bubble functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.22 New cubic and fourth-order bubble functions of Kt1 . . . . . . 60
2.23 New fth-order bubble functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.24 New sixth-order bubble functions of Kt1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.25 Conditioning properties of shape functions in 2D . . . . . . . 61
2.26 The reference brick KB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.27 Vertex functions of KB1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.28 Edge functions of KB1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.29 Face functions of KB1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.30 The reference tetrahedron KT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.31 Vertex functions of KT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.32 Edge functions of KT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.33 Face functions of KT1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.34 The reference prism KP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.35 Vertex functions of KP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.36 Edge functions of KP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.37 Face functions of KP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.38 Edge functions of Kqcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.39 Elementary functions of Ktcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.40 Edge functions of Ktcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.41 Vertex-based edge functions of KTcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.42 Edge-based face functions of KTcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.43 Genuine face functions of KTcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.44 Face-based bubble functions of KTcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.45 Edge-based face functions of KPcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.46 Genuine face functions of KPcurl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.47 Vertex-based face functions of KTdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.48 Edge-based bubble functions of KTdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.1 Projection-based interpolation in 1D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.2 Projection-based interpolation in 2D, part 1 . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3 Projection-based interpolation in 2D, part 2 . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.4 Projection-based interpolation in 2D, part 3 . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.5 Example of a trans nite interpolation projector . . . . . . . . 146

© 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 The motion was then put to the meeting and
carried unanimously.
“I, oh so tired!” says S. J.-B.,—“hearing voices
round me in a sort of swoon.”
Her letter-bag for the next few days was enough
to put new life into anyone.
“24 Hill Street,
Edinburgh.
“My dear Miss Blake, and all your brave sisterhood, Three cheers
for you and one cheer more! My husband has just come back and
told me of your victory.
May this be an augury of future success in every direction.
Ever very truly yours,
E. H. S. Blackie.”

A lawyer who had strenuously opposed the idea of

mixed classes writes,
“For your sake, I shall make my first charity this year £5 to the
Infirmary.”

And no one was more enthusiastic than the young

man who was demonstrator of Anatomy at the time
of the riot:
“It would be almost a mockery to wish you all a Happy New Year
after such success. It is enough to turn one’s head, but only, I
suppose, the heads which hammered on so hard in defeat, or rather
repulse, are not to be turned with victory.”

It would have been almost a mockery, certainly,

though not in the sense he meant.
 “Sunday, Jan. 7th. Hear that the doctors are going about getting
their patients to sign papers,—exact tenor unknown.”

True enough, here were already the first

mutterings of a fresh storm, and indeed, most people
must have been rather uneasy at so terrifying a
victory.
“Dear Miss Jex-Blake,” writes Dr. Heron Watson on January 5th,
“See to it that there is a full representation on behalf of the ladies on
Monday week at the adjourned meeting, as I expect foul play!...”

And another lawyer writes:

“Dear Miss Jex-Blake,
I don’t know whether you are taking any means to secure a
muster of your friends at the Infirmary meeting on Monday week;
but I think it would be worth while to do so. I am afraid our
opponents may attempt a surprise for the purpose of rescinding the
Statute passed at last meeting as to the admission of Lady Students.
I have not heard that they have any such plan on foot; but as no
notice requires to be given of any such motion, they may not
improbably try it, trusting to our being off our guard.
Yours truly,
William Robson.”

A fortnight after the Annual Meeting, the

Contributors met to hear the result of a scrutiny of
the votes, and it was then that the following
unexpected issue—quite distinct, of course, from the
immediate object of the scrutiny—was thrust upon
them:
On the side of the women had voted,
 28 firms,
31 ladies,
7 doctors.

On the side of the powers,

14 firms,
2 ladies,
37 doctors.

It was now claimed that the votes of firms were

incompetent, at the majority really lay on the other
side.
“It mattered nothing,” said the Scotsman,[96] “that firms had voted
ever since the Infirmary was founded; that contributors qualified
only as members of firms had, as has now been ascertained, sat
over and over again on the Board of Management, and on the
Committee of Contributors. It was of equally slight importance that
the firms whom it was now sought to disqualify had been among the
most generous benefactors of the charity, and that, with the
imminent prospect before them of great pecuniary necessity, it
would probably be impossible, without their aid, to carry out even
the plans for the new building. The firms had voted in favour of the
ladies, and the firms must go, if at least the law would (as it
probably will not) bear out the medical men in their reckless
endeavour to expel them.”

An appeal to law, however, is a slow affair, and on

this occasion there was obviously no inducement for
the law to bestir itself unduly. It was not till July 23rd
that Lord Jerviswoode pronounced the votes of firms
to be perfectly valid.
 The case was appealed to a higher court, where it
did not come on for trial till the end of October: it
was then again postponed and judgment was not
given till December.
“Dec. 7th. Saturday. Judgment from Second Division in our favour
on all points.”

The Annual Meeting was now once more at hand,

however, when new managers might be elected who
were unfriendly to the women. Needless to say the
woman’s party lost no time. A Contributors’ meeting
was called for December 16th, and another for
December 23rd, when a vote was passed admitting
the women to the Infirmary on condition that their
visits were to be separate from those of the men,
and that they were to go only to those wards where
their presence was invited by the physicians.
So at last they got their tickets, and began an
attendance which was to “qualify” for graduation.
“Qualify” in the technical sense; assuredly not in
any other. What the girl graduate of the present day
would say to such qualification, one need scarcely
ask. Here is S. J.-B.’s account of it:
“Dr. Balfour gave us a separate hour in his wards three times a
week, and such chances of practical study as could be arranged from
time to time. Dr. Watson’s very large practice, as the most eminent
surgeon in Scotland, made it impossible for him, at whatever
inconvenience, to repeat his visit in this manner, and our enemies
would have gained their point, had he not, with a kindness which I
find myself even now quite unable to acknowledge duly, given up for
the two whole winter sessions his Sunday mornings (his one day of
rest) to our instruction, while steadily refusing to accept any fees
whatever for this great sacrifice of his time and strength. Few more
chivalrous acts were ever done, and I only hope he found his reward
in the lifelong gratitude of a dozen women, who were not at that
time too much accustomed to such kindness and courtesy as his.”

To the end of her life, S. J.-B. looked upon these

two men as “the shadow of a great rock in a weary
land,” and another name she would have added with
(in one sense) even better reason—that of Dr. Peel
Ritchie, who, a strong Conservative, absolutely and
avowedly at that time without sympathy for the
“cause,” from a sheer sense of fair play, gave up his
class of men at the Royal Dispensary in order to
teach a class of women instead.

Of course S. J.-B. was a “celebrity” by this time.

Here is an amusing letter from a distinguished man
who had been asked to meet her and her friends at
dinner:
[Letter undated.]
“My dear Editor,
Wae’s me that I am engaged on Saturday! If I could on any
decent pretence get off I would do it aftsoons, for apart from the
pleasure of meeting yourself and Mrs. R., I would like fine to meet
the other ladies in such company, especially some of them. I won’t
say which!
 But I accepted an invitation the other day from —— to meet a Mr.
—— a very nice Irishman that’s working at our Celtic MSS., and I
promised to show the Milesian the way. So though I would go far for
the sake of the ladies and of you, I feel that it would be rather too
flagrant a breach of faith to tell old —— that I have another
engagement which I had forgotten. I wish he or his wife would take
some harmless disease for a day or two and put off their dinner.
I needn’t say that I appreciate immensely the distinction of being
asked as the one man in Edinburgh worthy of admission to that
select company! It’s equal to the Cross of the Legion of Honour and
a great deal better. There’s something in the idea too that piques the
imagination. It’s as if—but far better—a favoured mortal got a
special card per Ganymede, to sup quietly in Olympus with Mr. and
Mrs. Jupiter and the Misses Minerva, Diana and Urania: or like being
asked by a Flamen and his wife to meet three of the Vestal Virgins
over a jar of Falernian; or again like an invitation from the grand
Lama to have a little jollification with a few Buddhist lady abbesses
in the innermost shrine of the great temple at Lassa, or from a chief
of Carbonari to take a glass and pipe with Mazzini, Garibaldi, etc.
There’s no end of the things it suggests.
As to your unworthy fears, fie upon them! You are more to be
envied than the Sultan, the Pope or Brigham Young.
Hoping to have a chance some other time of doing homage to the
Trinity, and to have the pleasure soon of calling upon Mrs. Russel.
I rest,
Ever Yours,
——.”

And her fame—or notoriety—extended to the most

unexpected classes of society. “Miss Jex-Blake had
that house last year,” the driver of a Highland coach
would say, pointing with his whip in the direction of
the farm where she had stayed. Her name occurred
repeatedly in that year’s pantomime, and Harlequin
and Columbine had called to ask if she had any
objection to this,—an incident which she always
recalled with amusement and appreciation. The main
reference, as it happened, was quite complimentary.
A game was played on the stage in which various
Edinburgh dignitaries were the cards; but “Miss Jex-
Blake” took the trick.
Her dislike of publicity was great, but she had long
since hardened herself to endure it in so far as was
necessary for her work’s sake. Beyond that she drew
the line absolutely. The press rang with her name for
a few years, but she steadily refused to be
interviewed. It was nothing to her that the public
had not the smallest idea of the more human side of
her character. “Nothing,” she wrote in response to
many requests, “would induce her to consent to the
sale of her photograph.” Her holidays were spent in
absolute retirement, and intimate friends will never
forget how, on the first day in the country, the words
would rise to her lips,—
“The pulse of dew upon the grass kept his within its number,
And silent shadows from the trees refreshed him like a slumber.”

A memorandum of this period directs that, in case

of her death, the funeral shall be as simple and
inexpensive as possible, and that the headstone—if
headstone there be—shall bear only her name, the
dates, and the words,—“Then are they glad because
they be quiet.”
“Partly you see, I am so tired,” she had written half to herself and
half to Miss Du Pre in February,—“not physically or even mentally
exactly. I could come up to any given exertion of either kind for the
time being; but my whole nature is strained and wearied. I can get
up energy for nothing,—can but just get through the day’s work in
the day and long for rest!

‘Hades must rest us for ages,

Ere we can glory see.’

No, my glory is rest!...

How strange lives are! Miss Anderson’s husband—married Oct. 5th
(?), died on Monday, November 12th,—love enough to change a life
for, and it,—no, not it, the marriage,—ends in 4 months!”

It was about this time that her friend Mrs. Unwin

died. Up to the last she had followed the Edinburgh
campaign with intense interest and sympathy. S. J.-B.
had promised that, whatever the claims of her work
might be, she would pay a last visit to the Yorkshire
home in case of “utter need”; but Mrs. Unwin
refused to make this plea. Resolutely she bore her
own cross: and, with a last message of “deepest love
and regard,” she passed away.
 CHAPTER XIII
THE ACTION AGAINST THE SENATUS

“Madam,
... I never read or heard of such a hard case as yours—and so
peculiar. It might be worth while to seek the advice of a Solicitor—
who would consult counsel—to find out whether you and your
disappointed friends have no case at Law. I would (if it be possible)
just like to know what the Court of Session would have to say,
touching—not only the arbitrariness, but the gross injustice, if not
absolute illegality, of the whole affair. You matriculate—get through
with about half of your classes—great loss of time—money—
disappointment—even exasperation or half ruin—all incurred: and
are then summarily brought to—made to fairly stick—and yet no
legal remedy! I can’t believe it. I would try and find out,—but yet, it
is an awful prospect. The length of time, and expense that would
have to be borne, ere any decision could be come to. You seem to
me like one who took a leap, without seeing from the first,[97] where
the leap was to land you. For surely, had you foreseen all this,—you
never would have set foot in Edinburgh....
The tide is coming in and nothing can retard it,—nothing worth
speaking of. And these views will be realised and acted upon some
day. Depend upon it.
The day will come when women will sit cheek by jowl with men
through a six months’ course of Anatomy, Physiology, Midwifery, etc.,
etc., right cheerfully, and neither jeering nor sneering there—nor
winks nor any other impertinences—singularly misplaced and out of
time—if certain important personages could only see matters rightly.
Yes, and walk the Hospitals—surgical and medical—and the lying-in
Hospital also, the Eye Infirmary, the Cancer one and the
Consumptive one, and the Lock into the bargain. And then all these
important obstructives will be dead, buried, rotten—forgotten—and
their writings selling at three halfpence per lb.”

The above is quoted from the letter of a complete

stranger,—the so-called “man in the street”
apparently, and is a sample of many that came
pouring in upon S. J.-B. during those troublous years.
“Has the University any right to act like this?” friends
kept asking constantly; and we know that more than
one of the Professors had advised an appeal to a
Court of Law.
Towards the close of 1871, S. J.-B. seems to have
consulted her brother on the subject, drawing from
him the following letters:
“The College,
Cheltenham.
Nov. 18. 1871.
My dearSophy,
I do not think you can gain anything by sueing the Professors
or by going to Law with the University in any other shape.
It may be too late now to persuade, but it would be at all times
hopeless to compel, a great University to open its doors to ladies.
I return the Queries and Opinions: and should distrust legal
opinions that advised further law-suits.
It is most provoking, and your treatment has been unjust: but it
comes to my mind to this, When they persecute you in one city, flee
ye to another.
You can make better use of your time by getting University
instruction elsewhere, than by throwing legal pebbles at the
University gates of Auld Reekie: and life being short you had better
gather up the net result of your Scotch experience, and go to Zürich
or Paris, or wherever your own knowledge and judgment lead you.
I am exceedingly sorry for you; but I see nothing else to be done,
so far as I understand the facts.
It is very tantalizing that the majorities have always been so
narrow: and that there has been so much to justify sanguine friends
in their advice.
I shall be glad to hear your decision, and both Hetty and I are
very sorry for you.
Your affect. brother,
T. W. J.-B.”

“The College,
Cheltenham,
Nov. 21. 1871.
My dear Sophy,
There is more to be said for legal action than I knew of: for I
thought Paris or Zürich degree was legal qualification in England:
though of course to go abroad for degree is objectionable in several
ways, and the language must slightly increase the difficulties.
Still there is nothing to be said for legal action unless it is likely to
succeed: and of that your Scotch lawyers are the best judges:
though their expectations hitherto have been more sanguine than
accurate in your case.
I am sorry I cannot be of much use, and very sorry the Trades
Union is so strong and so well organized.
It must be very annoying, and is certainly a horrible waste of time:
but half of most people’s time is spent in untying the foolish knots of
blind opponents.
Hetty joins in love.
Your affect. brother,
T. W. J.-B.”

“13 Sussex Square,

Brighton.
Jan. 21. 1872.
 My dearSophy,
One line to wish you many happy returns of the day, and to tell
you that all is going on very well here....
We were very glad that you crept into such a haven of rest as Mrs.
Nichol has to offer you: and I am quite sure the strain of so much
fighting and organizing must be very great.
It seems hardly possible that you should get on with your own
Medical education while there is so much polemical business on
hand; but if you carry the point for all women, it will be cheaply
bought at the sacrifice of two or three years of individual training in
books and bones.”

“When they persecute you in one city, flee ye to

another.”
This was advice which S. J.-B. had always kept well
in mind, though not with regard to Paris and Zürich;
and enquiries as to other British Universities had
been diligently prosecuted. St. Andrews was the one
that most naturally suggested itself, “as a
comparatively rural University, without male students
of medicine, and yet with the power to grant
degrees.” It is true that the Medical Curriculum at St.
Andrews was—and is—very incomplete; but the
deficiency might be made good by some teaching-
school unable—or unwilling—to grant degrees.
Professor Lewis Campbell and Mrs. Campbell had
taken a deep interest in the project of making their
University the Alma Mater of the women students; S.
J.-B. had visited them at St. Andrews in the autumn
[98]
of 1871, with Miss Massingberd Mundy ; and there
are a number of cordial letters witnessing to the
genuine desire of both the Professor and his wife for
the success of the scheme.
Their enthusiasm was not typical of the University,
however, though Principal Tulloch “seemed friendly in
a vague way”; and all hope in this direction had, for
the moment, to be given up.
Meanwhile S. J.-B., on behalf of herself and her
fellow-students, had made a final appeal to the
University Court of Edinburgh to provide them with
the means of completing their education, and she
had also forwarded to them a farther legal opinion
from the Lord Advocate and Sheriff Fraser to the
effect that the University authorities had full power
to permit the matriculation of women in 1869; that
the resolutions then passed amounted to a
permission to women to “study Medicine” in the
University, and that therefore the women concerned
were entitled to demand the means of doing so; and
finally, that if such means were persistently refused,
the legal mode of redress lay in an Action of
Declarator.
On January 8th the University Court resolved that
it was not in their power to comply with the
requirements of the women as regarded teaching:
the whole question, they said, had been
“complicated by the introduction of the subject of
graduation, which is not essential to the completion
of a medical or other education”: if the ladies would
altogether give up the question of graduation, and
be content with certificates of proficiency, the Court
would try to meet their views.
“They forgot,” says S. J.-B., “that though a degree is ‘not essential’
to a medical education, it is absolutely indispensable to any practical
use of it,—that is to any lawful practice of the medical profession.”

She offered, however, to waive the question of

graduation,—pending an authoritative decision as to
the powers and duties of the University,—if
arrangements might meanwhile be made for the
women to continue their education. To this the Court
agreed. Farther correspondence, however, elicited
the fact that the Court had no intention of coming to
any decision with regard to its own powers, and that
it did not mean to take any active steps in the
matter.
“On the other hand,” says S. J.-B., “we had no less authority than
that of the Lord Advocate of Scotland for believing that we were
absolutely entitled to what we had so humbly solicited, and that a
Court of Law would quietly award to us what seemed unattainable
by any other means; we had the very widely spread and daily
increasing sympathy of the community at large, and received
constant offers of help from friends of every kind.... Under these
circumstances we did the one thing that remained for us to do, we
brought an Action of Declarator against the Senatus of the
University,—praying to have it declared that the Senatus was bound,
in some way or other, to enable us to complete our education and to
proceed to the medical degree which would entitle us to take place
on the Medical Register among the legally-qualified practitioners of
medicine.”

Of course the news of this daring step was

forthwith noised abroad, and S. J.-B. received a
protesting letter from Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, urging
her not to waste on an uncertain lawsuit, money that
might be so much more profitably spent in some
other way.
The following is S. J.-B.’s reply:
“Dear Dr. Blackwell,
I suppose rumour very seldom does report things correctly, so
I do not wonder that you have been misinformed about the action
which we are on the point of bringing against the Senatus. It is not
one for breach of promise (what fun Punch would make of it if it
were!) but simply an Action of Declarator whereby we pray one of
the Judges of Session to declare that the Senatus is bound to
complete our education, according to the decided opinion given by
the Lord Advocate of Scotland.
In the brief space of a letter it would be impossible for me to
submit to you all the facts and grounds on which our intention is
based, tho’ I should be glad to explain them in detail if you were on
the spot, but you will be glad to hear that not only are the whole of
the students here of the same mind as myself on this point, but our
determination is strengthened by the advice and concurrence of
some of the wisest heads in Edinburgh, including those of friendly
Professors. I hope therefore that you will believe that, though you
find a difficulty at a distance from the field of action in concurring in
our present step, you would probably do so if all the facts of the
case were as thoroughly before you as they are before us and our
counsellors.
 It is just because I find that London friends are so little au courant
of the facts that I am hoping to give an explanatory lecture when in
town next month, and I need not say how doubly glad I shall be to
give every explanation and information to you to whom [all] of us
medical women owe so much gratitude and respect as our pioneer
and forerunner.
Believe me,
Yours truly,
S. Jex-Blake.”

Now that there was something definite to be done,

S. J.-B. was in her element once more and the
following letters make it very clear that her
“counsellors” were working con amore.
“University Club,
Edinburgh.
18 March, 72.
Dear Miss Jex-Blake,
Under the dread of bringing disgrace on the whole masculine
race, I applied myself today during all the time I could command to
the framing of the great Summons, and I brought it up to a point at
which I think nothing of importance remains to be added except the
historical statement and the pleas in law, both of which you may
take for granted will be made right. If I can get them done this
evening I’ll send them to you.
I thought as you were in a hurry to see the thing I had better let
you have what I had done at once, and so I took it to White Millar
and left it with him to send you. There must be a distinction drawn
between you and the other ladies who are ready for the first
professional exam., and the others who are not. So you will please
note on the margin of the M.S. who those are that occupy these
respective positions and the exact stage at which the less advanced
ones have arrived. I must also have the dates and exact terms of the
several resolutions and letters referred to in the last article, so as to
make the chronological statement complete and accurate. I would
like before the thing is finally adjusted to consult all the available
sources of information on the subject of graduation and the original
constitution of the University, and also I think if Bologna was our
model, as seems to be taken for granted, that it would be worth
while to communicate with some one there, such as the Secretary of
the Senatus, if they have one, or the Librarian, to get authoritative
statistics on the subject.
I have not heard from the Dean of Faculty yet in reply to my
inquiry on the point of professional punctilio involved in my
undertaking the case, but another eminent legal friend whose advice
I highly value thinks on the whole that I ought not to undertake it.
This did not prevent me, however, from doing the Summons!
Meantime you needn’t mention that I am doing it, in case of my not
going on with the case, which might lead to unfavourable remarks, if
it were supposed that I had begun and afterwards backed out of it.
I’ll be very sorry to do so, if that is the Dean’s opinion.
Believe me,
Yours very truly,
Alex. Nicolson.”

Apparently the decision of the Dean was adverse

to Mr. Nicolson, for the case was taken up, and very
ably argued, by Sheriff Fraser and Mr. M‘Laren
(afterwards Lord M‘Laren), who had been junior
counsel in the libel case.
“I am quite certain,” writes Mr. Fraser to S. J.-B., “that upon a
more thorough investigation it will be found that women did attend
the Universities and graduated.... When you are up in London just
now perhaps you would refer to some of the books in the British
Museum, mentioned by Watts, which are not in the Advocates’
Library. You need not trouble yourself with the University of
Edinburgh, as I have gone over the whole Records of the Council
and of the Professors since the institution of the University, and I
cannot find a single case of a woman being a student. The same I
fear will be the result of an examination of the records of the other
universities. This was natural, for, until recently, both the law and the
social customs of Scotland, like those of other barbarous countries,
regarded women as nothing else but domestic drudges and field
hands.”

It was useless, of course, to suggest the British

Museum. S. J.-B. had long since exhausted that
mine. And she had no great faith in the information
to be derived from correspondence with foreign
secretaries and librarians. She had worked that vein
too. It still remained to send an emissary to examine
the archives of the Italian Universities at first hand,
and this was what she now resolved to do. Someone
had commended to her interest about this time an
able and well-educated young lady whose health was
causing her friends some anxiety, and, after watching
and tending her for some time S. J.-B. despatched
her on the mission, duly armed with the following
dossier:
“1. At each University get access, if possible, to the official
archives and lists of students, and make a complete list of every
woman who studied there, with date, Faculty, and other particulars.
2. If you cannot get access yourself, get the lists made by some
official, and, if possible, compare it with originals or other
authorities.
3. If possible get the Secretary or Librarian, or some Professor to
attest the list with his signature, as truly extracted from the records.
 4. Pay any necessary fees, having as far as possible arranged for
these beforehand.
5. Make copies in one book of every list obtained, of name and
address of each person making or attesting such lists, and of all
additional information likely to be of value.
6. Send off attested lists to me in registered letters as soon as
obtained, marking in your M.S. book the exact duplicate in case of
loss and sending a separate letter to Miss P. to announce dispatch.
7. Do not let your own M.S. book out of your hands for any
purpose.
8. Send all lists on foolscap and not on foreign paper.”

The ambassador seems to have carried through

her mission most efficiently, and an imposing array of
names was the result. At any rate that vein was now
worked out.
In the meantime “the great Summons” was duly
delivered, and on March 27th the Senatus met to
consider what action they should take with regard to
it. We get the following informal account of what
took place from Miss Pechey:
“I could not get particulars of the Senatus meeting ... till too late
to write last night, but it appears that it was first moved to defend
the action; then Fleeming Jenkin proposed that an attempt should
be made to have an amicable lawsuit. This was negatived by 17 to
10, and then the other motion not to defend the action being put
against the first, was negatived by 22 to 5. Many of our friends
voted to defend,—Wilson amongst others. He says he feels sure that
the thing will never be fairly settled without a legal decision. I saw
him today in his office. He is very anxious you should get some
member to ask a question when the Parliamentary grant is being
arranged.[99] He told me the enemy were dreadfully angry at the
suit, from which he concluded that our Summons is well drawn up.”
“This was the great argument for assenting to the corporate
defence,” writes Professor Masson, “i.e. that the Senatus could not
possibly let judgment go by default, which would yield all your
demands (compulsion of Professors, etc.) and yet not really settle
the thing, inasmuch as the Professors or anyone might afterwards
reopen the whole judgment. On the same ground it is that friends
don’t seem to want to stir individually. They say the defence is
corporately by the Senatus and everybody will understand that, and
hence that individual secession is superfluous. Tait, however, said he
would consult his lawyer, and Craufurd and Jenkin meditated
something of the same.”

On the other hand, six members of the Senatus—

anxious though they well might be to have the weary
question settled one way or the other—simply could
not allow the resolution to pass without protest, and
the following minute is duly recorded in the books of
the University:
“We dissent from and protest against the resolution of the Senatus
of March 27, 1872, to undertake the defence of the action. This we
do for the following reasons:—(1.) Because we see no just cause for
opposing the admission of women to the study and practice of
medicine; but, on the contrary, consider that women who have
honourably marked out such a course of life for themselves, ought to
be forwarded and aided in their laudable endeavour as much as
possible, by all who have the means, and especially by those having
authority in any University or other institution for education; (2.)
Because, in particular, we feel such aid and encouragement, rather
than opposition and discouragement, to be due from us to those
women who have enrolled themselves in the University of
Edinburgh, and we entirely concur, with respect to them, in the
desire expressed by Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the Rector of the
University, that they should obtain what they ask—namely, a
complete medical education, crowned by a degree; (3.) Because we
have seen no sufficient reason to doubt the legal and constitutional
powers of our University to make arrangements that would be
perfectly adequate for the purpose, and we consider the public
questioning of such powers, in present circumstances, by the
University itself, or any of its component bodies, unnecessary,
impolitic, and capable of being construed as a surrender of
permanent rights and privileges of the University, in order to evade a
temporary difficulty; (4.) Because, without pronouncing an opinion
on the question now raised, as to the legal rights which the pursuers
have acquired by matriculation in the University, admission already
to certain examinations, or otherwise, to demand from the University
continued medical instruction and the degree on due qualification,
we yet believe that they have thereby, and by the general tenor of
the proceedings, both of the Senatus and of the University Court in
their case hitherto, acquired a moral right, and created a public
expectation, which the University is bound to meet by the full
exercise of its powers in their behalf, even should it be with some
trouble; (5.) Because, with these convictions, and notwithstanding
our utmost respect for those of our colleagues from whom we may
have the misfortune to differ on the subject, we should individually
feel ashamed of appearing as defenders in such an action, and
should account any such public appearance by us in the character of
opponents to women desiring to enter an honoured and useful
profession, a matter to our discredit.”
[100]
The following are the names of the six
Professors who felt bound thus to stand out against
the arguments of their colleagues.
John Hughes Bennett, M.D., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine,
David Masson, M.A., Professor of Rhetoric and
English Literature,
Henry Calderwood, LL.D., Professor of Moral
Philosophy,
James Lorimer, M.A., Professor of Public Law,
Archibald H. Charteris, D.D., Professor of Biblical
Criticism and Biblical Antiquities,
[101]
William Ballantyne Hodgson, LL.D., Professor of
Political Economy.
 CHAPTER XIV
THE LORD ORDINARY’S JUDGMENT

“Did you advertise your lecture in the Lancet? I expect you will
have a lot of blackguardly doctors there in consequence. Don’t have
any libel cases, and don’t be hard on the students. They’re very bad,
but they’re not so bad as the Professors.[102] I know you are very
busy writing and so on, and that there would be plenty of copying
for me to do if only I were at hand. Don’t you want me to bully and
be bullied by?
How I wish I could be in the gallery to make faces at you and
throw peas!”

An admirable and characteristic letter, this, from

Miss Pechey. Was a bracing message of warning and
sympathy to a senior and chum ever more tactfully
and lightly delivered?
On April 25th, after some days in the country, S.
J.-B. went to London and was met by Miss Du Pre
and Miss M‘Laren, who “heard and finally polished up
the lecture,” which was delivered the following day at
St. George’s Hall in the presence of a large and
curiously assorted audience. The Earl of Shaftesbury,
who occupied the chair, was supported by Professor
Lewis Campbell, Rev. Dr. Martineau, Mrs. Garrett
Anderson, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, the Dowager
Countess of Buchan, and other well-known folk, and
among the general public were a number of
girlhood’s friends, including Miss Ada Benson, Miss
Miranda Hill, and many “modern women,”—with a
sprinkling of Norfolk cousins. In the course of his
address the Chairman made a shrewd remark, of
which time has proved the truth:
“The argument that women were not wanted in the medical
profession struck him as very singular. He was old enough to
remember when railways and electric telegraphs were not wanted
for the simple reason that they were not known. When they became
known and tried, we could not do without them, and in all
probability it would be the same with reference to ladies in the
medical profession.”

In many ways the lecture was a success, and it

was largely quoted and referred to in the press; but,
for the ordinary hearer, it was overloaded with
statistics, and—with a view to that ever-possible
action for libel—the lecturer kept herself too well in
hand. It is amusing to find The Christian World
hinting a regret that she “had not really worked
herself up into a passion” in narrating the injustice
and vexations to which she had been exposed.
On the other hand, Mrs. Priscilla Bright M‘Laren, an
unbiassed expert, expressed the wish that the
lecture should be delivered throughout the length
and breadth of the land. The publication of a
pamphlet, she said, would not have the same effect,
because most people never have their sympathies
thoroughly roused unless they come face to face with
the person who has been persecuted. “If you could
be seen and heard” she wrote, “you would produce a
wonderful effect in favour of the cause you have at
heart.”
S. J.-B. had serious thoughts of carrying out this
suggestion, but—in the interests of her own health—
one is glad to record that wiser counsels prevailed.
“Thank you very, very much, darling, for your telegram,” writes
Mrs. Jex-Blake, the day after the lecture. “I thought if you knew how
anxious I had been the last few hours, you would send one, but I
did not at all expect it.”
“I have not known where to direct to keep adding my rejoicing at
the many accounts of the success of your lecture. Well, I am very
very glad for you and with you, and I pray things may somehow take
a fresh start. How very nice of some medical students to come and
officiate. I wish Professor Masson could have been there.”
“I am very glad to think of you as once more snug at home and I
hope with less work in view and some anxieties abated.... I am very
glad indeed you have given up going about lecturing.... Tom, too,
thinks you very wise to give it up: he was struck with your looking so
worn, and very vexed to see you so.”

It is interesting to note that S. J.-B. had taken an

invalid friend home with her to recruit! At the same
time she is writing to a protégée:
“I have seen Dr. Blackwell, and think she is rather disposed to give
you the work.... I think you should go in your bonnet, and look sage,
and not seem too eager for the work, and put a good price on
yourself,—say £2 a week, or, oh, you would accept £40 for the 6
months, etc. And be very confident you can do it all, if she asks you
to call on her.”

This is really the most worldly letter that S. J.-B.

ever wrote!

In all these later happenings, one misses the name

of Mrs. Butler, who had stood by S. J.-B. so
enthusiastically in the day of small things. As a
matter of fact, Mrs. Butler was now fully embarked
on her own heroic campaign, and both Mrs. Garrett
Anderson and S. J.-B. had failed to give her their
support. Thinking differently from each other on
many points, characterised indeed by a
fundamentally different way of looking at life, the
two medical women alike realized the complications
of modern civilization too profoundly to add the
stupendous question that occupied Mrs. Butler to a
programme that was already involved and difficult
enough. Mrs. Butler felt their attitude keenly, and it
was evidently with mingled feelings that she received
a letter from Miss Pechey about this time, asking the
privilege of adding her name and that of Canon
Butler to the ever-growing Committee.
“My dear Miss Pechey,” she writes, “You are welcome to use my
own and my husband’s names if you think they will do your cause
any good. We cannot conceive that they would, and, on that ground
alone, we should be as glad that you should not use them. It had
better be left to Miss Jex-Blake’s judgment.
“All the world knows that we are on opposite sides on one of the
most vital questions of the day, and that the Medical ladies have no
sympathy with the efforts being made to get rid of the scandal of a
great State system of legalised Prostitution, and therefore it appears
to Mr. Butler and me an inconsistency that our names should appear
in any such adverse connexion, deeply as we desire the prosperity
and success of the medical woman movement....”

“Dear Mrs. Butler,” writes S. J.-B. in reply,—“As Miss Pechey tells

me that you leave me to decide whether or no to place on our
Committee your name and Mr. Butler’s, I write to say that I shall
most gladly avail myself of your permission so to use your names.
I am glad to say that our Committee is made up of over a
thousand friends who not only differ widely on the point to which
you refer, but among whom differences no doubt exist on almost
every other question, social, political and religious.
As we cannot hope that even the most conscientious among us
will always agree on matters of judgment, I am sure that the only
wise rule is to keep each question distinct by itself, and to welcome
for it the support of all who care for its success, whether or no they
agree on other points.
With kind regards to Mr. Butler, believe me,
Yours truly,
S. Jex-Blake.”

The breach was never quite healed. When people

care more for great causes than for personal
pleasure and satisfaction, the loss of a friend must
sometimes be taken as part of the day’s work. Sunt
lachrymae rerum.
Meanwhile the work of propaganda was going on
steadily, and, as S. J.-B. had given up the idea of
lecturing in the great towns, she proceeded, as the
next best thing, to publish her lecture, in conjunction
with her historical researches on the subject of
Medical Women, in the form of a small volume.
Just as she was seeing this through the press,
news came of the illness of her Mother, who was
visiting the cousins at Bylaugh Park.
“June 17.
Darling Mother,
I am very sorry to hear that you have had such an attack
again. I should be really unhappy if I did not believe and trust in you
that you would telegraph for me if you at all wished for me, or if you
felt really seriously ill. Am I right in so trusting you?
I am sure they will take all the care they can of you, and I hope
you will be good and wise enough to eat all you can, broth at first,
and then as much meat and vegetables as possible—and lots of
strawberries!—are they ripe yet at Bylaugh?
You know that I am doing Dispensary work now, and have several
patients of all kinds to look after, but I envy the doctor that has my
old lady instead of me.
If you decide against going to Wales, suppose you come up here
straight from Norfolk, and we have a quiet month quite alone
together?—somewhere in the Highlands—if I have to give up
Brighton.
Of course I shall send you your own copy of my new book myself,
but Miss Pechey will send any quantity more that you may order for
giving away, etc.
How good of dear old Auntie to write!
Yours lovingly,
Soph.”
 The illness, however, rapidly assumed a dangerous
character, and S. J.-B. was telegraphed for next day.
“Luckily was up,” she says [she had been ill herself], “and received
the telegram by 9.50 a.m. Got things packed and off by 10.25 train.
Thunder and lightning whole way up. Reached Peterbro about 6.30,
—Lynn 9.15. Got a carriage and drove to Swaffham ...—thence to
Bylaugh, arriving at 2.45 a.m. Crept up to Mother’s room,—she, ‘My
darling!’—She had been nervous and restless, but slept, holding my
hand.
Oh, the horror of seeing her all shrunk together in bed, hardly
articulate,—I thought dying.
And had been very nearly....”

As usual when life was doing its worst, there follow

a few blank pages in the diary,—pages that were to
be filled in some day! “I am so glad,” wrote Miss
Jane Cubitt from Fritton,—Miss Cubitt was the
“sensible cousin” of the childhood, who could do
equations—“I am so glad that you have arrived at
Bylaugh. I feel now that all that can be done will be
done.” And fortunately on this occasion recovery
came more rapidly than the doctors had thought
possible.
S. J.-B. returned to Edinburgh on the 8th July, not
a moment too soon. She was called out to a case the
evening of her arrival—having travelled north by day
—and she proceeded forthwith to finish seeing her
book through the press. Law business, too, was
urgently claiming her return. On Wednesday, the
17th July, the historic lawsuit came on before Lord
Gifford.
It must be understood that this lawsuit, though of
almost infinite importance to the women, was in no
way a dramatic affair like the last. In the nature of
the case it afforded no sensations to provincial
papers. An Action of Declarator is “for a decree
[103]
defining and declaring the right of the pursuer,”
and the evidence in Court was given by Counsel only.
The women repeated in effect the requests they
had so often made to the University, viz. that the
Professors should either receive them as members of
their classes, or else appoint (or recognize) other
lecturers who would. The defence consisted
substantially of two pleas: 1. that all parties are not
called (see below); and 2. that the Senatus has not
the power to do what it is asked to do; in other
words, (a) that the University existed for men only,
and, (b) that the University authorities in making this
experiment, had never intended to admit women to
graduation. If they did so intend, the intention was
ultra vires; and indeed they probably went beyond
their powers when in 1869 they framed regulations
admitting women to share their privileges at all.
The hearing of the case lasted two days, and it
was fully reported in the Scottish daily papers of July
18th and 19th. Much of it, of course, consisted of
sheer technical detail that has long since lost
interest, but Lord Gifford’s judgment—delivered eight
or nine days after the hearing of Counsel—was
characterized by a grip of the whole situation and
enlivened by a warmth of human interest that make
it a landmark in the history, not only of medical
women, but of the whole Feminist movement. If he
allowed his sympathy with the pursuers to appear
rather too clearly, this was surely a fault that, in view
of all the circumstances, may well be reckoned to
him for righteousness. The gist of the judgment is
contained in the following sentences:
“The Lord Ordinary finds that, according to the existing
constitution and regulations of the said University of Edinburgh, the
pursuers are entitled to be admitted to the study of medicine in the
said University, and that they are entitled to all the rights and
privileges of lawful students in the said University, subject only to
the conditions specified and contained in the said regulations of 12th
November 1869: Finds that the pursuers, on completing the
prescribed studies, and on compliance with all the existing
regulations of the University preliminary to degrees, are entitled to
proceed to examination for degrees in manner prescribed by the
regulations of the University of Edinburgh.”

In the “Note,” the Lord Ordinary discusses the case

in detail:
“It is not easy to over-estimate the importance of the questions
involved in the present action. The decision may affect, in various
ways, not only the interests of the pursuers, and of all who are
similarly situated, but also the future welfare of the University, and
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