¨ Traffic, geometric design (gradient, radius, sight distance), economics, other considerations

(drainage consideration).
• Special consideration
b) Engineering survey for highway location
• Before highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be carried
out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. First three stages consider all possible alternate
alignments keeping in view various requirements of alignment. The stages of engineering surveys
are
¨ Map study
¨ Reconnaissance: examine general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for
detailed studies.
¨ Preliminary survey: it has objectives to survey the various alternate alignments proposed after
reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography,
drainage and soil. To compare different proposals in view of alignment. Estimate quality of
earth work materials and other construction aspects. And to finalize the best alignment. The
procedure of conventional methods is:
o Primary traverse
o Topographical features
o Levelling work
o Drainage studies and hydrologic data
o Soil survey
o Material survey: survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates and
identification of suitable quarries. Location of cement, lime brick etc. is ascertained.
o Traffic survey
o Determination of final center line
Modern rapid approach is by taking the required aerial photographs and by
photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining topographic
details.
¨ Final location and detailed survey
The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the centre line. Detailed survey is carried out for
preparation of plans and construction details.
o Location: layout on ground is done.
o Detailed survey
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Geometric design
a) Introduction
• Geometric design deals with the dimension and layout of visible features of the highway such as
alignment, sight distances and intersections.
• The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The important of these factors
which control the geometric elements are:
¨ Design speed, topography, traffic factor (vehicular, human), design hourly volume and
capacity, environmental and other factors (aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise)
b) Cross Section element
• Pavement surface characteristics
¨ Friction
o Longitudinal coefficient of friction is used for calculation of SSD, this friction supports
movement of vehicle and depends on the area of contact. Its value ranges from 0.35 to
0.40 as recommended by IRC, depending upon speed.
§ On dry pavement old tyre generates more coefficient of friction than new tyre.

4
 § On wet pavement, water acts as a lubricating agent and new tyre has 𝜇"#
§ As the speed increases 𝜇"# decreases.
o Lateral Coefficient comes in picture only when there is a lateral force on vehicle. When
moving on horizontal curve. Its value recommended by IRC is taken as 0.15
o When translation is more than rotation then it is skid
o Rotation is more than translation, slip
¨ Unevenness index
o It is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded
per unit horizontal length of the road. (mm/Km)
o Bump Integrator is used to measure it, as per IRC
Unevenness indicator Type of road
mm/Km
< 1500 Good
1500 − 2500 Satisfactory
2500 − 3200 Bad
> 3200 Uncomfortable
o A similar factor is used in other countries called IRI (international roughness index)
𝐵𝐼 = 630(𝐼𝑅𝐼)3.35
• Camber or cross slope
¨ Cross slope or chamber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface. Usually chamber is provided on the straight
roads by raising the center of the carriageway w.r.t the edges, forming crown or highest point
on the center line.
¨ At horizontal curves with super-elevation, the surface drainage is effected by raising the outer
edge of pavement w.r.t. the inner edge.
¨ Shape of cross slope
o The chamber is given a parabolic elliptic or straight-line shape in the cross-section.
Parabolic or elliptic shape is given so that the profile is flat at the middle and steeper
towards edges, which is preferred by fast moving vehicles as they have to frequently
cross the crown line during overtaking operation on a two-lane highway.
¨ The required camber of a pavement depends on, type of pavement surface and amount of
rainfall. (IRC)
Type of road Heavy Light
Cement concrete and high type bituminous surface 1:50 1:60
Thin bituminous surface 1:40 1:50
Water bound macadam and gravel pavement 1:33 1:40
Earth 1:25 1:33
• Width of pavement
¨ The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
The lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance which may be provided for the safety.
¨ The maximum width of vehicle as per IRC specification is 2.44 m.
Class of road Width of carriageway
Single lane 3.75 m
Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0
Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate carriageway (except on important roads) 5.5
Multilane pavement 3.5 m per lane
• Kerbs

5
 ¨ Kerb indicates boundary between the pavement and shoulder; or sometimes islands or foot
path or kerb paring space. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. They are mainly
divided into three groups.
o Low or mountable type kerbs: 10cm above pavement edge with a slope or batter to help
vehicles climb the kerb easily.
o Semi barrier type kerb: where pedestrian traffic is high. 15cm.
o Barrier type kerb: provided in built-up areas adjacent to foot paths with considerable
pedestrian traffic. The height of kerb stone is 20cm.
• Divider
¨ It separates two-way traffic. It also reduces glaring effect due to the headlight of vehicle
coming from opposite direction as per IRC minimum width of divided for a highway is 5m.
when space is restricted then minimum width of divided should be 3m.
• Road margins
¨ Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle
compelled to be taken out of the pavement or roadway. Minimum width as per IRC is 2.5m.
surface of shoulder should be rougher than the traffic lanes and colour should preferably be
different. The chamber of shoulder should be 0.5% steeper than of road and minimum chamber
of shoulder is 3%.

¨ Width of roadway or formation

o It is the sum of width of pavements or carriageway including separators if any and the
shoulders. Formation or roadway width is the top width of the highway embankment or
bottom width of cutting.
¨ Right of way
o It is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. The width of this acquired
land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road and possible
further development.
o It is desirable to control the building construction activities on either side of the road
boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the road, in order to reserve sufficient
space for further improvement of roads. Therefore, it is necessary to disallow the
building activities up to building line with sufficient setback from the road boundary.
o In addition, it is desirable to exercise control of the nature of building up to further set
back distance up to the control lines
c) Sight distance
• Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
¨ It is the minimum sight distance available on highway at any spot, should be sufficient length
to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without collision. (non-passing sight
distance)
¨ Total reaction time
o Perception time: it is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied.
o Brake reaction time: it depends on several factors including the skill of the driver.

6
 oPIEV theory: according to this theory the total reaction of the driver is split into four
parts.
§ Perception:
§ Intellection: time in understanding situation.
§ Emotion: time elapsed during emotional sensation.
§ Volition: time taken for final action
¨ Lag distance Distance tr
o = 0.278𝑉𝑡: SSD 2.5 s
o Reaction time as per IRC is given as: OSD 2.0 s
¨ Braking distance Min. space headway 0.7 s
;<
o = 5=>(?±A)
o + sign when going uphill
o -ve sign when going downhill
V5
SSD, m = 0.7V +
254(µ ± n)
o On roads with restricted width with two-way movement, minimum SSD is Twice the
SSD.
• Overtaking Sight Distance
¨ The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction. (safe passing sight distance)
¨ For one-way road,
OSD = d3 + d5 + dM
o for two-way divided road d3 is not required
= 𝑣O 𝑡: + (𝑣O 𝑇 + 2𝑠) + 𝑣R 𝑇
= 0.278 𝑉O 𝑡: + (0.278 𝑉O 𝑇 + 2𝑠) + 0.278𝑉R 𝑇
§ in Kmph, tr = 2s reaction time,
o Time taken for overtaking (𝑇) and relative distance 2𝑠,
o were 𝑠 = 0.2𝑉O + 6 = 0.7𝑣O + 6
1
2𝑠 = 𝑎𝑇 5
2
4𝑠
𝑇=U
𝑎

4 × 3.6𝑠
𝑇=U
𝐴(kmph/s)
o In case speed of overtaken vehicle is not give 𝑉O = (𝑉 − 16) kmph is assumed
o 𝑉] = 𝑉R is taken as design speed
o The acceleration a of the overtaking vehicle is to be specified.
¨ For OSD and ISD, height of obstruction and height of observer both are taken as 1.2m, effect
of grade is not taken.
• Overtaking zone
¨ It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible ahead at every
point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there may be stretches
where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided.
¨ But the overtaking opportunity for vehicles should be given at frequent intervals. These zones
which are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones.
¨ The sign posts should be installed at sufficient distance in advance to indicate the start of the
overtaking zones. Which is equal to OSD. The end of the overtaking zones is also indicated by
appropriate sign posts.
7
 ¨ The minimum length of overtaking zone is three times OSD, it is desirable that the length is
kept five times the OSD.
• Intermediate Sight distance
¨ At stretches of the road where required overtaking sight distance cannot be provided, as far as
possible Intermediate sight distance, ISD equal to twice of SSD, may be provided.
d) Horizontal Alignment
• Terrain classification
¨ Done on the basis of cross slope
Terrain Cross slope of the
classification country, %
Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Mountainous 25-60
Steep Greater than 60
• Super elevation
¨ In order to counter the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised w.r.t. the inner edge, thus providing a
transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to
the pavement surface is known as superelevation or cant or banking.
(0.278 𝑉)5 𝑉5
𝜇+𝑒 = =
9.8 𝑅 127𝑅
𝜇 = 0.15 lateral coefficient of friction
¨ At equilibrium super elevation the friction force generated is zero, and pressure in inner and
outer tire is equal, but this will result in a very high value of superelevation.
¨ From practical view point it is necessary to limit the maximum allowable superelevation to
avoid very high values of e. This is particularly necessary when the road has to cater for mixed
traffic, consisting of fast and slow traffic. IRC has limited maximum e to 7%.
o On urban roads with frequent intersection Terrain 𝑒e]f
4%, hilly road 10%. Plain and rolling, 7%
¨ Minimum superelevation based on drainage snow bound
consideration is equal to camber. Mountainous & steep 10%
• Super elevation DESIGN Urban area 4%
¨ In case of mixed traffic condition, speed of
travelling vehicles are different, hence the required super elevation is also different. In this
case IRC suggest to design the super elevation with 75% of design speed. Considering
coefficient of lateral friction as zero.
(0.75𝑉)5 𝑉5
𝑒= =
127𝑅 225𝑅
¨ STEPS
;<
o 𝑒 = 55=` is calculated neglecting the friction.
o If 𝑒 < 7% provide the calculated superelevation.
o 𝑒 > 7% provide 7% and check
;<
§ If 𝜇 = 35b` − 0.07 is less than 0.15 then 7% is safe, OK
o Else
§ Find allowable design speed using
c;<
§ 𝜇(0.15) + 𝑒(0.07) = 0.22 = 35b`
§ 𝑉] = √27.94 𝑅 kmph
• Attainment of super elevation

8
 ¨ Introducing superelevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important feature in
construction.
¨ Elimination of crown of cambered section is done by two ways
o The outer half of the cross slope is rotated about the crown at a desired rate. The
elevation of centerline is not altered. No point has negative superelevation. Drawback is
that surface drainage will not be proper
o Diagonal crown method: the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing
the width of the inner half of cross section progressively. This method is not usually
adopted as a portion of the outer half has increasing values of negative superelevation on
outer half.
¨ Two methods of rotating the pavement cross section to attain full superelevation are
o By rotating the pavement cross section about the centre line, depressing the inner edge
and raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of superelevation.
§ Balancing of earth work is achieved but cause drainage problem.
o By rotating the pavement cross section about the inner edge of the pavement section
raising both the centre as well as the outer edge of the pavement by the full amount of
superelevation.
• Ruling minimum radius
¨ It is the minimum radius of the curve for a given ruling design speed, considering maximum
super elevation and lateral friction.
𝑉5
𝑅ghijkl =
127(𝑒e]f + 0.15)
• Absolute minimum design speed
¨ When the minimum design speed 𝑉emA is adopted instead of ruling design speed, then it is
called absolute minimum radius.
5
𝑉emA
𝑅njk =
127(𝑒e]f + 0.15)
• Radius beyond which no super elevation is needed
¨ It is radius of curve corresponding to which super elevation is adopted as equal to camber of
road. It is designed on the basis of 75% of design speed considering coefficient of friction as
zero.
𝑉5
𝑅=
225 × 𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
• Extra Widening
¨ Mechanical Widening
𝑛𝑙 5
𝑤e =
2𝑅
o l is 6 to 6.1m, n is no of lanes
¨ Psychological Widening
𝑉
𝑤vw =
9.5√𝑅
¨ Recommendation of IRC
For single lane 𝑅 > 300 50 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 300 𝑅 ≤ 50
𝑤vw = 0 Extra widening not Extra widening is Extra widening is
18 required provided in both provided in inner
𝑤e =
𝑅 sides of curve side of curve
• Horizontal Transition curve
¨ Object of providing transition curves
o Gradual introduction of centrifugal force, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle
o Gradual steering for comfort and security.
9
 o Gradual introduction of super elevation and extra widening.
o To improve aesthetic appearance of the road
¨ Different types of transition curves
o The ideal shape of a transition curve should be such that the rate of introduction of
centrifugal force or the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be consistent.
3
The length 𝐿w ∝ `
o Spiral (clothoid)
§ Spiral transition curve fulfils the requirement of ideal transition curve. Radius
is inversely proportional to length and rate of change of acceleration is uniform
throughout the length. (IRC also recommends this.)
§ The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and setting out
the curve in the field is simple and easy.
o For Lemniscate and Cubic parabola rate of change of radius is not constant, at deflection
angle higher than 4º.
¨ Length of transition curve
o The length of transition curve is designed to fulfil three conditions.
o The highest of the three values mentioned is length of transition curve.
The maximum allowable value of rate of change of super elevation,
without producing any discomfort
Rate of change of 80
𝐶, 𝑚/𝑠 M =
centrifugal 75 + 𝑉
acceleration [0.5 < 𝐶 < 0.8]
(0.278𝑉)M
𝐿~ =
𝐶𝑅
Rotation about center
𝑒𝑁
Rate of 𝐿w = (𝑤 + 𝑤€ ) Open country 1:150
2
introduction Built up area 1:100
Rotation about inner edge
of super elevation Hill roads 1:60
𝐿w = 𝑒𝑁(𝑤 + 𝑤€ )
where 1:N is the allowed slope
for plain and rolling terrain for mountainous and steep terrain
Empirical formula
2.7𝑉 5 𝑉5
by IRC 𝐿w = 𝐿w =
𝑅 𝑅
• Setting Out of transition curve
¨ When transition curves are to be provided on both ends of a circular curve, the curve will shift
by an amount s
𝐿5~
𝑠=
24𝑅
¨ Chainage of junction points are
Point of tangency (A1) Second point A2 Third point End point (A4)
Chainage of point of A1+ ½ transition A4 – ½ transition A1+ length of
intersection – length of curve curve combined curve
tangent
¨ Total length of combined curve
𝜋𝑅Δ
𝐿R ≈ + 𝐿w
180
¨ Length of tangent
Δ 𝐿
(𝑅 + 𝑠) tan + w
2 2

10
 ¨ In this calculation the assumption is that half of the transition curve is in the straight portion
and half in the combined circular part.
• Setback distance
¨ In the design of horizontal alignment, the sight distance along the inner side of the curves
should be considered.
¨ The clearance distance or set back distance is required from the centre line of a horizontal
curve to an obstruction on the inner side of curve.
3
o 𝑑 = > (𝑤 + 𝑤€ )
Case I Case II
Single lane Wide roads (more lanes)
Length of curve is greater than sight 𝑑 is distance between centre line of road and
distance, the angle subtended by the arc centre line of the inside lane in meter.
length 𝑆 at the centre is 𝛼 𝛼Œ 180𝑆
=
𝐿R > 𝑆. 𝐷. 𝛼 180# 𝑆 2 2𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)
=
2 2𝜋𝑅
Distance from obstruction to center 𝛼′
𝛼 𝑚Œ = 𝑅 − (𝑅 − 𝑑) cos
𝑚 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos 2
2
𝛼 180# 𝐿R 𝛼Œ 180𝐿R
= =
2 2𝜋𝑅 2 2𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑)
𝐿R < 𝑆. 𝐷.
𝛼 (𝑆 − 𝐿R ) 𝛼 𝛼 Œ (𝑆 − 𝐿R ) 𝛼′
𝑚 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos + sin 𝑚Œ = 𝑅 − (𝑅 − 𝑑) cos + sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
• Curve resistance
¨ Automobiles are steered by turning the front wheels, but rear wheels do not turn. When a
vehicle driven by rear wheels moves on a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of rear and
front are different, so there is some loss in the tractive force.
¨ This loss of tractive force due to turning on a horizontal curve is termed as curve resistance:
𝑇(1 − cos 𝛼)
e) Vertical Alignment
• Gradient
¨ It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road w.r.t. the horizontal. It is expressed as
ratio of 1 in x. it is also expresses as a percentage, n i.e., n in 100.
¨ Gradients are divided into following categories
Ruling It is maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design the
gradient vertical profile of a road. (design gradient)
The IRC has recommended ruling gradient of 1:30 on plain and rolling terrain,
1:20 on mountainous terrain, 1:16.7 on steep terrain.
Limiting Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradient than ruling
gradient gradient. Limiting gradients are used in view of enormous increase in cost in
constructing roads with gentler gradients.
However, the length of continuous grade line steeper than ruling value should
be limited.
Exceptional In some extra ordinary situations, it may be unavoidable to provide still steeper
gradient gradients at least for short stretches and in such cases the steeper gradient up to
exceptional gradients may be provided. (100m at a stretch)
Minimum A certain longitudinal slope is essential, to drain the water along the side
gradient drains. Hence it is desirable to have certain minimum gradient on roads.
• Grade compensation

11
 ¨ When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has already the maximum
permissible gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss of
tractive effort due to the curve.
30 + 𝑅 75
• •% ≯ • •%
𝑅 𝑅
¨ According to IRC the grade compensation is no necessary for gradients flatter than 4%
therefore, when applying grade compensation correction, the gradients need not be eased
beyond 4%.
• Summit curve
¨ These are vertical curves with convexity upwards. Vertical point of intersection always lies
above the curve.
o They are only designed for sight distance criteria, as a parabola shape, due to best
riding quality and simplicity of calculations. Ideal shape of summit curve is circular as
it can get a constant sight distance throughout the curve.
¨ Equation of summit curve
o Parabolic summit curves are generally adopted, the equation
𝑁 𝑁
𝑦 Œ = •− • 𝑥 5 + 𝑛3 𝑥 𝑦 = • • 𝑥5
2𝐿w 2𝐿w
𝑦’ is taken from horizontal 𝑦 is taken from tangent, Apex equation
§ Where 𝑁 = |𝑛3 + 𝑛5 |
§ Length of summit curve 𝐿w measured horizontally
o Position of crest
𝑛3
𝑥 = 𝐿w
𝑁
o Position of VPI from VPC is
𝐿w
𝑥=
2
¨ Length of Summit Curve
SSD OSD
General case
(𝐻 = 1.2, ℎ = 0.15) (𝐻 = 1.2, ℎ = 1.2)
𝑁 𝑆5 𝑁𝑆 5 𝑁𝑆 5
𝐿w > 𝑆 𝐿w = 5 𝐿w = 𝐿w =
2˜√𝐻 + √ℎ™ 4.4 9.6
5
2˜√𝐻 + √ℎ™ 4.4 9.6
𝐿w < 𝑆 𝐿w = 2𝑆 − 𝐿w = 2𝑆 − 𝐿w = 2𝑆 −
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
• Valley curve
¨ These curves have concavity upwards. VPI lie below the curve, it is designed taking headlight
sight distance into account. These are made fully transitional with cubic parabolic shape.
Centrifugal forces act downwards so comfort condition is taken into account.
o HSD: headlight sight distance is the total distance visible through the headlight of
vehicle
¨ Position of lowest point of valley Curve
3
𝑛3 5
𝑥 = 𝐿š › œ
2𝑁
¨ Length of Valley curve
SSD
General case
(𝛼 = 1# , ℎ = 0.75)
𝑁𝑆 5 𝑁𝑆 5
𝐿š > 𝐻𝑆𝐷 𝐿š = 𝐿š =
2ℎ + 2𝑆 tan 𝛼 1.5 + 0.035𝑆

12
 2ℎ + 2𝑆 tan 𝛼 1.5 + 0.035𝑆
𝐿š < 𝐻𝑆𝐷 𝐿š = 2𝑆 − 𝐿š = 2𝑆 −
𝑁 𝑁

𝑁𝑣 M
Comfort 𝐿š = 2 U
condition 𝐶 𝐿š = 0.38•𝑁𝑉 M
𝐶 ≈ 0.6
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4. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
a) Traffic characteristics
• Road user characteristics
¨ Factors affecting road user characteristics
o Physical: vision, hearing, strength and general reaction to traffic situation.
o Psychological: the emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, superstition, impatience,
general attitude towards traffic and regulations and maturity also comes under this.
o Mental: knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the road user
characteristics.
o Environmental: it includes traffic stream characteristics, facilities to the traffic,
atmospheric conditions and the locality.
¨ Vision
o 6/6 Normal vision: ability to see 8.5mm letter from 6m distance
o 6/9 A normal person can see from 9 m but poorer vision person recognizes from 6 m
¨ Design hourly traffic volume is taken as the 30th highest hourly traffic volume, ie that will be
exceeded only 29 times in a year.
• Vehicular characteristics
¨ Dimension of vehicle
¨ Weight: maximum weight affects design of pavement thickness and gradients.
¨ Power
¨ Speed
• Braking characteristics
¨ Retardation, Skid distance, Skid resistance, Braking efficiency
b) Traffic study and analysis
• Traffic studies or surveys are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics. These studies help in
deciding the geometric design features and traffic control for safe and efficient traffic movements.
The traffic surveys for collecting traffic data are also called traffic census. Various traffic studies
generally carried out are:
Ø Traffic volume study Ø Traffic flow characteristics
Ø Speed study Ø Traffic capacity study
à Spot speed study Ø Parking study
à Speed and delay study Ø Accident studies or the traffic flop
Ø Origin and destination study
c) Traffic volume study
• Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period. Traffic volume counts may be done mechanically or manually.
¨ Mechanical counters: they may be either fixed type or portable type. The mechanical counter
can automatically record the total number of vehicles crossing a section of road in a desired
period. It is not possible to get the traffic volumes of various classes of traffic in the stream and
the details of turning movement.
¨ Manual counts: this method employs a field team to record traffic volume on the prescribed
record sheets.

13