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these meetings, as well as the subsequent discussions. They may be obtained, for a small sum, from
the publisher, J. Guttentag, Berlin, or from C. Muquardt, Librairie Européenne, Brussels. The annual
subscription is four shillings, and is payable to Professor G. A. Van Hamel, Amsterdam, Holland.
 APPENDIX D.
Some Cases of Criminality.
I have here brought together a few cases of fairly ordinary and representative criminality, chiefly in
order to show how such cases are generally investigated. It has not seemed desirable to lay down
any definite system of examination. Elaborate schemes have been prepared; it is more difficult to
settle on a definite scheme on a small scale. At present it seems best to leave much to the judgment
of the individual investigator. The six cases here given will serve to show how criminality is usually
investigated, and may be useful as a guide.
I.—B. A., aged 18, carpenter; weight, kilog. 69.3; height, m. 1.77. Complexion pale. In various parts
of body scars from wounds by knife, dagger, stones, and glass, received in various quarrels. Head
also covered by scars. Hair on head very abundant; entirely without beard. Prominent superciliary
arches. Enormous frontal sinuses, lower jaw voluminous; lemurian appendix present; forehead low
and narrow; head normal.
Esthesiometer: left, 1½ right, 1¼; tongue, 1½. Dynamometer: left, 42; right, 40½. Tendon reflexes
normal. General sensibility: right, 52; left, 50. Sensibility to pain: right, 28; left, 30. Slow to
distinguish colours.
Drunkard; began at age of 12, led on by his mother. Has thieved frequently, but only found out once
at the end of two years, and condemned. Is irreligious.
When he is drunk feels melancholy. Has epileptic convulsions, in which he falls down, and is
frequently wounded. He has had similar fits for six years; they are followed by complete amnesia.
The first came on in an educational institute, after being compelled to take a cold bath in January.
Three or four hours before the fit he is so stupid that he cannot reckon two coppers that he holds in
his hand; and that he cannot recognise the people around him, though he may have known them for
some time.
After the fit he does not know where he is, and for two or three days cannot drink water or bathe, on
account, he says, of the cold bath that brought on his disorder.
Is not easily affected; has no aspirations; does not concern himself with politics.
Cannot say anything of his parents, except that his mother was a drunkard. (V. Rossi.)
II.—D., age 18, of Turin, smith. A woman’s head tattooed on his right arm, and the beginning of a
name (record of love); in epigastric region a transfixed heart (to recall a revenge to be
accomplished). A scar in left frontal region; cannot, or will not, say how he got it, but has ever since
suffered from giddiness.
Complexion very pale; vasomotor reaction more marked on the left; pupils react slowly; facial
asymmetry; ears prominent. Hair sparse, dry, and very dark. Fingers very long and slender. Has
tremors; suffers from hypertrophy of heart. Head acrocephalic, flattened at the nape.
Cranial measurements: longitudinal diameter, 177; transverse, 151; longitudinal curve, 360;
transverse, 300; maximum circumference, 530. Dynamometer: both hands, 34; right, 14; left, 17.
Esthesiometer: right, 1.8; left, 1.2; tongue, 0.4. Topographic sensibility erroneous in both hands.
General electrical sensibility: right, 49; left, 43. Sensibility to pain: right, 20; left, 27. (Normal person
gives: general, 53; to pain, 38.) Temperature in axilla, 37°5. Slow to distinguish colours.
Vicious from a child; very precocious sexual habits.
At eight years commenced at school to steal certificates of merit in order to get a prize. At fourteen,
at the invitation of a friend who was a thief, robbed a jeweller; from that time committed numerous
robberies whenever he could. Willingly gets drunk, but his chief passion is travel.
In politics he would prefer a Republic, but without police or prisons; but confesses that in winter,
when work is scarce, “it is not bad in prison.”
His parents affirm they are honest, but not the other relations. Mother suffers from palpitation of the
heart. One sister is leading a bad life; another is very religious. A maternal cousin was in prison. (V.
Rossi.)
III.—Certa Fil, condemned to four years’ imprisonment for thefts of fur cloaks and similar articles. Age
56. Circumference of head, 545. Right eye placed rather low. Tendon reflexes normal.
From a child she has suffered from illness caused by fear, owing to a fall into the water. From fifteen
to thirty suffered from frequent headaches. Eight years ago, about three years before thefts, had
typhoid fever, and also contracted syphilis from her husband. She had frequent and severe pain in the
temples. No children. Her mother suffered from arthritis, which caused melancholy, which is said to
have contributed to her death. She had fourteen children, mostly twins, who all died at birth except
one, who is very extravagant and dissolute.
Sensibility.—With esthesiometer: on the hand, 3 mm. on left, 2 mm. on right; head, 16 mm.; tongue,
9 mm. With faradic current: general sensibility, 70 mm.; on the hands, while a student has pain on
palm at 55, on dorsum at 60, she has pain on right palm at 50, left at 50; right dorsum at 60, left at
55. Strength with dynamometer slight: right, 28 cg.; left, 38 cg.; with both hands, 58 cg.
Psychological Examination.—Married at age of nineteen, she lived happily with husband for twenty
years, i.e., until age of thirty-nine. Then the husband began to lead a dissolute life, and infected his
wife with syphilis. Driven wild by her husband’s continual ill-treatment, she began to steal furs and
other articles from a neighbouring shop. She was always afraid of being discovered, and experienced
remorse which took away sleep and appetite, and she planned methods for restoring the things
without being discovered.
During her four years of imprisonment she did not learn the gergo or prisoner’s slang, would not
associate with her companions, and was always crying. She blushed slightly when questioned
concerning her periods.
Diagnosis.—This woman, under the stress of illnesses and need of money, was drawn to theft; she
was not, however, predisposed to crime, and (excepting the dissolute conduct of one brother) there
were no marked signs of hereditary degeneration. When we add that she was never given to orgies,
that she did not care to associate with her criminal companions, that she did not learn the gergo, that
she blushed when spoken to without due consideration, we must conclude that she is an occasional
criminal. If she had been in a comfortable social condition, and in good relation with her husband,
she would probably not have become a delinquent. (Giuseppe Abradi, Archivio di Psichiatria, vol. x.
Fasc. I.)
IV.—R. S., of Naples, age 23; height, m. 1.68; weight, kilog. 82.5. Soldier.
Traces on skin of wounds from fire-arms and knives; one on the abdomen given him by a woman.
Colour of skin is dark.
Tattoo marks on legs and arms: initials, daggers in memory of revenges to be accomplished, arrows
as records of love; on his hand a sun; also bears the signs of the camorra, of which, but only as a
great secret, he revealed the significance.
He declares that for him, and for the camorrista in general, tattooing is “a passion, an ambition, like
that, for example, of students for their collars and ties.” “The more one is tattooed,” he said, “the
more one is esteemed and feared by comrades, because it shows how far one has gone in the road
of crime.”
Hair on head thick and dark; complete absence of beard. Prognathism: forehead small and narrow
(165 × 48), lower jaw voluminous; eyes small and very mobile; frontal sinuses prominent. Has a
certain air of bonhomie in his face which contrasts with the cynicism with which he narrates his
criminal achievements.
Cranial measurements: longitudinal diameter, 187; transverse, 150; longitudinal curve, 364;
transverse, 310; maximum circumference, 557. Dynamometer: with both hands, 84; with right, 54;
with left, 43. Supports with extended arm a weight of kilog. 5 for fourteen minutes. Esthesiometer:
right, 3.5; left, 4.5. Electrical sensibility: right, 40; left, 45. Sensibility to pain: right, 0; left, 0. Slow to
distinguish colours, confusing blue and green. Thermometer: right, 37°5; left, 37°9.
Fond of wine; vicious since he was a child. Natural and unnatural sexual habits.
Except venereal disorders and a cyst, which he had as a child, has never been ill.
He has indeed been sent to a hospital as insane, but it was feigned, as he was then under trial, in
order to obtain “attenuating circumstances.”
By him and his family religion is regarded as merely imposture, and politics does not exist. In the
newspapers he only reads the police news, as that which alone concerns him.
At age of 10 was “sent to college” (i.e., house of correction), because he was found taking the
impression of a lock. There he was initiated in the camorra, exercised by the lads clandestinely.
On coming out, he committed numerous offences, of which more than one remained unpunished. He
wounded a prostitute whom he found with another lover. Thieved with dexterity, and was once
condemned to twenty-five months’ imprisonment. He robs from houses, and when opportunity offers
picks pockets. At a penal establishment he joined with others to rob the director. He confesses that in
his family, except one sister who is honest, all are rogues of his own stamp.
Maternal grandfather died at 60 in the hospital. Mother is healthy, but drinks; lost all her hair at 50;
condemned for fraud and wounding. Father had five years’ imprisonment for attempting to wound his
brother, a priest, who refused to give him money; also drinks, and when drunk is very lively. A
paternal uncle was condemned for “qualified” robbery. The maternal uncles are all camorristi.
He has five brothers and one sister. One, G., was four times in hospital, because when he committed
a grave offence he feigned madness; so far this game has always succeeded, and he has been
acquitted or punishment diminished. When he has money he is an angel, says R. S., but when he has
none, he flies from him like the plague, for he becomes furious. He is a drunkard, and once when
drunk severely wounded his mistress without cause.
Another brother, G., is a camorrista and sharper.
Another brother, E., does the elegant, and steals from “aristocrats”; suffers from dizziness, especially
in summer, or when near a fire.
A brother, N., calls himself an artist, takes impressions of locks, and makes false keys, for which he
demands a more or less elevated price, according to the amount of the booty. Also studies padlocks,
and makes facsimiles; does not rob on his own account, nor is he camorrista; and does not use the
knife even when drunk.
The last of the brothers, Gia., has been condemned more than once for robbery and picking pockets.
Is camorrista. (V. Rossi.)
V.—The following carefully-taken case (by Professor Angelo Zuccarelli, of Naples) of incorrigible
insubordination in a soldier is translated from L’Anomalo of January 1889, and is a model of careful
and systematic examination:—
Habitual conduct in the army, from 1881-1888, both on and off duty, is reported as bad; frequently
guilty of theft, insubordination and destruction of military effects. [Details here given of 59 offences,
with resulting punishments, during this period.]
The following facts are all that can be obtained as to his family and previous history:—
Among the ancestors of his parents some eccentricity.
Mother hysterical, with nymphomania, and deafness due to chronic otitis.
Father, a drunkard and irascible.
One sister imbecile, and another scrofulous.
A brother, instinctive thief, imprisoned for “qualified” theft.
All the family given to thieving.
Our subject, now 28 years old, had no education from his parents; was a shoemaker at Stilo (Reggio,
Calabria), his native place, where he had a bad reputation for idleness and thieving.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION.
Head.
Inspection and Palpation.—A considerable depression in the lambdoid region.
External occipital protuberance scarcely perceptible.
Markedly plagiocephalic on the right side, anteriorly; with plagio-prosopia on the same side.
Ears small; the right planted further back.
Prognathism of the superior maxilla.
Absence of the two upper middle incisor teeth, from a fall in childhood. Inferior dental arch, with
parabolic and oblique margin to the right; depressed on the right.
Colour of face, yellowish, pale.
Beard thin.

Measurements.—Circumference at the base cent. 54

Anterior semi-circumference " 28½
Posterior " " " 25½
Antero-posterior curve " 31
Transverse " " 31½
Approximate cranial capacity (results of three curves), 1165.
Maximum antero-posterior diameter mill. 182
 " transverse diameter " 147
Cephalic index, 80.76 (cranial type, sub-brachycephalic).
Bi-auricular diameter mill. 128
Bi-mastoid " " 126
Maximum frontal diameter " 104
Bi-orbital " " 108
Bi-maxillary " " 102
Height of the forehead " 56
" " face " 128
Length of nose (to tip) " 54½
Width " (base) " 32

Trunk and Limbs.

Body slender. Height medium.
Left mammary region depressed, and nipple lower than on right side. Posteriorly the left base of the
thorax rather less developed than the right.
Hands thin, with long and pointed fingers.
Tattoo marks on the two fore-arms: on the right a transfixed heart, a woman’s head, the letters F.
and B.; on the left two stars, one large, the other small, the letters L. and A. (his initials), a cross,
and nearer the wrist an indistinct sign ending in a B.
On the feet the two little toes are small, especially the left, out of proportion to the development of
the rest of the foot.
Hair sparse.
Superficial veins healthy, but varicose in left popliteal region. Genital organs little developed.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION.
Dynamometer.—Right hand, 90; left hand, 85.
Tactile sensibility.—On the tongue the two points of the esthesiometer are perceived only at a
distance of five mill. In general the sensibility is very feeble. Localisation very inaccurate; impressions
on one side often referred to the other.
Sensibility to pain.—Advanced hypoalgesia, while reiterated punctures fetching blood are felt as slight
touches. Burns with a lighted cigar are little if at all felt; but there is some dissimulation on the part
of the subject.
Thermal and meteoric sensibility.—Apparently abolished.
There has been no opportunity for electrical examination.
Sight.—Does not distinguish colours well; sees red best. Pupils react imperfectly.
Hearing.—On the right side says he cannot hear a watch in immediate contact; on the left only at a
short distance. In other ways his hearing has been found to be defective.
Smell.—Does not distinguish odours, of which in many cases he has no knowledge. Ammonia alone,
deeply inhaled for a few seconds, causes slight lachrymation on the right side.
Taste.—Perceives vinegar, but not salt, bitter or sweet substances. On offering him half a glass of
decoction of cinchona, and telling him that it is wine, and then another of vinegar, he swallows it all
eagerly without any indication of disagreeable sensations. On giving him a bitter substance, and
telling him it is sweet, he repeats that it is sweet, and vice versâ.
Appetite voracious; digestive functions normal. Circulation and respiration weak.

PSYCHICAL EXAMINATION.
Ideas very limited. No imagination or æsthetic sense. Memory very weak, limited to the most
elementary and primitive cognitions. Will feeble, in the absence of any morbid impulse.
Moral and affective sentiments almost entirely absent.
No disposition to occupy himself in any way; tendency to idleness and vagabondage.
Unrestrained onanism, to which he formerly gave way four or five times a day, now only about twice
a day, because, as he says, he is no longer strong enough. He confesses this without the least
shame, with complacency, almost with pleasure.
He is not without a certain shrewdness, which is, however, easily discovered. He seems to have learnt
from fellow-prisoners to pretend to feel nothing, and to be ready for anything.
He is capable of dissimulation, and of simulating at certain moments a state of feebleness beyond
what he feels.
In his cell he usually walks up and down with short, bent head, and surly look. He is only aroused in
moments of anger and violent impulsion.
He is often discontented with his food, and throws it away, breaking out into howls rather than cries,
and destroying everything—table, stools, etc. In this condition any opposition only renders him more
savage. Gentle methods often succeed better, especially when the stage of exhaustion sets in.
At other times the cause is some limitation to his tendency to free vagabondage. The animal-like
howls are set up; then comes the destruction of everything that surrounds him, and violences of all
sorts.
When he is interrogated in his calmer moments as to the reason of this, he replies that it is what they
do in his country.

DIAGNOSIS.
Advanced physical and psycho-physical degeneration. Phrenasthenia. Moral idiocy. Instinctive
criminality.

MEDICO-LEGAL AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS.

This is the case of an instinctive criminal, a person fatally and immutably impelled to vagabondage,
theft, and violence.
He bears the characters, physical and psycho-physical, of degeneration, of aberration, of
constitutional abnormality, sufficient for recognition. Especially noteworthy are the lambdoidal
depression, the marked plagiocephalia and plagio-prosopia, the superior prognathism, and the
inferior dental irregularities, the thoracic asymmetry, the pallid complexion, the hypoalgesia, the
weakness and perversion of some of the special senses, the unrestrained onanism, the predominant
love of vagabondage, the furious and animal-like anger, the destructive tendencies.
It is clear that all the admonitions and punishments inflicted during seven years, besides failing to
produce any good effects, succeeded in exercising, so to speak, the natural mechanism of his violent
impulses, and thus brutalised him still further. He is, therefore, incorrigible.
Of this the Military Tribunal of Naples were, as the result of this examination, convinced, declared
that our subject is irresponsible, and acquitted him.
But does the duty of science end here? Is this verdict sufficient for order and social security?
Surely not.
This individual, thus constituted, must be regarded as a perpetual source of danger. It is therefore
necessary to adopt a mode of treatment which, instead of brutalising him, will endeavour to obtain
from him the maximum social utility of which he is capable, while at the same time it will render it
impossible for him to injure other persons who are unlike himself.
For this purpose sequestration is necessary, the method of moral treatment and the watchful care
obtained within a criminal asylum.
VI.—The following report, by O. Hotzen (here abbreviated), appeared in the Vierteljahresschrift für
gerichtliche Medicin, and in the Archivio di Psichiatria for 1889, fasc. 2.
Maria Köster died at the age of 22 of tuberculosis; at the age of 18 she had killed her mother with a
hatchet; sixty wounds were found in the mother’s body, some of them penetrating the skull.
As until then the girl had always been of good character, quiet and hard-working, and on account of
her youthful age, she was examined by medical experts in order to ascertain if any morbid conditions
had limited her free will.
No mental alienation was recognised, especially at the time of the deed, but certain preceding morbid
phenomena and other subsequent circumstances led the experts to an opinion which resulted in the
commutation of the death penalty to which she had been condemned.
Among her maternal ancestors, and in the mother herself, there had been extreme avarice; they
were most eager of money, and possessed by the fury of gain; it was proved that this impulse had in
some members of the family paralysed the sentiments of equity and honesty.
The father was a drunkard.
The girl had a certain amount of education; she wrote, in an exact style, a diary of her impressions.
She had acted as a servant, as an assistant in a printing-office, as a sempstress. She was thin, and
slightly developed; menstruated at 19; had a very high opinion of herself.
Apparently of tranquil disposition, she was declared by some to be envious, a liar, and a thief.
Notwithstanding simulated indifference, she coveted the savings which her mother had scraped
together; she cherished hatred against her parents; continual quarrels and unworthy calumnies
revealed a heart apparently good, in reality selfish and depraved.
There was slight asymmetry of the face, due to flattening on the right side; there was no perceptible
lack of cranial symmetry.
The right pupil was larger than the left; both movable and perfectly sensitive.
She had hysterical attacks, which became rare before the deed, and were interpreted as a sexual
neurosis of puberty. These attacks began with præcordial anxiety and oppression of breathing, and
usually ended with a strong desire for movement, to which she yielded with only partial
consciousness. She was sometimes for hours in a semi-conscious condition, with extravagant
movements, vociferations, senseless talk, etc. Sometimes she exaggerated the attacks; at other times
opposed them. From papers that she wrote in prison, it appears that some of these attacks were
entirely simulated.
The sexual functions were very irregular; she pretended a want of inclination towards the other sex;
the hymen was found lacerated.
She wrote a romance of her life, leaving out everything that might cause disgust, and expressing
penitence for the attacks that she confessed to be simulated.
On her death-bed she developed attacks which were certainly not simulated.
She was very excitable, and her life was overspread by nervous tempests which, in spite of herself,
she was not able to dominate.
She had little love for her mother, who was avaricious and hard-hearted, and refused her the slightest
help.
In one of her papers, dating from the time of her most severe hysterical phenomena, there are
religious expressions marked by undoubted sincerity; but when religion did not afford the consolation
she expected, her zeal cooled and she went to the opposite extreme.
After a brief mental struggle, she quietly selected the necessary instruments, and studied her criminal
design to its smallest details, taking care to avoid discovery. After having formed her plans, she
passed the night in quiet sleep, and on the following day committed the deed.
In appearance everything was the work of premeditation and clear consciousness. After the deed she
astutely made insinuations against her father, who was entirely innocent of complicity; on her knees,
by her mother’s body, she declared her own innocence.
She carried simulation to a fine point of art, displaying during these days an energy and resolution
astonishing in a person so weak. It is clear that her deed had for the time raised her above herself.
She had a strange avidity for her mother’s goods. Her great desire was separation from the paternal
house and an independent position.
After the deed she said that she was no longer in the hands of Satan.
In prison she lived for more than three years without giving any sign of mental or of physical disease.
She bore herself in an unchanging, composed manner, depressed, free from all eccentricity; it was a
consolation to her to know that her father and her sister had forgiven her.
At the end of 1886 appeared signs of rapid tuberculosis, to which she succumbed. She died penitent,
feeling sure of reconciliation with God.
At the autopsy advanced tuberculosis was found in both lungs, also in the kidneys; this was the cause
of death.
The brain could not be examined immediately, and was therefore preserved.
The dura mater, adherent to the cranium externally, was white and lacking in lustre; internally there
were bright spots with red maculæ as distinct as in hemorrhagic pachymeningitis.
The brain was soft, humid, and very anæmic. Its weight, after the serum in the cavities had flowed
away, was 1164 grammes. The occipital lobes did not entirely cover the cerebellum.
The form of the brain was elliptic. The sulci appeared deep and large. The parietal and temporal
lobes were very large, with great development of the convolutions and numerous atypic clefts. The
frontal lobe was small compared to the parietal, and its convolutions compressed. The frontal and
occipital convolutions were not atypic except by their slight development.
There was scanty development of the frontal and occipital lobes, especially on the left side.
Conclusions.—We have here a real atrophy of the cerebral cortex, which has the characters of a
congenital hereditary degeneration. This atrophy is manifested in the insufficient development of the
frontal and, still more, the occipital convolutions, in the smallness of the convolutions, in the
incomplete covering of the cerebellum by the cerebrum, and by the number of atypical
segmentations in the cerebral cortex, representing (at all events in the opinion of Benedikt) a true
aplasia.
These sulci were not the result of superior development; in their neighbourhood there was no
increase in the cerebral substance; they are connected with a true atrophy of the cerebral mass. It is
impossible to admit the idea of atavistic regression. The connections found between the frontal and
inter-parietal fissures cannot be considered as the re-crystallisation of the primitive convolutions and
the longitudinal fissures which characterise especially the carnivorous type. All these deviations are
found separately in brains which have for the rest a normal structure. That which gives the morbid
character is the extraordinary amount of irregularity.
It cannot be denied that the left hemisphere was the most irregular, although there was no cranial
asymmetry; facial asymmetry only being recognisable.
This matricide suffered from a grave neurosis at puberty, which left traces up to near the time of the
homicide; her judgments of life were affected by a permanent and powerful morbid influence.
We cannot put into exact causal relation the degenerative changes in Maria Köster’s brain, and the
perturbations of her psychical activity during life, but we are justified in considering her not
completely responsible for all her actions.
 APPENDIX E.
Elmira.
In the Report for 1885 the Secretary of Schools writes:—
Like Practical Morality, English Literature was at the beginning voted a nuisance by the selected
members and greeted by them as a fresh infliction for the purpose of making more difficult the
earning of marks. Distaste was varied by positive anger; here and there a man suffered his first
bewilderment to pass into sullen unwillingness to make an attempt to understand the new study.
Several on receiving a play or an essay, opened the book and closed it, doggedly declaring they had
not the remotest idea of what was expected of them. Encouraging advice was given in every case of
this sort that came to light, and when the pressure of the approaching examination began to act,
nearly every man, willing or unwilling, attacked his author and his outlines. This first examination was
sufficiently creditable and the historical part at least was well done; but expected signs were not
wanting of mental confusion, of indifference, of ineffectual groping after an author’s very palpable
meaning, signs which revealed a likely material for mental discipline of the most valuable kind. The
only means of removing these difficulties seemed to lie in repeated doses of the same medicine, a
conclusion soon warranted by experience. Whatever could be was now done in the way of artificial
illumination, and when it appeared that examinations could be and actually were passed by many
men in the new subject, confidence began to dawn, and the authors were taken up for the next test
with less ugliness and far more of tolerance. In a little while the class gathered momentum and
became thoroughly a fact. The change was accompanied by phenomena which are unique from an
educational and psychological point of view.
Any one passing along our corridors and galleries might now have witnessed a curious spectacle—
that of a student of literature reading by gaslight, not the accustomed novel or light history, but the
Prologue of the Canterbury Tales, the tragedy of Hamlet, Emerson’s May-Day, or the story of
Evangeline; pondering over the weighted pages of Bacon, or keenly trying to read between the lines
of Browning’s Paracelsus; not rarely with a note-book at hand filled with private comments wrought
out against the coming examination. At the examinations, be it remembered, the pupil was required
to answer historical questions and, more important than this, to write out extemporaneously an essay
or report dealing with some topic, more or less extensive, growing out of the text of his author—
which topic was selected not by himself but by the Instructor on the day of the test. If one could
realise the mental process of a “tough” from the slums of the metropolis, who, after passing up from
class to class of our school, is forced to apply his intellectual faculties for the first time to the careful
reading of an essay of Macaulay or a poem of Goldsmith, to enter in short upon the terra incognita of
good literature; and if one could then conceive of the state of this same “tough” when, after six
months of application with growing susceptibility, he reads up for pure pleasure the history of the
Renaissance, searches the pages of Dante for illustrations of the text of Chaucer, ransacks our
reference library for specimens of early English;—if one could do this he would comprehend in some
measure what has been done by our class in English Literature. Our students, of course, were not
wholly without intellectual culture at the start. A few possessed a large amount of it. All had been
imbued with some sense of the excellence of culture by the labours of our lecturers in science,
philosophy, and history. The discussions in the Practical Morality class had awakened our
argumentative powers and developed a sharp relish for ethical questions. We had all had experience,
too, in the reading of standard works of fiction and even of books of utility; but the formal study of
an English, often of an old English, author, involving an examination, was something wholly new. A
direct movement towards pure æsthetic culture was unprecedented for men who generally demanded
that books should be amusing, should help to kill time in prison. The first effect was, as already
remarked, discouraging. English literature did not immediately “take.” But necessity made it take, and
the inevitable love of literature which quickly sprang up did the rest. The essays and poems were
conned over and over, and minds heretofore innocent of culture became saturated with the drinkable
gold of the classics. A change of feeling came over us; distaste passed into satisfaction as the
intrinsic beauty of the masters leavened our minds; indifference gave way to zeal and the study
became delightful. An interest feeble at first had grown rapidly. Among the early favourable
indications were the requests for information as to the lives of authors and the eager reading of
biographies and literary notices. Then arose the desire to read other works of a given author, or to be
allowed to spend another month in more minute study of a masterpiece already absorbed in the
rough. Notes poured steadily in upon me exhibiting in countless ways the growth of a sentiment
which can be termed nothing else than enthusiasm. It was a true naissance or birth of letters. Like
the scholars of the Revival period in England, our students, inspired by the simple love of learning,
sought culture everywhere. Every available source of enlightenment, every volume of classic English
in our reference library, was in its journey from hand to hand of our students a testimony to their
enthusiasm. Books which had long remained unused suddenly became very popular, and the delight
in reading expanded so as to include not merely literature but other lines as well—ethics, economics,
sociology, history, the ancient classics, natural science. Thus on a very small scale, but none the less
truly, our revival followed an instinctive development entirely similar to the great Renaissance. As we
write the interest is undiminished, but rather grows by its own great energy of motion. The new spirit
penetrates the whole life of the institution. In their social intercourse our inmates make regular topics
of books and authors; informal debates diversify the Dining Hall exercises, and the instructor is
gratuitously made the arbiter of frequent discussions of the “new learning.” Even with incorrigible and
indifferent men, who remain uninfected by enthusiasm, the simple strain of inexorable requirement
has proved and is proving valuable.
In the Report for 1888 Mr. Z. R. Brockway, the General Superintendent, writes of the literary training
of criminals:—
After many years’ experience in efforts to educate young criminals as a means of their reformation I
am more and more impressed with its importance. To progress from illiteracy to a good common
school education involves such changes, and increase of mind-power, that the prisoner, under similar
circumstances to those of his crime, will be likely to differently govern his conduct. Possessing more
of intelligence, he instinctively sees the consequences of misconduct more clearly than was possible
for him previously, and he will, even without consciously willing to follow good moral conduct for the
sake of morality, be more likely to follow it as the path of wisdom. It is, as the rule, idle to expect a
change of character without a change of mind; and without new habitudes, which are the result of
educational training, there cannot be confidently predicted any permanent change of mind. To
advance a young man from the habit of blind obedience to his instincts to habitual conduct, that is
self-regulated by more or less of reason, is to insure some change of character, and usually a change
for the better. The general library, although of but moderate proportions, contributes not a little to
such an educational advancement. The small reference library has, the year past, been well used
under pressure of a demand occasioned by the lectures, which are followed with examinations,
affecting the date of the prisoner’s release. The books in this library division are mainly of
philosophical, mechanical, historical, and biographical character, with a few poetical works from
standard authors. The librarian’s distribution receipt book shows that, of these reference library
books, there have been issued, by request during the year, 7588 books besides the issue of the
general library books, and a weekly issue of 400 magazines and periodicals. The taste for and habit
of reading that many have acquired while here, have, as we have reason to believe, followed and
remained with them at home after their release. Letters from parents and friends have been received
expressing their surprise and gratification that he who previous to his course of training here was
restless at home, hurrying to the street after the day’s work and evening meal, now since his return
from the reformatory, hurries home from his work, finding for himself, and imparting to others,
happiness with his books and quiet domestic enjoyments.
In the same Report Mr. Marvin, the instructor of the class in Practical Ethics, writes:—
The nature of the lessons may be expressed roughly by saying that the moral life has been taken up
as the subject of study, just as wealth is taken up in political economy, but no strictly theological
questions have been brought in. Such difficulties of thought regarding moral distinctions, motives
good and bad, conflicts of conscience, the justice and expediency of laws and governments, as
usually arise as people begin to reflect seriously upon the ways of the better social life, have been
considered, besides many practical questions regarding self-control, elevation of feeling and thought,
and the part of wisdom in every-day affairs. To provide a thread by which the lectures might be
connected into a systematic series, they have been thrown into the form of reviews of the views in
turn of the various master-minds in the department of ethical knowledge, as to the leading purpose
of the wise man. Many quotations from these writers have been given, so that the instruction has
afforded some information to the man of a historical or semi-philosophical character aside from its
main purpose.
The aim has been not so much to impart a knowledge of stereotyped facts and ideas as to stimulate
the minds of the men to obtain for themselves a true conception of the moral order of the world of
which they are members, and to form true convictions as to their relations to it. On this account both
sides of doubtful questions have been noticed and a decision called for. The leading consideration in
the selection of lecture topics from week to week has been the needs and interest already shown.
Free discussion has always been allowed, and in some cases it has seemed profitable to devote
almost the whole lesson period to it. This method not only holds the interest of the learners, even
causing it at times to run quite high, but enables the instructor to carry them along more readily to
desired conclusions.
The intelligence of the class is, I think, on the whole best compared to that of an advanced class in a
high school, some, of course, rising above this standard, others falling below. In general, as
compared with persons of similar age in the better classes outside, they seem to be bright and quick
rather than deep or close students. Their remarks in the class frequently bring forth applause or signs
of disapproval from their responsive fellows, and occasionally a vein of purer metal and greater depth
is touched. Without much liking for books, they seem to take naturally and successfully to the study
of human nature. As might be expected, they do not evince much previous reflection upon ethical
matters—not as much, I think, comparing them again to those of similar age outside, as upon
economic topics.
In what degree the purpose of this course of instruction has been accomplished cannot of course be
determined. The examination papers as a whole, taken with the conduct of the men in class and
elsewhere in the prison, seem to warrant the belief that considerable moral obscurity has been
removed. There is abundant evidence that cant and hypocrisy have less to do with answers in
examination than might be supposed, as the most superficial and refractory views are there
expressed with almost unbounded confidence in their truth, and are marked the same as more
approved views when the question calls for opinions.
In the Report for 1889 Mr. Brockway writes as follows of military drill and of physical training:—
The military drill of the inmates, which commenced a year ago, has been continued until now, and a
good degree of perfection has been reached. Ten companies compose a regiment of 803 men. Every
day the unemployed inmates are drilled in the forenoon; and all are drilled on Wednesday and
Saturday afternoons; there is a dress parade every evening at 4 o’clock, and once a month a
competitive examination is held, when all the companies compete for a set of badges to be worn for
the month by the commissioned officers of the successful company. Gradually the government of the
whole place is becoming a military government, largely by inmate military officers. The military
organisation was made possible, indeed made necessary, by the cessation of labour in August 1888,
in obedience to the Act of July of that year; but it has been found to be most serviceable in every
way. The health and bearing of the men is better, their habitual mental tone is improved, common
disciplinary difficulties have been diminished or well-nigh removed, and the military government of a
reformatory seems now almost indispensable to satisfactory management. Holding this view, I have,
by the authority of the managers, appointed a competent military instructor, Mr. Claude F. Bryan,
making thus what at first was but an experiment of military drill and government in a prison a
permanent department of training and a distinguishing feature of its disciplinary regime. The
regiment is fully officered with line and company officers, a good brass band with drum corps is
provided, and is in daily attendance at dress parade. Courts-martial and a weekly officers’ class for
the study of tactics are held under the guidance of Colonel Bryan, and, in all things, Upton’s tactics
are closely followed.
The building for the scientific physical renovating treatment of a considerable class of the inmates is
now nearly completed from funds provided by the legislature of 1888. It is 80 × 140 feet, with an
open trussed roof over the whole space. The exercising hall is 80 × 100 feet, and has suspended
upon the walls a gallery for pedestrian exercise. A space 40 × 80 feet of the eastern end is devoted
to baths, hot, warm, and plunge, and with rooms for massage treatment, etc., etc. Complete
scientific apparatus has been purchased, to be erected about the first of December, when, with the
enlarged opportunities and improved facilities, as well as with the added experience and study of the
physician and instructor, a most interesting, and, it is believed, valuable experiment will be made,
intended to demonstrate what possible improvement may be wrought with defectives and dullards, in
their mental and moral habitudes, by an improved physical tissue accomplished by wise and thorough
physical treatment.
 INDEX.
Alcoholism in relation to crime, 97, 144, 281

Animals, crime among, 203

Animals among criminals, love of, 153

Anthropometric identification of criminals, 276

Aram, Eugene, 135, 153

Aristotle, 27

Art, criminal, 190

Aubrey, 250

Barré, 20

Beltrani-Scalia, 36, 252, 264

Benedikt, 1, 43, 50, 61, 113, 237

Bertillon, A., 276

Bielakoff, 45

Bischoff, 60

Blushing in criminals, 121

Booth, J. W., 141

Borrow, G., 139

Bramwell, 290

“Breakings out” among criminals, 148

Brinvilliers, 129, 141

Broca, 61

Brockway, Z. R., 270

Byrnes, Inspector, 22, 81, 154

Campi, 86

Capital punishment, 235

Carpenter, Miss, 149, 238

Casanova, 151

Cellini, 187

Cerebral characteristics of criminals, 60

Ceuta, 240

Children, crime among, 210

Chrétien family, the, 96

Clarke, Vans, 59

Colajanni, 23, 208, 248, 299

Colour blindness in criminals, 117

Contagion of crime, 177

Corre, 128, 286

Cranial characteristics of criminals, 49

Crime, the factors of, 24;

biological origins of, 203;
among children, 210;
the increase of, 295;
largely a social fact, 297

Criminals, political, 1;
by passion, 2;
instinctive, 17;
occasional, 17;
habitual, 19;
professional, 21;
cranial and cerebral characteristics of, 49;
physiognomy of, 63;
anomalies of hair among, 72;
of body and viscera, 88;
tattooing among, 102;
their motor activities, 108;
their physical sensibilities, 112;
their moral insensibility, 124;
their intelligence, 133;
 their vanity, 139;
their emotional instability, 142;
their religion, 156;
their slang, 161;
their literature and art, 176;
their philosophy, 193;
the treatment of, 233;
the training of, 260;
at Elmira, 264;
anthropometric identification of, 276;
treatment of occasional, 278;
regarded as heroes, 283

Crothers, 99

Crozes, 182

Dalla Porta, 28

Dally, 32

Davitt, 125, 162, 170, 238

Death, criminals’ ways of meeting, 128, 158

Despine, 33, 126

Desprez, 143

Disvulnerability of criminals, 113

Dixon, Hepworth, 80

Dostoieffsky, 121, 124, 130, 147, 153, 155, 193, 214, 276

Down, Langdon, 66, 84, 93, 150

Drago, Luis del, 45

Drill, 45

Ear in criminals, the, 65

Elmira Reformatory, 92, 99, 183, 264

Epilepsy and crime, 228

Epileptics, 150

Eyesight in criminals, 116

Fallot, 62

Féré, 43, 68, 280

Ferri, E., 23, 40, 78, 203

Flesch, 43, 62

Flogging, 274

Frigerio, 67, 70

Frontal crests, 51

Galen, 27

Gall, 29, 61, 124

Galton, 109

Gambling among criminals, 144

Garofalo, 40, 78, 250, 259

Gautier, E., 81, 97, 143, 247

General paralysis and crime, 228

Giacomini, 61

Gradenigo, 118

Grohmann, 29

Guerra, 88

Hair among criminals, anomalies of, 72

Hearing of criminals, 117

Heredity in criminals, 90

Hervé, 62

Holmgren, 117

Horsley, 35, 159, 162, 170, 252

Idiocy and crime, 228

Idiots, 65, 68, 73, 93, 112, 117, 150, 228

Inebriates, treatment of, 281

Insanity and the criminal, 289

Insane, the, 89, 107, 150

Japan, a prison in, 272

Joly, 19, 82, 157, 176

Jury, the, 292

“Jukes” family, the, 100, 222

Kocher, 43

Korosi, 96

Krafft-Ebing, 43

Krapotkine, 144, 155, 240, 246, 256

Krauss, 43, 134

Lacassagne, 24, 42, 88, 103, 106, 288

Lacenaire, 22, 153, 196, 203, 285

Laurent, 191

Lauvergne, 31, 159

Lavater, 29

Lebiez, 21, 181

Left-handedness in criminals, 108

Lélut, 32, 60

Liszt, 49

Literature, criminal, 176

Lombroso, 1, 36, 64, 72, 79, 83, 102, 120, 122, 170

Manouvrier, 43, 64

Marro, 41, 83, 93, 133, 157, 217

Maternity and crime, 218

Maudsley, 33

Mayhew, 148, 215

Menesclou, 85

Meningitis among criminals, 63

Mingazzini, 52

Moral insanity, 17, 91, 211, 229

Moreau, Abbé, 142

Morel, 32

Motor activity of criminals, 108

Muscular anomalies in criminals, 88

Naples, criminality of, 156

Nicolson, 35, 113, 149

Nose in criminals, the, 70

Occipital fossa in criminals, median, 51

Orgy, criminals’ love of, 145

Ottolenghi, 42, 66, 70, 71, 75, 111, 116, 118

Oxycephaly in criminals, 50

Pallor in criminals, 71

Penta, 41

Philosophy, criminal, 193

Physiognomy of criminals, 78

Pike, L. O., 207

Polemon, 28

Prins, 44, 47, 249, 299

Prison, the, 239

Prison inscriptions, 169

Professional criminals, 21, 223

Prostitution and crime, 218

Proverbs about criminals, 26, 78

Quetelet, 24

Ramlot, 115

Recidivism among women, 215

Religion of criminals, 156

Remorse among criminals, 129

Restif de la Bretonne, 74

Richter, 3

Rossi, 41, 99, 113, 130

Ruscovitch, 200

Salillas, 44, 145, 150

Salsotto, 42, 73, 129, 219

Savages, crime among, 205

Schneider, Marie, 7

Seneca, 28

Sensibility in criminals, physical, 112

Sentiment among criminals, 152

Sergi, 83

Sexual anomalies in criminals, 89

Sexual differences in criminals, 59, 118-19, 129, 214-21

Sexual perversity among criminals, 144

Smell in criminals, sense of, 118

Socrates, 27

Sollier, Alice, 65

Songs, criminal, 180

Stephen, Justice, 290

Summary, The, 183

Sutherland, H., 74

Tarde, 42, 205, 224

Tarnowskaia, 45, 64, 221

Taste in criminals, 119

Tattooing among criminals, 102

Taverni, 300

Tenchini, 51

Thieves’ slang, 61

Thomson, Bruce, 84

Tobacco among criminals, use of, 121

Tommasi, 42

Topinard, 60, 226

Troizki, 45

Turner, Sir W., 209

Vagabondism and crime, 222

Vallès, 254

Van Hamel, 44, 47

Vaso-motor sensibility of criminals, 121

Verlaine, 187

Vice and crime, relations of, 221

Vidocq, 135, 140, 146

Villon, 135, 186

Virchow, 64, 202

Virgilio, 41

Voisin, 32

Wainewright, T. G., 12, 96, 127, 153, 178, 195

Warner, F., 301

Wey, H. D., 88, 121, 261, 264

Wild, Jonathan, 136

Willis, 29

Wilson, G., 34

Wines, F., 255-6

Women, crime among, 214

Zanardelli Code, 36

Zigoma in criminals, 84

Zuccarelli, 41

Printed by Walter Scott, Felling, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Footnotes:
[1] Sander and Richter, Die Beziehungen zwischen Geistesstorung una Verbrechen. See also
Lombroso, L’Uomo Delinquente, vol. ii., part 3, ch. 1, for many facts and figures concerning criminal
insanity.
[2] Journal of Mental Science, October 1889. This case may be compared with that of Maria Köster,
given in the Appendix D, vi.
[3] Dr. H. Sutherland, West Riding Asylum Reports, vol. vi.
[4] Quoted by Despine, Psychologie Naturelle.
[5] Appendix by Dr. Paul Lindau to German translation of Lombroso, Der Verbrecher.
[6] See Introduction by W. C. Hazlitt to Wainewright’s Essays and Criticisms, 1880.
[7] Lombroso and some other authorities prefer the term “born criminal,” or “congenital criminal”
(reo-nato). The term “instinctive criminal” seems to be safer, as it is not always possible to estimate
the congenital element.
[8] Scenes from a Silent World. By a Prison Visitor. 1889.
[9] H. Joly, Le Crime, 1888, p. 269.
[10] Whoever wishes to study the modern professional criminal and his methods should consult
Inspector Byrnes’ Professional Criminals of America. It is not a scientific work, and has no reference
to anthropologic methods, but it contains a very large and valuable series of photographs of
contemporary criminals of note, with a sketch of the career of each.
[11] The classification of criminals adopted in this chapter corresponds substantially with that of
Professor Enrico Ferri, by him recognised as provisional. It is also, I find, almost identical with Dr.
Colajanni’s.
[12] Seneca also advocated, in a similar way, the removal without vengeance of noxious members of
the social body: “At corrigi nequeunt, nihilque in illis lene aut spei bona capax est?—Tollantur e coetu
mortalium facturi pejora quæ contingunt et quo uno modo possunt, desinant esse mali; sed hoc sine
odio. Nam quis membra sua tunc odit cum abscidit? Non est illa ira, sed misera curatio. Rabidos
effigimus canes, et trucem atque immansuetum bovem occidimus, et morbidibus pecoribus, ne
gregem polluant, ferrum dimittimus. Nec ira sed ratio est, a sanis inutilia secernere.”—De Ira, lib. i.,
cap. 15.
[13] This is the term now generally used to signify the science of the criminal. It is, however, open to
objection. “Criminal Psychology” has been suggested, but is somewhat narrow. Professor Liszt has
proposed “Criminal Biology,” and at the last International Congress of Criminal Anthropology, Topinard
suggested “Criminology.” “Criminal Anthropology,” however, is so widely used that I have not ventured
to introduce any substitute. The reader must remember that criminal anthropology, although related
to general anthropology, is not merely a branch of that science.
[14] For a brief summary of its proceedings, see Appendix B.
[15] See Appendix C.
[16] It is worthy of note, as Lombroso remarks, that the first investigator of the criminal in England
on modern scientific lines should be a clergyman—the Rev. W. D. Morrison. See his “Reflections on
the Theory of Criminality” in the Journal of Mental Science, April 1889.
[17] This, and most of the other opinions of Professor Benedikt quoted in this section, are from
Kraniometrie und Kephalometrie, Vienna, 1889.
[18] The evolutionary tendency of the skull among the higher vertebrates seems to be from the
asymmetrical to the symmetrical, while the tendency of the brain is from the symmetrical to the
asymmetrical. See M. O. Fraenkel: “Etwas über Schädel-Asymmetrie und Stirnnaht,” Neurologisches
Centralblatt, August 1, 1888.
[19] Archivio di Psichiatria. 1888. Fasc. VI.
[20] For an admirable statement of the present condition of the question see an article by Professor
Fallot of Marseilles, “Le Cerveau des Criminels,” in the Archives de l’Anthropologie Criminelle, 15th
May 1889. Lombroso’s treatment of this question is extremely brief, and not always accurate.
[21] “Lectures on Physiognomical Diagnosis of Disease.” Medical Times, 1862.
[22] “Contributions à l’Étude de quelques Variétés Morphologiques de l’Oreille Humaine.” Revue
d’Anthropologie, 15th April, 1886.
[23] Dr. F. Warner, “Form of Ear as a Sign of Defective Development.” Lancet, 15th Feb. 1890.
[24] Schwalbe, who distinguishes five principal forms of the Darwinian tubercle, regards it as normal,
and believes that with a little practice it might be discovered in nearly all ears. This may well be, but
in its distinctly marked form it can scarcely be called normal.
[25] See his paper, “Lo Scheletro e la forma del naso nei criminali, nei pazzi, negli epilettici e nei
cretini,” in the Archivio di Psichiatria for 1888. Fasc. I.—Professor Héger, in a communication to the
Société d’Anthropologie of Brussels, remarks that he is able to confirm many of Dr. Ottolenghi’s
conclusions with reference to the nasal aperture in the cranium, by examination of the skulls of
Belgian murderers.
[26] Almost as well marked as this tendency to fair hair among Italian sexual offenders—which
possibly may be a question of race—is the predominance of blue eyes. Ottolenghi, who considers it as
one of the most constant characters of the class, gives the following figures:—

Blue. Brown. Greenish.

Normal persons 29.04 per cent. 63.91 per cent. 7.05 per cent.
Criminals 35.80 " 59.50 " 4.70 "
Sexual offenders 49.60 " 45.76 " 4.64 "

Bichromatism (irregular colouring) of the iris is also found with unusual frequency in this class of
offenders.
[27] Ottolenghi, “La canizie, la calvizie e le rughe nei criminali.” Archivio di Psichiatria, 1889, Fasc. I.
[28] The surgeon of Leeds prison, in his answers to my Questions, records his opinion that the red-
haired are “relatively more prevalent” among prisoners than among the ordinary population. This
opinion stands alone, nor is it supported by any figures.
[29] “Des Anomalies des organes génitaux chez les idiots et les épileptiques.” Progrès Medical, No. 7,
1888.
[30] Ottolenghi, “Nuove Ricerche sui rei contro il buon costume.” Archivio di Psichiatria, 1888. Fasc.
VI.
[31] Ottolenghi, “II Ricambio Materiale nei Delinquenti-nati.” Archivio di Psichiatria, 1886. Fasc. IV.
[32] American Medico-Legal Journal, June 1888.
[33] The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity. By R. L. Dugdale. Putnam’s,
New York, 1877. It may be as well to mention that when Continental writers refer to the “Yucke,” or
“Yuke,” family, they mean the “Jukes.”
[34] The cost being, at a very moderate estimate, 47,000 dollars for a single family during 75 years.
The total cost Dugdale estimates at a million and a quarter dollars during this period, without taking
into consideration the entailment of pauperism and crime on succeeding generations. The hereditary
blindness of one man cost the town 23 years of out-door relief for two people, and a town burial.
[35] For the sake of comparison with the non-criminal population, it may be mentioned that among
2739 soldiers of the Italian infantry Baroffio found only 41 tattooed—that is, 1.50 per cent.
[36] This cause doubtless plays the chief part in keeping up the practice of tattooing among the
wealthy and well-to-do. A London professor of the art, when asked by a representative of the Pall
Mall Gazette to what class of society his customers chiefly belonged, replied: “Mostly officers in the
army, but civilians too. I have tattooed many noblemen, and also several ladies. The latter go in
chiefly for ornamentation on the wrist or calf, or have a garter worked on just below the knee.” “On
what part of the body are most of your clients tattooed?” “Mostly on the chest or arm; but some are
almost completely covered, patterns being worked on their legs and back as well. They do not care to
have patterns where they would be seen in everyday life.”
[37] “Among savage women (with the exception of the Kabyles and the Arabs) the custom,” remarks
Lombroso, “is very infrequent. It scarcely ever goes beyond the arms or cheeks. Still less can one say
that it has been adopted by the honest women of Europe, even of the poorest class, except in some
rare valleys of Venetia where the peasant women trace a cross on their arms. Parent-Duchatelet
found that prostitutes of the lowest order tattooed their arms, shoulders, armpits, or pubis with the
initials or name of their lover, if young, or their tribade, if old, changing these signs, even thirty times
(with the aid of acetic acid), according as their caprices changed. Among the prostitutes of Verona, as
I have learnt from a police official, some instances of tattooing have been noted (hearts, initials,
etc.), but only among those who had already been in prison.”
[38] “Il tatuaggio nel Manicomio d’ Ancona,” Cronaca del Manicomio d’ Ancona, Nov. 1888.
[39] West Riding Asylum Reports, vol. vi.
[40] “Il Mancinismo anatomico nei criminali,” Archivio di Psichiatria, 1889. Fasc. VI.
[41] At Tahiti and Viti the sexual organs were sometimes tattooed. Among 142 tattooed criminals,
Lombroso found 5 with designs on the penis; Lacassagne’s very extensive researches show a smaller
proportion (11 out of 1,333).
[42] The dependence of disvulnerability on insensibility is well shown in Delboeuf’s experiment: he
made two equal and symmetrical wounds on the right and left shoulders of a hypnotised subject, and
suggested insensibility on the right side. That side healed much more rapidly.
[43] Journal Anthropological Institute, Nov. 1889.
[44] Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie of Brussels, 1885.
[45] “L’occhio dei delinquenti,” Archivio di Psichiatria, 1886. Fasc. VI.
[46] Charles Oliver, “The Eye of the Adult Imbecile.” Transactions of the American Ophthalmological
Society, 1887.
[47] Archivio di Psichiatria, Fasc. III.-IV., 1889.
[48] For the sake of comparison, Gradenigo gives the result of examination of 69 men and women
belonging to the ordinary population, chiefly the lower class. Of these 44.6 per cent. of the men, and
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