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Questionnaire  6  
COMMUNICATION  COMPETENCE  *  
 
NEGOTIATION  7e  
LEWICKI  ▪  BARRY  ▪  SAUNDERS  

 
Objectives  
  This  questionnaire  is  designed  to  help  respondents  diagnose  their  level  of  communication  
competence.  Communication  competence  is  a  broad  construct  that  refers  to  the  ability  to  accurately  
assess  situations  and  other  people  and  respond  to  them  in  ways  that  allow  the  party  to  get  what  they  
want,  while  still  complying  with  rules  and  social  expectations.  
 
Changes  from  6th  Edition:    None    
 
 
 
RECOMMENDED  READING  ASSIGNMENTS  TO  ACCOMPANY  THIS  EXERCISE:  
 
Reader:    2.4  Negotiating  with  Emotion;  2.9  Harnessing  the  Science  of  Persuasion;  2.10  The  
                                   Six  Channels  of  Persuasion;  4.1  Women  Don’t  Ask;  4.3  Becoming  a  Master    
                                   Negotiator;  4.4  Should  You  Be  A  Negotiator?  
 
Text:    7  (Communication);  15  (Personality  and  Abilities  in  Negotiation)  
 
Essentials:    7  (Communication)  
 

Operational  Needs  
 
Group  Size    No  constraints.  Can  be  done  with  any  size  group.  
   
Time  Required    About  10  minutes  to  complete  the  questionnaire,  5-­‐10  minutes  to  score,  30-­‐60  
minutes  to  discuss  and  debrief.  
 
Special  Materials  Student  manual  has  copies  of  the  questionnaire,  scoring  key  is  printed  as  an  
Appendix  to  this  IM  copy.  
 
Physical  Requirements    None  
   

Advance  Preparation  
Questionnaire  may  be  completed  by  students  in  advance  or  in  the  classroom.  Scoring  may  also  take  
place  in  advance  or  in  the  classroom.    The  Instructor  should  be  familiar  with  the  structure  of  the  
questionnaire  and  be  able  to  answer  questions  about  the  scales  and  their  meaning.  Read  the  
Debriefing  the  Exercise  section  of  this  note  and/or  the  resources  noted  at  the  end  of  this  note.  

*  Note  prepared  by  Roy  j  Lewicki  

 -­‐2-­‐  

 
 
Operating  Procedures  
1. Have  students  complete  the  questionnaire  in  class  or  for  homework.  
 
2. Photocopy  the  scoring  key  from  this  Instructor’s  manual  and  distribute  a  copy  to  each  student.    
 
3. Spend  10-­‐15  minutes  talking  through  the  conceptual  base  of  the  questionnaire  with  students.    
 
4. Options  for  further  discussion:  
 
•  ask  students  to  meet  in  small  groups  to  discuss  their  scores  
•  ask  students  to  think  of  examples  of  times  when  they  performed    
“competently”  or  “incompetently”  in  each  area  
 
5. You  may  be  able  to  find  films  that  present  good  examples  of  communication  competence.    Here  
are  two  that  were  suggested  to  us:  
 
•  A  positive  example  is  provided  in  the  initial  meeting  between  Melanie  Griffith  and  Sigourney  
Weaver  in  Working  Girl.  The  most  interesting  discussion  question  is  whether  Weaver  is  actually  
aware  of  what  she's  doing  to  Griffith  or  not.    She  does  a  great  job  of  setting  up  the  power  
dynamic  between  them,  but  does  this  make  her  "competent"?  
 
•  A  negative  example  of  incompetence  is  provided  in  Steve  Martin  and  Goldie  Hawn's  initial  
meeting  in  Housesitter.    He  can't  read  a  single  clue,  and  she,  recognizing  this,  has  a  great  time  
with  him.  
 
 

What  to  Expect  

This  questionnaire  is  probably  best  used  during  that  part  of  a  negotiation  course  when  you  are  
either  focusing  on  individual  differences  in  negotiation  style,  or  on  communication  and  persuasion  
processes  
 

Debriefing  the  Exercise  

  In  the  article  mentioned  in  the  references,  Duran  and  Spitzberg  describe  their  efforts  in  
developing  a  scale  of  the  components  of  communication  competence.  Their  analysis  of  a  number  of  
similar  constructs,  scale  construction  and  refinement,  and  further  item  analysis  and  validation,  lead  
them  to  propose  five  key  components  of  communication  competence:  
 
Planning  cognitions.  This  is  ability  to  anticipate,  rehearse  and  monitor  topics  of  conversation—
anticipate  the  audience,  plan  what  one  is  going  to  say  in  advance,  etc.  Items  
 
Presence  cognitions.  This  is  the  awareness  of  how  the  other  is  reacting  to  a  conversation—
knowing  when  to  recognize  others  negative  reactions  or  resistance,  change  the  subject,  etc.    
 
 -­‐3-­‐  

Modeling  cognitions.  This  measures  the  respondent’s  awareness  of  contextual  variables  that  
provide  information  about  how  to  interact  with  the  other  party—i.e.  “sizing  up”  the  environment,  
paying  attention  to  how  other  people  are  reacting  and  responding,  etc.  
 
Reflection  cognitions.  This  measures  the  tendency  for  the  respondent  to  reflect  upon  a  
communication  performance,  with  the  objective  being  to  improve  one’s  self  presentation  (e.g.  
reflecting  on  what  I  said,  my  past  performance,  what  I  could  have  said,  etc.)  
Consequence  cognitions.  This  measures  the  respondent’s  awareness  of  the  consequences  of  a  
communication  performance  (e.g.  thinking  about  how  others  might  interpret  what  I  have  said,  
understanding  the  effects  of  my  communication  on  others,  etc.)        
 
  In  the  article,  the  authors  describe  the  research  foundations  of  a  cognitive  perspective  on  
communication  competence,  and  the  difficulty  of  creating  such  a  measure.    Extensive  references  are  
provided  to  link  communication  competence  to  other  perspectives  on  communication  competence  
and  other  comparable  measures.    A  few  key  principles:  
 
1. Cognitive  communication  competence  is  conceptualized  as  a  function  of  four  mental  processes:  
 
Ø anticipation  of  situational  variables  that  have  the  potential  to  influence    
one’s  communication  behaviors;  
Ø perception  of  the  consequences  of  one’s  communication  choices;  
Ø immediate  reflection  on  those  events;  and  
Ø continued  reflection  upon  the  choices  one  has  made.  
 
2.      Three  constructs  that  measure  different  aspects  of  the  cognitive  process          
             involved  in  producing  competent  performances  were  chosen  as  construct        
             validation  variables:  
 
Ø communicative  knowledge—knowing  what  to  say  and  do  in  communication  contexts.    This  
relates  to  cognitive  processes  responsible  for  perceptions  of  self-­‐efficacy,  confidence  and  
assertiveness.    
Ø interaction  involvement—related  to  effectiveness  in  face-­‐work  and  face-­‐waving,  both  of  
which  are  accomplished  by  perceptiveness  and  attentiveness.    It  is  the  ability  to  observe  the  
other  and  how  the  other  is  responding  to  self.    There  are  three  major  constructs  of  
interaction  involvement  are:  
•  responsiveness  
•  perceptiveness  
•  attentiveness  
 
Ø self-­‐monitoring—the  individual’s  ability  to  adapt  his/her  self-­‐presentation  to  the  
requirements  of  the  context.    Individuals  high  in  self-­‐monitoring  are  able  to  perceive  
situational  cues  and  alter  their  communication  performance  accordingly.  Individuals  who  
are  strong  in  self-­‐monitoring  tend  to  be  strong  in  acting  ability,  extraversion  and  other-­‐
directedness.    Self-­‐monitoring  itself  consists  of  two  major  scale  components:  
•  ability  to  modify  self-­‐presentation  
•  sensitivity  to  expressive  behavior  
 
3.    Research  results  indicate  the  following  relationship  between  the        
 -­‐4-­‐  

         communication  competence  scale  and  these  three  major  constructs:  

 
a. Self-­‐monitoring:  
•     Ability  to  modify  self-­‐presentation  was  significantly  related  to  a  high  score  
on  presence  cognitions.  
•     Sensitivity  to  others  was  significantly  related  to  high  scores  on  presence  
cognitions  and  modeling  cognitions.  
b. Interaction  involvement:  
•     Perceptiveness  was  significantly  related  to  high  scores  on  presence  
cognitions  and  modeling  cognitions.  
•     Responsiveness  was  significantly  related  to  high  scores  on  planning  
cognitions  and  reflection  cognitions.  
•     Attentiveness  was  significantly  related  to  high  scores  on  planning  cognitions  
and  reflection  cognitions.  
c. Communication  Knowledge:  
•     Communication  knowledge  was  significantly  related  to  high  scores  on  
presence  cognitions,  modeling  cognitions,  reflection  cognitions  and  
consequence  cognitions.    
 

References  
 
Duran.  R.  L  &  Spitzberg,    B.H.  (1995)  Toward  the  development  and  validation  of  a  measure  of  
cognitive  communication  competence.  Communication  Quarterly,  43,  259-­‐275.  
   
 -­‐5-­‐  

Appendix

Questionnaire  5  
Communication  Competence  Scoring  Key  

Planning  Cognitions   Reflection  Cognitions  

1.            ________   4.          __________  
9.            ________   6.          __________  
12.        ________   10.      __________  
15.        ________   14.      __________  
19.        ________   20.      __________  
Total:  ________   Total:__________  

Presence  Cognitions  
Consequence  Conditions  
3.          _________  
5.            __________  
7.          _________  
11.        __________  
17.      _________  
16.        __________  
22.      _________  
21.        __________  
Total:  ________  
Total:  __________  
 

Modeling  Cognitions  
2.          __________  
8.          __________  
 
13.      __________  
18.      __________  
Total:  _________  

 
 
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are excellent. The Franciscan Fathers have for some time maintained
missions and a few schools among these nomadic Papagoes and the
Presbyterian Board of Missions has also several chapels and schools
in the chief villages.
“These Papagoes on the public domain have no title whatsoever
to the lands where they have made their homes from time
immemorial The desert nature of their country is such that thus far
they have had little contact with white settlers. The time is, however,
fast approaching when the better parts of the land which they occupy
will be desired by white settlers or prospectors. A railroad project,
the Tucson-Ajo Railroad, has already put a survey through the Santa
Rosa Valley for the purpose of transporting the output of the Ajo
Mines in Southern Arizona to market and opening the country to
settlement. If this project is completed it will mean the coming of
Whites into this territory and inevitably imperil the continued
occupation by the Indians of the irrigable lands. In order to preserve
the rights of these people it is our judgment that a number of
Executive Order Reservations drawn upon lines to be recommended
by the Department of the Interior should at once be made. The
reservations should contain the lands adjacent to the villages which
are needed for farming and grazing purposes and sufficient sources
of water supply for irrigation, stock and domestic use. The village
sites and the water sources should be held in common. The
allotments heretofore made to Indians upon the public domain
should then be cancelled where actual residence has not been
established. Any delay will greatly imperil the character and
prospects of these self-sustaining Indians, who have never had any
trouble with white men, and who deserve the sympathy and
protection of the Government.
“An almost equally urgent situation exists on the Papago
Reservation itself. The Indian population on the reservation is
mostly centered about the Agency at San Xavier. This is the only part
of the reservation where there is water. The remainder is arid and
uninhabitable. These Indians are also self-supporting and well
governed by their own tribal laws and chiefs. Their farms are
productive, wherever water can be secured, and they have good
habits, so long as they remain beyond the evil influences of the
neighboring city. Their continued welfare is obviously dependent
upon the supply of water. The Tucson Farms Company has acquired
practically all the land between the Agency and the City of Tucson,
and is opening this land for cultivation. The Farms Company also
owns the land bordering the reservation on the east and a
considerable tract to the south of the reservation. There is naturally
some conflict as to the water rights between the Farms Company and
the Indians. The welfare of the City of Tucson can evidently be
promoted by increasing the agricultural productiveness of the land
held by the Farms Company and the plans by which the Farms
Company hopes to encourage settlement are well-devised, but it
must be borne in mind that the Indians, who have lived at San Xavier
for many generations, have the prior claim upon the water supply. It
is hoped and expected that there is in the Santa Cruz Valley enough
water for both the Indians and the incoming white settlers, but the
utmost vigilance will be necessary to protect the rights of the Indians
to the water which is absolutely essential to their well-being.
“The trust patents under which most of the Indians near the
Agency hold their allotments will expire in the course of the next two
or three years. The officers of the Farms Company evidently expect at
that time to acquire title to the Indian lands together with any
improvements which the Indians or the Indian Service may have
made. It is much to be feared that the Indians will too readily yield to
this temptation to sell their lands. We earnestly recommend that
these trust patents be extended and the Indians thus protected. It
appears that the lines of the original allotments were badly surveyed,
and the present fences or boundaries of the Indian allotments do not
conform to the survey. If, therefore, an Indian should sell his
allotment, he will very probably be selling the land occupied by the
homestead of another Indian. We recommend, therefore, that new
allotments be made to the Papago Indians living at San Xavier, and
that trust patents be dated from the time of the new allotment. By
the adoption of this plan not only the lines of the allotments will be
correctly adjusted, but also the Indians will be protected in the
possession of their lands.
“We understand there is litigation pending between the
Government and the Tucson Farms Company in regard to the title to
the Berger Ranch at San Xavier. The Agency offices and residence
have always been located in the buildings of this ranch and it is
obvious that the Government must own and control the property.
The suit should be pressed to settlement and title established.
 “Irrigation. The plans for the irrigating of the Indian land at San
Xavier have been well studied and the report of the Superintendent
of Irrigation is on file at the Indian Bureau (Senate Document No.
973, 62d Congress, 3rd Session). We recommend the adoption of the
plan there suggested, but only if the trust patents can first be
extended. In other words, it is obviously undesirable for the
Government to expend a considerable sum of money for irrigating
Indian lands which in the course of two years may become the
property of the Tucson Farms Company. It is true that better
irrigation will increase the value of the Indian lands and the Indians
will secure more for their property than they otherwise would, but it
is to be feared that this increase in price will simply accrue to the
benefit of the saloon keepers at Tucson and other persons eager to
prey upon the Indians. In order to save these self-respecting,
industrious and peaceful Indians from demoralization and
vagabondage, we earnestly recommend: (1) The extension of the
trust patents under which they now hold their lands, and (2) the
prompt adoption and carrying out of the plans by which they will
obtain an adequate and reliable supply of water.
“Schools. The Government maintains only two small day schools
for the Papagoes, whether living on the reservation or upon the
public domain. A few elementary schools are also maintained by the
Catholic and Presbyterian Missions. It is not necessary for the
Government to duplicate these schools. They cannot, however, reach
more than a small proportion of the school population. Without
further and more careful survey of the best centers of population, we
do not wish to recommend the establishment of any considerable
number of Government day schools. They will naturally be
established where permanent water supplies can be developed. We
believe, however, that provisions should at once be made for the
opening of day schools at the villages known as Indian Oasis and
Coyote, which are natural centers of population within the proposed
new Executive Order Reservations. We understand that plans have
already been formed for the establishment of the first of these
schools.
“Health. The health conditions among the Papagoes are not
different from those on other Indian reservations. There is a great
deal of tuberculosis and trachoma, and there are no hospital
provisions whatever. We earnestly recommend the establishment of
field hospitals at San Xavier and at Indian Oasis. These hospitals
should be of slight construction, but they are greatly needed for the
welfare of the Indians.
“Liquor. The Indians living on the Papago Reservation and on
the public domain seem to be well protected because of their
remoteness from white settlements, their own good habits, the
vigilance of the Agency officers, and the influence of the
missionaries. The Indians living near Tucson, Casa Grande or
Maricopa are much more exposed to temptation and are too often
demoralized and vicious.
“Native Industries. It is highly desirable that the Papagoes
should be encouraged both in the industries by which they have
always sustained themselves and also in the arts which they practice.
They are remarkably successful desert cultivators. They have more to
teach Whites about desert farming than the Whites can teach them.
Nevertheless, there are certain methods of farming which can be
brought to their attention by skilful and tactful Government farmers,
and we commend the present activity of these officers. In particular
the Indians can be helped in the use and conservation of water, and
in the securing of water for domestic purposes apart from its use for
stock. The Superintendent of Irrigation has now at his disposal a
small appropriation which he is using to discover and develop new
sources of water supply and in teaching the Indians to separate their
own drinking-water from the water used for the stock.

INDIAN BUILDINGS OF RECENT CONSTRUCTION

On an allotment near Wewoka, Okla.

“The Papago Indians are at present a primitive, but self-

supporting people. The Government does very little for them. Their
livelihood is now seriously threatened. A failure on the part of the
Government to protect them in their land and water rights, will be
most disastrous. The Indians will become homeless outcasts and a
menace to all southern Arizona. There is abundant evidence to justify
the conviction that neglect of the Papagoes at this time will result in
the corruption and degradation of these worthy Indians, and write
another chapter of disgrace in the history of our dealings with our
Indian wards. Now, before irreparable harm is done, is the time to
act. An ounce of prevention now, will be worth pounds of cure later.
To prevent the threatening abuse, to protect these deserving Indians
and to promote their permanent welfare, it is necessary; 1st, To
establish Executive Order Reservations on that part of the public
domain where some 5000 Papagoes have always made their homes,
and provide for their efficient administration. 2nd, To extend the
trust patents of the Indians holding allotments at San Xavier and
provide for the adequate irrigation of their lands. 3rd, To establish
schools at Indian Oasis and Coyote, and hospitals at San Xavier and
Indian Oasis.”
The Pueblos present a very interesting spectacle. Living as they
do in a number of stone and adobe villages, carrying on a highly
developed communistic life, practicing ceremonies the like of which
does not exist elsewhere in America, if anywhere in the world—they
have been the subject of numerous ethnological investigations. Mrs.
Matilda Stevenson published a volume through the Bureau of
American Ethnology relating to the ethnology of these strange folk.
The late Frank Hamilton Cushing lived for years in Zuni Pueblo, was
adopted, mastered the language, joined the secret society, and
presented us with a great deal of valuable and technical information.
After Cushing’s death, Doctor J. Walter Fewkes spent years in
studying the various Pueblos. Mr. Charles L. Owen of the Field
Museum, Chicago, and other investigators have approached the
subject from various angles. We have, all told, a score of books
relating to the life and beliefs of the Pueblos; their famous snake
dance has been repeatedly described until it would seem that not a
single detail has escaped publication. Others have concerned
themselves with Pueblo arts, the origin of the Pueblo and the relation
between the Pueblo and the Cliff Dweller. Few tribes in America have
been more thoroughly studied, and it is safe to say that the various
departments of the Smithsonian Institution, the past thirty years,
have published 5,000 or more pages relating to these people. As the
peculiar customs are handed down from antiquity, we shall study
them in detail at some future time and adhere to our rule of
confining this book to the modern Pueblo. The following report
submitted by Messrs. Eliot and Ketcham is self-explanatory and
covers their activities, their needs, and warns us against the dangers
with which they are threatened.
“Land. The primary need of all the Pueblos is for a
determination of the boundaries of their grants. The encroachment
of squatters on the Indian lands is constantly increasing and
producing friction and litigation. These trespassers are not always
blameworthy because the limits of the Indian lands are so indistinct.
There is urgent need of surveys and of definite marks or bounds with
indestructible monuments. When these have been established,
vigorous action should be taken for the eviction of trespassers who
have not established a legal right to occupancy. We earnestly
recommend an appropriation for the immediate survey of all the
Pueblo grants.
“We recommend an Act of Congress prohibiting any Pueblo
Indian from selling land. Such an Act will prevent endless
misunderstandings and litigation. All the land problems of the
Pueblos would be settled by accepting the proposal of the Indians to
place all their lands in trust with the Department of the Interior. We
believe this proposed course of action to be wise and just.
“The liquor question is at the front in nearly every pueblo. Illegal
selling and bootlegging are very prevalent and as a rule public
opinion among the Indians does not condemn the use of liquor. In
spite of the vigilance of the officers of the Government bad whiskey is
demoralizing many of these Indians. The efforts of the
Superintendents and their policemen for the suppression of this
traffic should be heartily supported by the Indian Office and the
superintendents should be authorized to employ additional
policemen.
“The prosecution and punishment of land thieves and liquor
sellers put a very heavy burden upon the attorney for the Indians. We
particularly commend the able, alert and disinterested service of Mr.
Francis C. Wilson, who with very small resources has been
remarkably successful in protecting the Indians and punishing those
who would rob or degrade them. We earnestly recommend that his
salary be put at $3,000 and that at least $1,000 be allowed him for
the prosecution of the suits now pending.
“We commend the good sense, vigor and assiduity of
Superintendents Perry, Lonergan, Coggeshall and Mr. Snyder. They
understand these Indians and without pampering or pauperizing
them have their real interests at heart.
“Irrigation. Owing to the sandy nature of the soil of the Rio
Grande Valley the seepage from the irrigation canals is excessive. We
recommend that the canals at Isleta and Laguna, where conditions
are particularly bad, be concreted. A reservoir is urgently needed at
Taos.
“Health. In spite of pernicious inbreeding and unsanitary
conditions the health of the Pueblos is comparatively good.
Instruction is needed in elementary sanitation.
 SOUTHERN UTE,
COLORADO

Modern Indian pictographs

in the rear. 1902.
Photograph by E. R. Forrest.

“Education. While heartily commending the work and efficiency

of the boarding schools at Albuquerque and Santa Fe, we are clearly
of the opinion that the best education for these Indians can be
obtained in the day schools. Boarding schools are well adapted to
nomadic Indians, but the Pueblos have always lived in permanent
villages and the best schools for them are the day schools in or
immediately adjoining the villages. The new day schools are well
planned, but there is urgent need of more of them. The school
accommodations at Isleta are a disgrace to the Government. They are
unsafe and unsanitary and there is not room for half the children of
school age. New school buildings should also be provided at Acoma,
Acomita and Encinal. A farmer is greatly needed to give agricultural
instruction at Isleta and Laguna. The needs of the boarding schools
have been sufficiently set forth in the recommendations of the
superintendents. We especially commend the application for
appropriations to buy additional land at Albuquerque and to build a
dairy barn at Santa Fe.
“We recommend the applications of Superintendents Lonergan
and Coggeshall for additional policemen, and for authority to hire
laborers when needed. It is absurd to have to request a physician to
milk the cow or for a superintendent to personally have to carry the
chain for his surveyors.
“The training of the Pueblo Indians for life in a civilized
environment must be slow. Their inherited habits and customs are
exceedingly rigid and their prejudices are stubborn. The educated or
progressive Indians among them have now a very hard road to travel.
They need not only moral support, but sometimes actual physical
protection. The superintendents should be encouraged tactfully but
firmly to break up the personal despotism which often rules the
villages, to protect the right of the individual to personal liberty, to
insist upon the gradual adaptation of the pueblo life to its new
environment. The Pueblos are now in a transition stage. They cannot
pass through it without some bitter feelings and some hard
experiences. They need the consistent, sympathetic, courageous
leadership of their guardians, in whose good intentions they are
beginning to trust.”
In closing the chapter on the desert Indians I desire to suggest
that the older Pueblos be permitted to continue their weaving and
pottery-making in their own way. It is perfectly proper to train the
young in our arts, but the superb native arts of the old Indians
should be encouraged. With the death of these old people, the art will
deteriorate and disappear. I mention this particularly for the reason
that several well-meaning, but misguided persons sent one or two
representatives to Zuni and attempted to instruct the women in the
manufacture of pottery. They even persuaded them to glaze the
pottery and to make tiles. The movement, if continued on a large
scale, would result in ruining an art which is fast disappearing.
The population is about stationary. The ceremonies of the
antelope and snake societies are becoming more and more public.
Recent photographs of them show hundreds of white persons, teams
and automobiles, and admission is now charged, for the dances and
attendant ceremonies are fast becoming commercialized. They have
persisted because of the curious life of these people—a people who
live, as it were, in a different world. With the extension of education,
the allotment system, and the continual effort of Government
employees to break down the old and insert the new, the real life of
the Pueblos will soon pass away forever.
 CHAPTER XXIII. THE CAREER OF
GERONIMO

This fighting man was for many years feared and hated. He was
not a docile person, and his tribe did not tamely submit to kicks and
curses—the treatment meted out to his more gentle red brothers in
California and Arizona. They were despised, trodden under foot, cast
aside; not so with the Apaches and Geronimo. It required more than
two years’ labor on the part of hundreds of our cavalry to catch him,
and when he surrendered there were but seventy-four in his band.
Now that everything regarding the Indian is being made public,
I deem it important that the true history of Geronimo be set forth.
In 1905 this chief published the story of his life. His book is a
remarkable production, and gives the Indian point of view, which is
rare indeed.[43]
Mr. Barrett, who wrote the story at Geronimo’s dictation, had
much trouble with the War Department. Officers objected to the
narrative, and he was compelled to secure permission from President
Roosevelt. Even then the War Department advised against
publication.
The history of the Apaches dates from the time of Coronado,
who is supposed to have penetrated their country in 1541–’43 when
he marched north in search of the fabled “seven cities of Cibola.”
There is no record of the Apaches, or any other Indians for that
matter, beginning hostilities against the Spaniards. After Coronado,
the Spaniards and the Apaches were at war for three centuries. The
Spaniards pursued their usual policy in dealing with these people,
and the latter returned an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.
Geronimo and his people had abundant cause for their hatred of the
Spaniards. It was a different story in Arizona and northern Mexico
from that of California and central Mexico. Today the California
Indians are paupers, and the gentle Aztecs have long since perished,
but the sturdy Apaches remain and live in more or less prosperity on
their several reservations.

GERONIMO

Photographed at Fort Sill,

Oklahoma, about 1905

Geronimo says he was born in Arizona in 1829.[44] On the death

of his father, Mangus-Colorado became chief of the Bedonkoke
Apaches, to which band the subject of this sketch belonged. When a
half-grown boy, Geronimo assumed the care of his mother, and in
1846 he joined the council of the warriors. Soon after this he married
Alope and three children were born during the next few years. In
1858, when he was twenty-nine, his band went into Mexico to trade.
One afternoon while Geronimo and the other men were returning
from a visit, they were met by crying women and children who told
them that the Mexicans had attacked the camp—a peaceful camp—
and had massacred the men and most of the women and children.
Geronimo lost his aged mother, his wife and his three small children.
They decided to retreat to Arizona and as the Mexicans were
searching for survivors in order to kill them, the remaining Apaches
traveled all night. The mourning period, according to Indian
etiquette, prevented Geronimo, who had lost more relatives than
anyone else, from eating or speaking. He traveled two days and three
nights without food and did not open his mouth until the third day. I
quote from his book:—
“Within a few days we arrived at our own settlement. There were
the decorations that Alope had made—and there were the playthings
of our little ones. I burned them all, even our tipi. I also burned my
mother’s lodge and destroyed all her property.
“I was never again contented in our quiet home. True, I could
visit my father’s grave, but I had vowed vengeance upon the Mexican
troopers who had wronged me, and whenever I came near his grave
or saw anything to remind me of former happy days, my heart would
ache for revenge upon Mexico.”
The Apaches collected arms and supplies. Geronimo visited
other bands of his tribe, and in the summer of 1859, a year later, a
large force (on foot) entered Old Mexico. They went light, and
without horses, for strategic reasons. Knowing the country
thoroughly—every water-hole, mountain and valley—they could trail
unobserved. On horseback they must follow certain known trails,
whereas on foot the band could scatter, travel singly and meet at a
common rendezvous. It was well-nigh impossible to follow
unmounted Apaches, as all the military reports admit. They
invariably scattered and sought the most inaccessible, waterless
mountain ranges.
Geronimo acted as guide, and near Arispe eight men came out
from the village and were killed by the Apaches. The next day the
Mexican troops attacked. Geronimo says that in one part of the field
four Indians, including himself, were charged by four soldiers and in
the final fight, two of the Indians were killed and the four troopers
were slain, two of them by Geronimo himself.
The art of trailing was developed among the Apaches and
Comanches more than among other Indians on this continent.
Possibly a few Delawares might be excepted. The success of
Geronimo’s operations, as well as those of his able lieutenants,
Cochise, Naiche, Mangus-Colorado, was chiefly due to the fact that
the trail was to them an open book. As an illustration of the skill of
the desert Indians in this respect, I would cite the case of Pedro
Espinosa, who, when nine years old was captured by the Comanche
and for years lived with the Comanches and Apaches. Colonel Dodge
says of him that he was a marvel even to the Indians themselves, and
relates this incident:
“I was once sent in pursuit of a party of murdering Comanches,
who had been pursued, scattered, and the trail abandoned by a
company of so-called Texas rangers. On the eighth day after the
scattering, Espinosa took the trail of a single shod horse. When we
were fairly into the rough, rocky Guadalope Mountains, he stopped,
dismounted, and picked up from the foot of a tree the four shoes of
the horse ridden by the Indian. With a grim smile he handed them to
me, and informed me that the Indian intended to hide his trail. For
six days we journeyed over the roughest mountains, turning and
twisting in apparently the most objectless way, not a man in the
whole command being able to discover, sometimes for hours, a single
mark by which Espinosa might direct himself. Sometimes I lost
patience, and demanded that he show us what he was following.
‘Poco tiempo,’ he would blandly answer, and in a longer or shorter
time, show me the clear-cut footprints of the horse in the soft bank of
some mountain stream, or point with his long wiping-stick to most
unmistakable ‘sign’ in the droppings of the horse. Following the
devious windings of this trail for nearly a hundred and fifty miles,
scarcely ever at a loss, and only once or twice dismounting, more
closely to examine the ground, he finally brought me to where the
Indians had reunited.”
On another occasion, the Indians had fired the prairie to hide
their trail. The officer in despair went to camp. Espinosa, after
working over the ground carefully on his hands and knees, blew away
the light ashes until sufficient prints were found to show the
direction of the trail. He was compelled to make several circuits,
covering a total of six or seven miles, and after weary hours spent in
this work, the troops were able to pursue and capture the Indians.
Espinosa and the Apaches once found a trail after dark by feeling of
the ground with their fingers. This remarkable man, at the outbreak
of the Civil War, was selected to carry dispatches from Union men in
San Antonio to Colonel Reeve. He was captured and shot to death.
The account presented by Dodge of Espinosa is very interesting and
indicates that this unknown man in Plains knowledge was far in
advance of the white scouts of which we have heard so much. The
Apaches recognized that their only weakness lay in their trail, and
they tried by every means to conceal it.
 The next few years Geronimo led several expeditions into
Mexico, sometimes being defeated, on other occasions returning
with much plunder and many scalps. During his career as a fighting
man he was wounded seven times. Once, he was left for dead, on the
field.
In 1861 the Mexicans attacked an Apache winter village, killing
men, women and children.
In 1864, while raiding in Mexico, Geronimo’s people captured a
mule pack train. Some of the mules were loaded with mescal—an
intoxicating drink of the Mexicans. The Apaches began drinking this
and Geronimo, fearing the consequences, poured out all of the
liquor. On this occasion he captured a herd of cattle, drove the cattle
to Arizona, killed them, and dried the meat for winter use.
Geronimo emphasizes in his book something unknown to the
general public. Many outlaws, both Americans and Mexicans, stole
cattle and committed robberies during these troublous years and the
blame was always placed on the Apaches. In spite of all that has been
said, the latter were not without their virtues, as the following
anecdote attests.
In 1883 two young men from the East, while prospecting in the
mountains, saw an old Apache and a young man, apparently his son.
In attempting to retreat to camp, one of the white men fell and broke
his leg. The old warrior examined the broken limb, removed the shirt
of the uninjured youth, tore it up and carefully bound the broken
member. Then the old warrior, indicating the direction with his
finger said: “Doctor—Lordsburg—three days,” and silently rode
away.
Up to 1870 the Apaches had had little trouble with the white
people, although in 1841, according to testimony presented by Mrs.
Jackson, they had abundant grounds for hostility.[45]
It was not until the 30th of April, 1871, that the real trouble
began, The massacre at Camp Grant, in Arizona, of several hundred
friendly Apaches, men, women and children, brought on hostilities.
Beyond question, this and several subsequent raids on the part
of white people, were responsible for the attitude of Geronimo,
Victorio and Cochise. In 1873 and again in 1880 there was hard
fighting in Mexico. In 1884 Geronimo was head war chief, and fought
his heaviest engagements. How many men were killed in these
actions is not stated.
 In the early sixties United States troops invited the Apache
chiefs into a tent under promise, Geronimo states, that they were to
be given a feast. Geronimo says: “When in the tent they were
attacked by soldiers. Our chief, Mangus-Colorado, and several other
warriors, by cutting through the tent, escaped; but most of the
warriors were killed or captured.” Heavy fighting followed. Such
Apaches as spoke English visited the officers and advised them
where were located camps they sought, and while the soldiers hunted
for these camps, Geronimo and his warriors, “watched them from
our hiding-places and laughed at their failures.”
In 1863 the favorite chief, Mangus-Colorado, was put in the
guardhouse. He had been told by General West that he would be
protected if he made peace. As the old chief entered he said: “This is
my end.” During the night some one threw a stone through the
window and struck him in the breast. He sprang up, and as he did so
the guard shot and killed him.
In the seventies the United States troops sent for Victorio and
Geronimo. As soon as they entered the camp they were taken to
headquarters and tried by court-martial. Victorio was released and
Geronimo was put in chains, remaining in shackles four months.
For the next ensuing years there was considerable fighting, the
Apaches being afraid to trust the United States authorities and the
frontier element anxious that the Apaches be exterminated. Our
troops occasionally defeated the Indians but were more often
repulsed. General Crook took away the Apaches’ cattle and horses,
and as few of the Apaches were horse Indians, preferring to fight or
hunt on foot, and as the cattle were an incentive to thrift and
industry, this action of General Crook’s was not a severe blow to the
Indians.
The General followed the Apaches into Mexico and held an
interview. I quote Geronimo’s description of what occurred.[46]
“Said the General: ‘Why did you leave the reservation?’
“I said: ‘You told me that I might live in the reservation the same
as white people lived. One year I raised a crop of corn, and gathered
and stored it, and the next year I put in a crop of oats, and when the
crop was almost ready to harvest, you told your soldiers to put me in
prison, and if I resisted to kill me. If I had been let alone I would now
have been in good circumstances, but instead of that you and the
Mexicans were hunting me with soldiers.’
 “He said: ‘I never gave any such orders; the troops at Fort
Apache, who spread this report, knew that it was untrue.’
“Then I agreed to go back with him to San Carlos.
“It was hard for me to believe him at that time. Now I know that
what he said was untrue, and I firmly believe that he did issue the
orders for me to be put in prison, or to be killed in case I offered
resistance.”

POMO WOMAN WEAVING

A TWINED BASKET,
CALIFORNIA

On the return march, the Indians left General Crook’s command

and fled. Geronimo became “a bad Indian” in every sense of the
word. He says: “We were reckless of our lives, because we felt that
every man’s hand was against us. If we returned to the reservation
we would be put in prison and killed: if we stayed in Mexico they
would continue to send soldiers to fight us; so we gave no quarter to
anyone and asked no favors.”
The American troops in one action killed seven children, five
women and four men. Again, three Apache children were slain.
Later, all Geronimo’s family was captured.
Naiche, son of the famous fighting chief, Cochise, fought for
years with Geronimo and surrendered when further resistance was
useless.
The end came suddenly. Geronimo, driven from one side of the
American-Mexican border to the other, found no rest for his band,
and told Captain Lawton’s scouts that he would surrender to General
Miles under certain conditions. When Geronimo met General Miles,
the interpreter said, “General Miles is your friend.” Even in so critical
a situation his grim humor asserted itself. Geronimo retorted, “I
never saw him, but I have been in need of friends. Why has he not
been with me?”
According to the narrative of the Indian chief and other
witnesses, Geronimo was to live with his family and be supported by
the Government, under certain restrictions. “I said to General Miles:
‘All the officers that have been in charge of Indians have talked that
way and it sounds like a story to me; I hardly believe you.’
“He said: ‘This time it is the truth.’”
Geronimo gave up his arms saying:
“‘I will quit the warpath and live at peace hereafter.’”
“Then General Miles swept a spot of ground clear with his hand
and said:
“‘Your past deeds shall be wiped out like this, and you will start a
new life.’”
It is unfortunate that when the Apaches were taken East, not
only the hostiles but also a few friendlies and some who had helped
the troops, were also deported. They were imprisoned in Florida, and
Geronimo made to labor sawing large logs. One or two of the
warriors committed suicide. After some years the prisoners were
removed to Fort Sill. Geronimo often complained that the
Government did not keep the terms of the Miles surrender. I have
never heard that General Miles tried to right this wrong. If he did, I
stand corrected.
Geronimo did not see his family for two years—contrary to the
terms of the surrender.
The foregoing sums up in a brief way the career of Geronimo.
Under similar circumstances any white man of spirit and
independence, and who was not a coward, would become “a bad
Indian.” After many appeals by the Board of Indian Commissioners,
the Indian Rights Association and others, these Apache prisoners
were removed to their ancient homes. About seventy elected to
remain near Fort Sill, Okla., and have been given farms.
Practically all of them are doing well—industrious and capable.
 CHAPTER XXIV. THE NAVAHO

The great Shoshonean and Athapascan stocks extended from the

Northwest down into the Southwest. The States of Nevada, Utah,
Arizona, New Mexico, southwestern Colorado, western Texas and
southern California prior to 1860 were known as the “Great
American Desert.” The Yuman, Piman and Athapascan, together
with a few lesser stocks, inhabited this great region. Chief of the
desert tribes is the Navaho. Doctor Washington Matthews has
presented considerable literature in the American Anthropologist
and elsewhere on this interesting folk; Oscar H. Lipps published a
history of the Navaho in 1909; George Wharton James, Esq., refers
to them at considerable length in his publications. The Franciscan
Fathers, having a mission at St. Michaels, Arizona, published in 1910
a complete ethnologic dictionary of the Navaho customs, legends,
and gave large numbers of sentences. This also contained a
bibliography of some length. Doctor George W. Pepper of the
University of Pennsylvania Museum published a very interesting
article on “The Making of a Navaho Blanket” in Everybody’s
Magazine, January, 1902. A volume giving details of blanket and
wool industry among the Navaho has just been written by George
Wharton James, Esq., entitled “Indian Blankets and Their Makers”.
This volume of 213 large pages contains many colored plates and is
the most comprehensive treatment of the Navaho blanket-weaving
industry ever published.
The Navaho are the only really unspoiled Indians left in
America, and I trust that readers will pardon repetition, when I again
urge that they be let alone to work out their own salvation. That is,
while certain safeguards are necessary, we should realize our
incompetency and ignorance—not to use a stronger term—in
handling the natives of Oklahoma, Minnesota and California, and
not repeat our blunders in the “benevolent assimilation” of these
intelligent, industrious, and moral people. Here is one splendid
racial stock that has thus far escaped the blight of our bureaucracy.
The Navaho still stands, frightened, gazing in at the threshold of our
civilization. He sees the greed of the white settler for his possessions.
There have been a number of reports on the Navaho, in addition
to the ethnological and popular works cited. Any one of these will
give readers a fair conception of conditions among these Indians.
Rev. Anselm Weber of the Franciscan Mission published a
pamphlet on July 25, 1914. The Indian Rights Association has also
taken up officially these Indians in its annual reports, the past two or
three years. Honorable F. H. Abbott, Secretary of the Board of Indian
Commissioners, visited the Navaho and made specific
recommendations as to allotment and irrigation plans. In December-
January, 1913–14, Rev. Samuel A. Eliot and Rev. William H.
Ketcham, members of the Board of Indian Commissioners, officially
visited the Navaho and made a report to the Secretary of the Interior.
Rev. W. R. Johnson, missionary located at Indian Wells, Arizona, has
repeatedly urged in public addresses at Lake Mohonk and elsewhere
the need of proper protection of this, the finest body of aboriginal
men and women remaining in North America.
It is not necessary to go back to 1850, to state that these Indians
were in a satisfactory condition. They are in a satisfactory condition
today, and are the only band of Indians so situated in this country.
The number of them is said by Father Weber to be about 25,000.
Rev. Johnson, who traveled extensively over the reservation, claims
there are 28,000. Taking into consideration several thousand that
live off the reservation on the public domain, there are at least
30,000 Navaho today. The number of sheep they possess has been
variously estimated from one million to two million head. The
number of blankets the women wove last year, no man may know,
but the value of the blanket industry is upwards of a million dollars
per annum. A few years ago, Commissioner Valentine stated that the
Navaho sold $800,000 worth of blankets. It must be remembered
that many of their blankets are sold north of the San Juan river and
elsewhere off the reservation, and that traveling traders and buyers
continually penetrate beyond the borders of the reserve. The totals
obtained by superintendents, teachers and white employees, is
doubtless far below the actual volume of business.
 As everyone knows, the reservation is a part of our famous
“painted desert”. It is exceedingly diversified in character, the
landscape varying from high mesas to deep canons; from towering
mountains to stretches of desert. Fortunately, no mineral deposits
aside from coal have been discovered. On three separate occasions,
in the ’60’s, ’70’s and ’80’s, prospectors, in defiance of law, entered
the Navaho reservation in search of gold, silver or copper. When I
was conducting the cliff-dweller expeditions along the San Juan in
1892 and again in 1897, several of the “oldtimers” informed me that
these prospectors were never heard of afterward. Accompanying the
last expedition, there were several men from north of Durango,
Colorado, and their friends threatened reprisals on the Navaho,
alleging that the Indians had killed these prospectors. However,
aside from talk, nothing was done, the men never returned, and the
Indians remained in peaceful possession of their estate. It was
considered, in the ’70’s and ’80’s “bad medicine” for white men to
depart from certain Navaho trails!
The Navaho reservation embraces 11,887,793 acres, of which
approximately 719,360 acres belong to the Santa Fe Pacific Railroad
Company, and approximately 55,400 acres to the State of Arizona,
leaving 11,113,033 acres. Consequently, if you take the very
conservative figure of 25,000 Navahos and 11,113,033 acres
belonging to them, you would have 444 acres to the person. But as
four-fifths is high, dry mesa or absolute desert, the statement often
made that each Indian might have 444 acres is misleading. Each
Indian could not have (average) more than twelve or fifteen acres of
pasture land.
The Navaho are the only large body of Indians in the United
States who keep up ancient customs, arts and ceremonies. They not
only enjoy a great variety of games and sports, but they are probably
the best and strongest long-distance runners in America. Mr. Lipps
has given a very entertaining account of their games, etc., in his
book, to which I have referred on a previous page.
They are exceedingly adverse to burying their dead and are quite
willing that white people should perform this service for them. Of all
the remaining Indian tribes, they furnish the best field for
investigation at the present time. Much has been written concerning
them, but it will require additional researches in order to complete a
satisfactory study of their ethnology.
 On the death of the head of the family, his property “descends to
his brothers, sisters, uncles and aunts to the exclusion of his wife and
children, a custom which is often very harmful in its effects, since if
the wife should happen not to be possessed of some property in her
own right she and her children are made to suffer penury and
want.”[47]
In past years a number of the older men possessed two or three
wives. Polygamy was to be expected, for the Mormons settled north
of the San Juan, (Utah), long before white settlers came from the
East. Although the Navaho probably believed in polygamy long ago,
only those who were well-to-do had more than one wife, and the
increase in polygamous marriages was undoubtedly due to the
example set by the Mormons.
The Government has taken steps to wipe out this practice and no
more plural marriages are permitted. Men having more than one
wife have been encouraged to give up their plural wives, and this has
been done in some cases, mainly where there are no children by the
marriage.

NAVAHO SILVERSMITH AND HIS OUTFIT

The Navaho are invariably kind and considerate to each other,

and their family life is of higher plane than among most Indians. The
children are seldom punished, for the good reason that they do not
merit punishment. In the case of very old persons, it is sometimes
observed that the children do not love and protect them as
completely as might be expected.
The chief taboo of the Navaho is the fish. Under no
circumstances will a Navaho eat fish. He believes that upon the death
of a very evil person, the spirit enters the body of a fish, hence his
utter horror and hatred of the finny tribe. An Indian student entered
Phillips Academy, Andover, some years ago. He was employed in the
dining hall and thus earned his tuition. He informed me that his
most disagreeable duty, and that which he loathed, was the
preparation of fish for the weekly Friday dinner.
When we were in camp at Chaco canon in 1897, the Navaho
came to us in large numbers at meal time. Our larder rapidly
diminished. Something must be done. The cook found that one of the
packing boxes had a large blue codfish stamped on the side. He
placed this box out in plain view and the Indians who had assembled
to eat supper with us withdrew to their own camps.
The Navaho had carried on raids against the Mexicans and the
frontier of Texas for many years. In 1863 a party of men led by the
famous scout, Kit Karson, invaded their territory and killed a large
number of Indians. All of the Navaho that could be captured were
taken East to the Rio Pecos. Here they were kept until 1867 under
military guard, when they were restored to their country and given a
large flock of sheep. In 1869 the Government assembled all these
Indians and having difficulty to enumerate them because of their
nomadic habits, resorted to a novel stratagem. The people were
crowded in an enormous corral, and counted as they entered. The
Handbook of American Indians states that there were some fewer
than 9,000. I cannot believe that this estimate was accurate, for it
would be impossible for troops to round up all the Navaho.
Doubtless, many fled north of the San Juan, or west to the Colorado,
on the appearance of the troops.
They are very highly religious people and possess thousands of
significant songs and prayers. The Handbook states that some of the
ceremonies continue for nine nights, and that it is necessary for the
shamans to spend years of study in order to become perfectly
familiar with the complicated ritual.
The Indians were much crowded before permitted to settle upon
public lands. To meet this need, Commissioner Leupp in 1908
extended the reservation. Father Weber covers all the details in his
excellent pamphlet. The white cattlemen and their friends set up a
great uproar, indignation meetings were held, and Congress was
importuned to prevent the Indians from living on the public domain.
In fact, all sorts of pressure was brought to bear to reduce the size of
the reservation—although it was manifestly too small. None of the
Mexicans and Americans, for whom the business men and politicians
of the southwest were so concerned, were living on the tracts they
sought to control. On the contrary they lived in towns or settlements
removed from the Indian country, and simply ranged their sheep and
cattle over these tracts in charge of herders and cowboys. The
Indians, the Navaho, against whom this hue and cry was raised,
actually had their homes upon the tracts, and were dependent upon
them for their living. Many of them lived in the same place for two or
three generations. During all the disputes, no one was shot, and no
violence occurred. Yet all that was possible was done to mislead
Congress, as the following speech attests.

RED GOAT AND HIS MOTHER, NAVAHO, 1902

Photograph by E. R. Forrest.

“I want to say to the Senator (Bristow) that possibly he does not

understand the conditions as they exist in our country. Possibly he is
not aware of the fact that every year, two or three times a year, these
Indians are allowed to go from their immensely rich reserves to
interfere with white men, American citizens, on the public domain,
causing the killing of anywhere from one to a dozen people. This is
an unfortunate condition of affairs. I can say to the Senator that we
people down in our section of the country can deal with these
conditions if we are compelled to; but this sometimes becomes a
question of all a man has—of his property rights, of protection to his
family and his children. Any white man, any American citizen, will
then use such force as is necessary in protecting his family. All that
we seek to do is to restrict the further location of these Indians upon
the public domain until Congress can act again. The committee is
being appointed, and I presume this matter will be investigated. It
has been investigated before, and reports made, and no action taken.
But this must cease; it must stop; and I tell the Senator from Kansas
that it will stop.”—(Congressional Record, June 17, 1913, page 2320).
Father Weber’s comment on it is very apropos:—
“I regret that a Senator made this statement. I have been among
the Navaho for sixteen years, and I know of not one single instance
where a white man was killed on account of Navahos leaving the
reservation, or on account of any grazing or land disputes. If every
year the killing of from one to a dozen is occasioned by Navaho
leaving their reserve, how is it that no one knows anything about
it?”[48]
In past years I have traveled a good deal over the Navaho
reservation. Recently one of my friends, J. Weston Allen, Esq., of
Boston, on behalf of the Boston Indian Citizenship Committee, of
which he is vice-chairman, made a tour of investigation through the
Navaho country, and the conditions as he found them were
incorporated in an able report to the Secretary of the Interior. Major
William T. Shelton, the Superintendent at Shiprock, who has long
lived with these Indians, while differing in some details from the
views of Mr. Sniffen, Rev. Johnson and Honorable F. H. Abbott, yet
agrees with them in the main issue that the Navaho should not be too
much superintended. All he needs is protection—not charity,
suggestion, nor interference with his industry. Doctor W. W.
Wallace, who has been a trader among the Navaho since 1890, writes
me that the Indians have steadily progressed, that they ask no favors,
and all they desire is to be permitted to continue on their successful
way. My own observation leads me to believe that the reservation
should not be reduced; allotments must not be made in any event
until irrigation has disclosed the land values; more schools should be
established, and above all dams should be erected to store water
during the spring floods so that more acres may be brought under
cultivation. There are vast possibilities for irrigation in the Navaho
country, as Mr. Abbott has pointed out. The last investigation by two
members of our Board (Ketcham and Eliot) was important, and I
present two of the seven recommendations they strongly urged.
“Allotment. We are thoroughly convinced that the time has not
yet come for the allotment of the Indians on the reservation. The
Navaho is proceeding along the way of civilization as fast as he can
safely travel. He is independent and self-supporting. He is steadily
improving his dwelling, his stock and his method of farming. He is
learning English, sending his children to school, and increasingly
following the advice of the white physicians. He is developing his
own water resources, forming good industrial habits and gradually
adopting white standards of domestic life. Following their own
customs, the Indians divide their common resources with
remarkable fairness and live peaceably with one another and with
the Whites. They must be permitted slowly to come into an
understanding of our customs of private land ownership and
inheritance. There is nothing to be gained by hurrying that process.
Allotment on the reservation should not be thought of for a good
many years to come.
“We are impressed with the exceptional opportunity of the
Navaho reservation for the work of field matrons and recommend
that an additional force be provided for. The field matrons should
work in close cooperation with superintendents, teachers and
physicians.
“In general we believe that the condition of the Navaho is
promising. The people are virile, industrious and independent. With
the exercise of ordinary good judgment, patience and tact, there need
never be any serious problem in connection with their development.”
Doctor Joseph K. Dixon, representing the Wanamaker
Expedition, visited the “painted desert”. He took some remarkable
motion pictures of Navaho herders driving thousands of sheep down
to the waterholes. As I observed these pictures, portraying the
peaceful, industrious life of these red nomads of the desert, I wished
fondly that all men and women unable to observe Indian life as it is
in the Southwest, might see them. They recalled many interesting
days spent among these sturdy folk. The natives living as do the
Navaho, present an object lesson to all “reformers”, and it is to be
devoutly hoped that we will heed the lesson and “let well enough
alone.” To do otherwise will destroy the initiative of a self-supporting
and upright people, and deprive the world of a primitive stock of
exceptional physical stamina and mental ability.
Mr. Allen’s report to the Secretary of the Interior and the Boston
Indian Citizenship Committee cannot be reproduced at length, much
to my regret, but I herewith append certain sections, as it is a
splendid presentation of the Navaho situation and includes valuable
recommendations to meet the needs of these Indians.
“Three obvious difficulties immediately present themselves
when any plan of Navaho settlement is considered—(1) the great
inequality of the land for grazing purposes; (2) the scarcity of water,
and the fact that much of the land is far distant from the nearest
water supply; (3) the existence of summer and winter ranges and the
removal of the sheep from place to place under the changing
conditions of different seasons of the year.
“Of the inequality of the land for grazing purposes, it is sufficient
to say that there are vast areas of rock and sand where an allotment
of 160 acres would not support a single sheep. Of the inaccessibility
of water, it may be similarly stated that there are sections of land
within the reservation which are so far from water during the dry
season that sheep would die from exhaustion before they could reach
it. Of the necessity of moving the sheep from one part of the
reservation to another, it is perhaps sufficient to point out that in the
winter the sheep must have the protection of the sheltered valleys
and in the summer they are driven by the heat and the scarcity of
water into the mountains.
“A matter of far greater importance in the consideration of any
equitable allotment is the determination of the location and extent of
the land within the limitations of the reservation which can be
claimed by irrigation.”
Mr. Allen points out the difficulties in allotting a nomadic people
permanent homes. He is opposed to any allotment under existing
conditions. It may have to come in time, doubtless prematurely as in
the case of other reservations, but on the Navaho reservation there
are difficulties which have not been encountered in our experience
with other tribes.
Mr. Allen’s report may be summed up as follows:—There should
be a commission appointed composed of engineers and stockmen to
thoroughly investigate the possibilities of the reservation, both
through means of storage dams to conserve the mountain freshets in
the springtime, and also to divert the water from the rivers as is
being done along the San Juan river to the north. This stream carries
a large volume of water, and although there are many white persons
living north of the river in Utah and New Mexico and much water is
used, the river is very high from May 1st to July 1st. It therefore
affords great possibilities in the way of water storage.
He recommends a detailed study of the coalbeds and timber
tracts on the reservation, and the improvement of the Navaho sheep,
by the introduction of better stock.

NAVAHO WINTER HOGAN

Photographed by E. R. Forrest; 1902

While tuberculosis is found in about 10% of the Navaho,

trachoma is much more prevalent, and he records the usual story of
afflicted Indian children, men and women. The hospital facilities are
totally inadequate. There is a hospital at Indian Wells, Arizona,
maintained by the National Indian Association, an Episcopal
hospital near Fort Defiance, while another is maintained by the
Presbyterians at Ganado. The only large hospital with adequate
equipment is at the Government school at Fort Defiance. Doctor
Wigglesworth, physician in charge, who has won the confidence of
these Indians by long years of constant labor among them, does all in
his power to alleviate distress, but the field is entirely too extensive
to be covered by one man. Mrs. Mary L. Eldridge, for many years in
charge of a mission near Farmington, N. M., does medical work
among the Indians. There is a small Government hospital at
Shiprock.
The medicine men cause the Government officials and
missionaries a great deal of trouble. Mr. Allen presents a number of
incidents in his reports explaining their activities. Many Indians will
not take treatment in the hospitals through fear of the shamans, and
in more than one instance a sick Indian has been removed by his
friends from the mission hospital during the night, and carried off to
the village where he might be treated by the shaman.

MODERN INDIAN HOUSE, SYLVIAN, OKLAHOMA

This type is inferior in construction to the houses

built in pre-statehood days.
 Educational facilities are inadequate to care for half the children
of school age. In many of the schools, trachoma has afflicted
numbers of the children. When tuberculosis develops among the
school children they are sent home from the school to die without
medical attendance. Mr. Allen suggests that more physicians,
qualified to treat trachoma and tuberculosis, be appointed to service
among the Navaho, and that each one be assigned a territory fifty
miles square, with a field sanitarium located near the center of the
territory. He also suggests that young Navaho women, selected from
the larger boarding schools, be trained as nurses, since many of these
Indians do not take kindly to treatment by white persons, and it is
difficult to secure competent nurses who are willing to remain long
in the small frontier hospitals of the Navaho desert.
At Shiprock, Superintendent Shelton has developed a large
school with extensive farms and industrial buildings. The settlement
at Shiprock is justly considered one of the show places in the Indian
Service. Here the desert is made to blossom as the rose. Mr. Shelton
admits few small children in his school and keeps his scholars until
they reach adult age. He is thus able to make a better showing in his
farms and gardens than do those who receive the children at an
earlier age, and return them to their homes after four or five years of
training. Mr. Shelton’s work at Shiprock could now be carried on by
some one else, and his recognized ability used in a new field to
develop another section of the reservation further west. By creating
another Shiprock, he could do more to raise the standard of living
among his people.
Superintendent Paquette at Fort Defiance is extending
education work throughout his reservation, and reaches a larger
percentage of children of school age than are being reached
elsewhere in the Navaho country.
In concluding his report, Mr. Allen points out the failure of the
returned student to make good and the reasons for it.
“The problem of the returned student is a serious one among the
Navaho. The boys and girls who have been for years in school come
back to their people without a training for taking care of the flocks,
and are outdone by those who remain at home. They are for this
reason more or less looked down upon, with the result that they have
no inclination to continue the habits of study and cleanliness which
they have acquired at school and which are not appreciated in the
home. The effort of the old men of the tribe is to keep the children
who return from school from seeking any higher place than is
enjoyed by other members of the family. If the young men and the
young women of the tribe, who have received an education and who
have acquired an appreciation of what they learned in school,
intermarried, the benefits of their education would be more
permanent, but many of the girls upon their return from school are
given in marriage by their parents to old men of the tribe, and many
of the boys return only to find that they are required to marry old
women, or at best, ‘camp girls’ as they are called—the uneducated
girls of the hogan. The inevitable result is that they go back to the old
life.”
 CHAPTER XXV. INDIANS OF THE
NORTHWEST

The Indians of the great Northwest, are today of many

diversified and small bands, chief among which are the Crows, Utes,
Nez Perces, Paiutes, Northern Cheyennes, Blackfeet, and Yakimas,
and various Columbia River bands. Linguistically they are
Athapascan, Salishan and Shoshonean stocks with remnants of other
stocks along the Pacific coast. Practically all of them live on
reservations. As in the case of the other tribes described in this
volume, the children have been educated, allotments have been
granted to most of the individuals, irrigation schemes either
projected or carried into effect, timber sold, or Government sawmills
established, and the entire life of the Indians changed. The narrative,
therefore, must be along historical and philanthropic lines rather
than ethnologic. True, up to about 1880 many of these Indians lived
in their original condition, and particularly is this true of the Paiute
and Modoc bands located far from the established routes of travel.
The Indians of the Northwest came in contact with the trappers and
gold-hunters flocking to the new country made familiar by the Lewis
and Clark expedition. As an inevitable result, a number of wars
occurred in which all of the Indians were more or less engaged. The
most noted of these was the Nez Perce war of 1877, in which Chief
Joseph led his Indians on a magnificent retreat through the
mountains for upwards of 1100 miles to nearly the Canadian border.
The story of our broken faith with the Nez Perces is set forth in many
documents and by General Howard himself in his book, “Chief
Joseph. His Pursuit and Capture.”
Following the Nez Perce war, in 1878, the Bannock Indians, a
numerous division of the Shoshonean stock, were so harassed by
white people that they went upon the warpath. A number of settlers
and soldiers were killed, and in September, 1878, the outbreak came
to an end after the military had killed all the women and children in
a village of twenty lodges.
In 1870 the Modocs in southeastern Oregon had obtained a very
unsavory reputation. This was due to their resenting the
encroachments of the Whites. Many settlers, and also friendly
Indians, were killed during various encounters. The trouble
culminated in the famous siege of the lava beds, on the California
frontier between Oregon and California. Here the Indians located in
an almost impregnable stronghold and withstood the attacks of
troops from January to April, 1873. Some Peace Commissioners,
headed by General Camby, were sent to treat with the Indians and
these were treacherously murdered. After hard fighting the
stronghold was taken and five of the leaders captured and hanged.
Like other Northwest tribes (except larger bands) the Modocs have
so dwindled in numbers that they now cease to be a factor in Indian
life. The northern Cheyennes now located on a reservation at Lame
Deer, Montana, have long been known as a fighting people. Two
generations ago the Cheyennes were much in evidence with the Sioux
and other tribes in an attempt to prevent the usurpation of their
hunting grounds and grazing lands on the part of the Whites. One of
the Department Inspectors recently visited their reservation and
under date of September 17th, writes me as follows:
“I am very busy and am finding conditions here about as bad as
they were at White Earth except that these Indians have not been
allotted and are not losing their land, but they are just as poor and
are eating dogs, horseflesh, prairie dogs, porcupines and skunks.
Conditions are disgraceful but will be properly presented, you may
be sure.”
The Crow Indians, an offshoot of the Siouan stock, in Montana,
are numerically the strongest of any of the mountain tribes. They
possess a very large reservation, abundant grazing lands, timber and
agricultural possibilities. However, as in the case of the Cheyennes,
they have been backward in spite of all efforts on the part of the
Government to educate them. The problem on their reservation
relates chiefly to the grazing privilege. The Indians were leasing a
vast tract of land to white men for the pasturing of cattle and horses
at so much per head. The Whites took advantage of the Indians’
ignorance and it was necessary for the Indian Rights Association to