Concise Guide to APA Style: 7th Edition (eBook

PDF) instant download

https://ebooksecure.com/product/concise-guide-to-apa-style-7th-
edition-ebook-pdf/

Download more ebook from https://ebooksecure.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebooksecure.com
to discover even more!

A Pocket Style Manual, APA Version 7th Edition (eBook

PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/a-pocket-style-manual-apa-
version-7th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) An EasyGuide to APA Style (EasyGuide

Series) 3rd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-an-easyguide-to-apa-
style-easyguide-series-3rd-edition/

(eBook PDF) College Success A Concise Practical Guide

7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-college-success-a-
concise-practical-guide-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) How to Think Critically: A Concise Guide

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-how-to-think-critically-
a-concise-guide/
(eBook PDF) Concise Guide to Critical Thinking by Lewis
Vaughn

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-concise-guide-to-
critical-thinking-by-lewis-vaughn/

The Concise St. Martin's Guide to Writing Eighth

Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/the-concise-st-martins-guide-to-
writing-eighth-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) A TeXas Style Introduction to Proof (Maa

Textbooks)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-a-texas-style-
introduction-to-proof-maa-textbooks/

(eBook PDF) Guide to Networking Essentials , 7th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-guide-to-networking-
essentials-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Network+ Guide to Networks 7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-network-guide-to-
networks-7th-edition/
Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association (APA). All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright
Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including, but not limited to, the process of
scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or retrieval system, w ithout the prior w ritten permission of the publisher.

Published by
American Psychological Association
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002
https://w w w .apa.org

Order Department
https://w w w .apa.org/pubs/books
[email protected]

For additional ordering information, including international distributors, see

https://w w w .apa.org/pubs/ordering

Typeset in Aria and Avenir

APA Style Director: Emily L. Ayubi

APA Style Content Development Managers: Chelsea L. Bromstad Lee, Hayley S. Kamin, and Timothy L. McAdoo
APA Style Editors: Anne T. Woodw orth and Ayanna A. Adams
Reviewer: Donell Campbell
Director, Print & Electronic Book Production: Jennifer M. Meidinger
Production Manager: Daniel Brachtesende
Printer: Hess Print Solutions, Brimfield, OH
Cover and Interior Designer: Debra Naylor, Naylor Design, Inc., Washington, DC
Compositor: Robert Kern, TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc., Carrboro, NC
Indexer: Gray Van Dyke, TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc., Carrboro, NC

The correct reference for this book is as follow s:

American Psychological Association. (2020). Concise guide to APA Style (7th ed.).
https://doi.org/10.1037/0000173-000
Library of Congre s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: American Psychological Association, issuing body.

Title: Concise guide to APA style / American Psychological Association.
Other titles: Concise rules of APA style.
Description: Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, [2020] |
Earlier editions published as: Concise rules of APA style. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019043805 (print) | LCCN 2019043806 (ebook) | ISBN
9781433832734 (spiral bound) | ISBN 9781433832765 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology--Authorship--Style manuals. | Social
sciences--Authorship--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC BF76.7 .C66 2020 (print) | LCC BF76.7 (ebook) | DDC
808.06/615--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043805
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043806

https://doi.org/10.1037/0000173-000

eISBN 978-1-4338-3276-5
BRIEF CONTENTS

Introduction

1 Student Paper Types, Elements, and Format

General Guidelines for Student Papers
Paper Elements
Format
Organization
Sample Student Paper

2 Writing Style and Grammar

Effective Scholarly Writing
Grammar and Usage
Strategies to Improve Your Writing

3 Bias-Free Language Guidelines

General Guidelines for Reducing Bias
Reducing Bias by Topic

4 Punctuation, Lists, and Italics

Punctuation
Lists
Italics

5 Spelling, Capitalization, and Abbreviations

Spelling
Capitalization
Abbreviations

6 Numbers and Statistics

Numbers
Statistics and Equations

7 Tables and Figures

General Guidelines for Tables and Figures
Tables
Figures

8 Works Credited in Text

General Guidelines for Citation
Works Requiring Special Approaches to Citation
In-Text Citations
Paraphrases and Quotations
Copyright and Permission

9 Reference List
Reference Categories
Principles of Reference List Entries
Reference Elements (Author, Date, Title, Source)
Reference Variations
Reference List Format and Order

10 Reference Examples
Author Variations
Date Variations
Title Variations
Source Variations
Textual Works
Softw are and Tests
 Audiovisual Media
Online Media
Legal References

Credits for Adapted Tables and Figures

References
Index
CONTENTS

Introduction

1 Student Paper Types, Elements, and Format

General Guidelines for Student Papers
1.1 Application of APA Style to Student Papers
1.2 Student Essays
1.3 Annotated Bibliographies
1.4 Dissertations and Theses
1.5 Student Paper Required Elements
Paper Elements
1.6 Title Page
1.7 Title
1.8 Author Name (Byline)
1.9 Author Affiliation
1.10 Abstract
1.11 Text (Body)
1.12 Reference List
1.13 Footnotes
1.14 Appendices
Format
1.15 Importance of Format
1.16 Order of Pages
1.17 Page Header
1.18 Font
1.19 Special Characters
1.20 Line Spacing
1.21 Margins
1.22 Paragraph Alignment
1.23 Paragraph Indentation
1.24 Paper Length
Organization
1.25 Principles of Organization
1.26 Heading Levels
1.27 Section Labels
Sample Student Paper

2 Writing Style and Grammar

Effective Scholarly Writing
2.1 Continuity and Flow
2.2 Transitions
2.3 Noun Strings
2.4 Conciseness and Clarity
2.5 Wordiness and Redundancy
2.6 Sentence and Paragraph Length
2.7 Tone
2.8 Contractions and Colloquialisms
2.9 Jargon
2.10 Logical Comparisons
2.11 Anthropomorphism
Grammar and Usage
2.12 Verb Tense
2.13 Active and Passive Voice
2.14 Mood
2.15 Subject and Verb Agreement
2.16 First- Versus Third-Person Pronouns
2.17 Editorial “We”
2.18 Singular “They”
2.19 Pronouns for People and Animals (“Who” vs. “That”)
2.20 Pronouns as Subjects and Objects (“Who” vs. “Whom”)
 2.21 Pronouns in Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses ( That vs. Which )
2.22 Subordinate Conjunctions
2.23 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
2.24 Parallel Construction
Strategies to Improve Your Writing
2.25 Reading to Learn Through Example
2.26 Writing From an Outline
2.27 Rereading the Draft
2.28 Seeking Help From Fellow Students
2.29 Working With Writing Centers
2.30 Revising a Paper

3 Bias-Free Language Guidelines

General Guidelines for Reducing Bias
3.1 Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity
3.2 Be Sensitive to Labels
Reducing Bias by Topic
3.3 Age
3.4 Disability
3.5 Gender
3.6 Participation in Research
3.7 Racial and Ethnic Identity
3.8 Sexual Orientation
3.9 Socioeconomic Status
3.10 Intersectionality

4 Punctuation, Lists, and Italics

Punctuation
4.1 Spacing After Punctuation Marks
4.2 Period
4.3 Comma
4.4 Semicolon
4.5 Colon
4.6 Dash
4.7 Quotation Marks
4.8 Parentheses
4.9 Square Brackets
4.10 Slash
Lists
4.11 List Guidelines
4.12 Lettered Lists
4.13 Numbered Lists
4.14 Bulleted Lists
Italics
4.15 Use of Italics
4.16 Reverse Italics

5 Spelling, Capitalization, and Abbreviations

Spelling
5.1 Preferred Spelling
5.2 Hyphenation
Capitalization
5.3 Words Beginning a Sentence
5.4 Proper Nouns and Trade Names
5.5 Job Titles and Positions
5.6 Diseases, Disorders, Therapies, Theories, and Related Terms
5.7 Titles of Works and Headings Within Works
5.8 Titles of Tests and Measures
5.9 Nouns Follow ed by Numerals or Letters
5.10 Names of Conditions or Groups in an Experiment
5.11 Names of Factors, Variables, and Effects
Abbreviations
5.12 Use of Abbreviations
5.13 Definition of Abbreviations
5.14 Format of Abbreviations
5.15 Unit of Measurement Abbreviations
5.16 Time Abbreviations
 5.17 Latin Abbreviations
5.18 Chemical Compound Abbreviations

6 Numbers and Statistics

Numbers
6.1 Numbers Expressed in Numerals
6.2 Numbers Expressed in Words
6.3 Combining Numerals and Words to Express Numbers
6.4 Ordinal Numbers
6.5 Decimal Fractions
6.6 Roman Numerals
6.7 Commas in Numbers
6.8 Plurals of Numbers
Statistics and Equations
6.9 Presentation of Statistics
6.10 Statistical Symbols and Abbreviations
6.11 Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation for Statistics
6.12 Presentation of Equations

7 Tables and Figures

General Guidelines for Tables and Figures
7.1 Purpose of Tables and Figures
7.2 Design and Preparation of Tables and Figures
7.3 Graphical Versus Textual Presentation
7.4 Formatting Tables and Figures
7.5 Referring to Tables and Figures in the Text
7.6 Placement of Tables and Figures
7.7 Reprinting or Adapting Tables and Figures
Tables
7.8 Principles of Table Construction
7.9 Table Components
7.10 Table Numbers
7.11 Table Titles
7.12 Table Headings
7.13 Table Body
7.14 Table Notes
7.15 Standard Abbreviations in Tables and Figures
7.16 Confidence Intervals in Tables
7.17 Table Borders and Shading
7.18 Long or Wide Tables
7.19 Relation Betw een Tables
7.20 Table Checklist
7.21 Sample Tables
Figures
7.22 Principles of Figure Construction
7.23 Figure Components
7.24 Figure Numbers
7.25 Figure Titles
7.26 Figure Images
7.27 Figure Legends
7.28 Figure Notes
7.29 Relation Betw een Figures
7.30 Photographs
7.31 Figure Checklist
7.32 Sample Figures

8 Works Credited in Text

General Guidelines for Citation
8.1 Appropriate Level of Citation
8.2 Plagiarism
8.3 Self-Plagiarism
8.4 Correspondence Betw een Reference List and Text
8.5 Use of the Published Version or Archival Version
8.6 Primary and Secondary Sources
Works Requiring Special Approaches to Citation
8.7 Interview s
8.8 Classroom or Intranet Resources
8.9 Personal Communications
 In-Text Citations
8.10 Author–Date Citation System
8.11 Parenthetical and Narrative Citations
8.12 Citing Multiple Works
8.13 Citing Specific Parts of a Source
8.14 Unknow n or Anonymous Author
8.15 Translated, Reprinted, Republished, and Reissued Dates
8.16 Omitting the Year in Repeated Narrative Citations
8.17 Number of Authors to Include in In-Text Citations
8.18 Avoiding Ambiguity in In-Text Citations
8.19 Works With the Same Author and Same Date
8.20 Authors With the Same Surname
8.21 Abbreviating Group Authors
8.22 General Mentions of Websites, Periodicals, and Common Softw are and Apps
Paraphrases and Quotations
8.23 Principles of Paraphrasing
8.24 Long Paraphrases
8.25 Principles of Direct Quotation
8.26 Short Quotations (Few er Than 40 Words)
8.27 Block Quotations (40 Words or More)
8.28 Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers
8.29 Accuracy of Quotations
8.30 Changes to a Quotation Requiring No Explanation
8.31 Changes to a Quotation Requiring Explanation
8.32 Quotations That Contain Citations to Other Works
8.33 Quotations That Contain Material Already in Quotation Marks
8.34 Epigraphs
Copyright and Permission
8.35 General Guidelines for Reprinting or Adapting Materials
8.36 Materials That Require a Copyright Attribution
8.37 Copyright Status
8.38 Permission and Fair Use
8.39 Copyright Attribution Formats

9 Reference List
Reference Categories
9.1 Determining the Reference Category
9.2 Using the Webpages and Websites Reference Category
9.3 Online and Print References
Principles of Reference List Entries
9.4 Four Elements of a Reference
9.5 Punctuation Within Reference List Entries
9.6 Accuracy and Consistency in References
Reference Elements (Author, Date, Title, Source)
9.7 Author Element
9.8 Format of the Author Element
9.9 Spelling and Capitalization of Author Names
9.10 Identification of Specialized Roles
9.11 Group Authors
9.12 No Author
9.13 Date Element
9.14 Format of the Date Element
9.15 Updated or Review ed Online Works
9.16 Retrieval Dates
9.17 No Date
9.18 Title Element
9.19 Format of the Title Element
9.20 Series and Multivolume Works
9.21 Bracketed Descriptions
9.22 No Title
9.23 Source Element
9.24 Format of the Source Element
9.25 Periodical Sources
9.26 Online Periodicals With Missing Information
9.27 Article Numbers
9.28 Edited Book Chapter and Reference Work Entry Sources
9.29 Publisher Sources
9.30 Database and Archive Sources
 9.31 Works With Specific Locations
9.32 Social Media Sources
9.33 Website Sources
9.34 When to Include DOIs and URLs
9.35 Format of DOIs and URLs
9.36 DOI or URL Shorteners
9.37 No Source
Reference Variations
9.38 Works in Another Language
9.39 Translated Works
9.40 Reprinted, Republished, or Reissued Works
9.41 Religious and Classical Works
Reference List Format and Order
9.42 Format of the Reference List
9.43 Order of Works in the Reference List
9.44 Order of Surname and Given Name
9.45 Order of Multiple Works by the Same First Author
9.46 Order of Works With the Same Author and Same Date
9.47 Order of Works by First Authors With the Same Surname
9.48 Order of Works With No Author or an Anonymous Author
9.49 Abbreviations in References

10 Reference Examples
Author Variations
Date Variations
Title Variations
Source Variations
Textual Works
10.1 Periodicals
10.2 Books and Reference Works
10.3 Edited Book Chapters and Entries in Reference Works
10.4 Reports and Gray Literature
10.5 Dissertations and Theses
10.6 Review s
10.7 Informally Published Works
Softw are and Tests
10.8 Computer Softw are and Mobile Apps
10.9 Tests, Scales, and Inventories
Audiovisual Media
10.10 Audiovisual Works
10.11 Audio Works
10.12 Visual Works
Online Media
10.13 Social Media
10.14 Webpages and Websites
Legal References
10.15 Cases or Court Decisions
10.16 Statutes (Law s and Acts)
10.17 Constitutions and Charters
10.18 Treaties and International Conventions
Credits for Adapted Tables and Figures
References
Index
INTRODUCTION

Effective writing is critical for success in many academic and professional pursuits. APA Style is a set of guidelines for clear and
precise scholarly communication that helps writers, both new and experienced, achieve excellence in writing. It is used by millions
of people around the world in psychology and in fields ranging from nursing to social work, communications to education,
business to engineering, and other disciplines for writing student papers, dissertations, theses, and journal articles. The Concise
Guide to APA Style, Seventh Edition is adapted from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,
Seventh Edition (APA, 2020), which is the authoritative resource for APA Style. We developed the Concise Guide for novice
writers—especially students—to learn APA Style and apply it when writing and formatting their papers and other course
assignments.

Why Use APA Style?

APA Style provides a foundation for effective scholarly communication because it helps writers present their ideas in a clear,
concise, and organized manner. Uniformity and consistency enable readers to (a) focus on the ideas being presented rather than
formatting and (b) scan works quickly for key points, findings, and sources. Style guidelines encourage writers to fully disclose
essential information and allow readers to dispense with minor distractions, such as inconsistencies or omissions in punctuation,
capitalization, reference citations, and presentation of statistics.
When style works best, ideas flow logically, sources are credited appropriately, and papers are organized predictably and
consistently. People are described using language that affirms their worth and dignity. Tables and figures present data in an
engaging, consistent manner.
Whether you use APA Style for a single class or throughout your career, we encourage you to recognize the benefits of a
conscientious approach to writing. Although the guidelines span many areas and take time and practice to learn, we hope that they
provide a balance of directiveness and flexibility and will eventually become second nature.

APA Style for Students

All students, no matter what career they pursue, can benefit from mastering scholarly writing as a way to develop their critical
thinking skills and hone the precision and clarity of their communication. The Publication Manual has long been the authoritative
source for APA Style as used in scholarly writing. The Concise Guide focuses on the APA Style guidelines specific to students
and other novice writers, including how to format a student title page, cite classroom or intranet sources, and write common types
of student papers (e.g., annotated bibliographies, response papers, and dissertations and theses). Those interested in learning
about more advanced topics, including ethical standards, research reporting standards, and the publication process, should refer
to the Publication Manual.

Utility and Accessibility

We have created the seventh edition of the Concise Guide with the practical needs of our users in mind. Within chapters, content
is organized using numbered sections to help users quickly locate answers to their questions. This ease of navigability and depth
of content mean that the guide can be used as both a reference work and a textbook on scholarly writing.
This edition promotes accessibility for everyone, including users with disabilities. In consultation with accessibility experts,
we ensured that the guidelines support users who read and write works in APA Style through a variety of modalities, including
screen readers and other assistive technologies. For example, we present a streamlined format for in-text citations intended to
reduce the burden of both writing and reading them. We provide guidance on how to use adequate contrast in figures to meet Web
Content Accessibility Guidelines (Web Accessibility Initiative, 2018). We also support the use of a variety of fonts and default
settings in common word-processing programs, meaning that users need to make fewer adjustments to their systems to be ready to
write in APA Style. Above all, our aim is to support the many ways in which people communicate. We encourage writers to be
conscientious and respectful toward both the people about whom they are writing and the readers who will benefit from their work.

What’s New in the Seventh Edition?

Brief descriptions of new and updated content are provided next on a chapter-by-chapter basis. For a more comprehensive
overview of content changes, see the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).
Chapter 1: Student Paper Types, Elements, and Format
Chapter 1 is designed to help students select, format, and organize paper elements.

General guidelines on how to apply APA Style to student papers are provided, including descriptions of common types
of student papers.
New formatting guidance is provided for annotated bibliographies.
Guidance on a new student title page containing the course name and number, professor name, and assignment due date
provides a format relevant to course assignments.
A running head is not required for student papers.
Font specifications are more flexible to address accessibility needs.
An updated heading format for Levels 3, 4, and 5 improves readability and assists writers who use the heading-styles
feature of their word-processing program.
A new sample student paper is provided, with labels to show how specific elements appear when implemented.

Chapter 2: Writing Style and Grammar

Chapter 2 provides guidance on writing style and grammar.

The singular “they” is endorsed, consistent with inclusive usage.

More detailed guidance helps writers avoid anthropomorphism.
Strategies to improve writing help strengthen the quality of papers.

Chapter 3: Bias-Free Language Guidelines

Chapter 3 presents guidance on bias-free language to encourage au thors to write about people with inclusivity and respect.

Existing guidance on age, disability, gender, racial and ethnic identity, and sexual orientation has been updated to reflect
best practices.
New guidance is provided on participation in research, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality.

Chapter 4: Punctuation, Lists, and Italics

Chapter 4 provides guidelines on punctuation, lists, and italics.

Updated guidance answers a common question: Use one space after punctuation at the end of a sentence, unless an
instructor or publisher requests otherwise.
Updated guidelines provide greater flexibility for lettered, numbered, and bulleted lists.
Formatting of linguistic examples has changed; quotation marks, rather than italics, are now used around examples to
promote accessibility.

Chapter 5: Spelling, Capitalization, and Abbreviations

Chapter 5 covers spelling, capitalization, and abbreviations.

Common technology-related spelling examples are presented for ease of reference.

Expanded guidance is provided on the capitalization of proper nouns, job titles, diseases and disorders, and more.
Guidelines for the presentation of abbreviations address common questions, such as how to include a citation with an
abbreviation.

Chapter 6: Numbers and Statistics

Chapter 6 provides guidelines for presenting numbers and statistics in a paper.

Guidelines for the presentation of numbers have been updated to be consistent throughout a work (e.g., there is no
longer an exception for presenting numbers in an abstract).
More examples are provided of numbers expressed in numerals versus words.
Expanded guidance includes more examples of how to present currency, with and without symbols.
Chapter 7: Tables and Figures
Chapter 7 provides guidance on creating tables and figures.

More than 20 new sample tables and figures are presented, in dedicated sections, covering a variety of research types
and topics.
The presentation of tables and figures in text is more flexible (either placed after the reference list on separate pages or
embedded in the text).
Formatting of tables and figures is parallel, including consistent styles for numbers, titles, and notes.
The accessible use of color in figures is addressed.

Chapter 8: Works Credited in the Text

Chapter 8 discusses appropriate levels of citation as well as plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and other unethical writing practices.
General guidelines on copyright and permission are also addressed.

In-text citations have been simplified; all in-text citations for works with three or more authors are shortened to the name
of the first author plus “et al.” (except where this would create ambiguity).
Examples of paraphrasing demonstrate how to achieve clear attribution without overcitation.
More examples of formatting are shown, including examples of short quotations and block quotations.

Chapter 9: Reference List

Chapter 9 covers the four elements of a reference list entry (author, date, title, and source) and formatting of the reference list.

The number of authors included in a reference entry has changed; up to 20 authors are now included before names are
omitted with an ellipsis.
The presentation of digital object identifiers (DOIs) and URLs has been standardized. Both are presented as hyperlinks;
the label “DOI:” is no longer used, and the words “Retrieved from” are used only when a retrieval date is also needed.
Updated guidance explains when to include DOIs and URLs for works retrieved from most academic research databases
as well as from proprietary databases such as ERIC or UpToDate.

Chapter 10: Reference Examples

STUDENT PAPER TYPES, ELEMENTS, AND FORMAT

Students are important members of the scholarly community. Although most student work is not formally published, by writing
papers students engage in critical thinking, self-reflection, and scientific inquiry and thereby prepare to make unique contributions
to the repository of knowledge. Students should pay careful attention to the format and organization of their papers. Consistency
in the order, structure, and format of the elements of a paper allows readers to focus on its content rather than its presentation.
Using APA Style guidelines to achieve consistency in the presentation of paper elements is essential to crafting an effective
scholarly work.
This chapter provides an overview of the elements of an APA Style student paper. We first present ways to apply APA Style
to student papers and describe common types of student papers. Next, we outline the required elements of a student paper,
followed by descriptions of how to write and format each paper element. We then discuss formatting and organizational principles
for writing papers. A sample APA Style student paper is included at the end of this chapter; additional sample papers are available
on the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).

General Guidelines for Student Papers

1.1 Application of APA Style to Student Papers
Although the Publication Manual originated as a guide for authors seeking publication in scholarly journals, it has been widely
adopted by academic instructors, departments, and institutions that require students to use APA Style when writing scholarly
papers. Likewise, the manual has historically addressed researchers working in the field of psychology; however, students and
researchers use APA Style in other fields and disciplines, including social work, nursing and other health-related fields,
communications, education, business, engineering, and technology. Students write many of the same kinds of papers that are
published in journals (e.g., literature review articles; for more information on articles published in scholarly journals, see Sections
1.1–1.9 of the Publication Manual). Students may also write papers that are not typically published (e.g., essays, response or
reaction papers, dissertations and theses, annotated bibliographies; described in Sections 1.2–1.4).
Most APA Style guidelines can be applied to student papers. However, because the scope of what constitutes a student
paper is broad and flexible, and because students submit papers to their academic institutions rather than to an APA journal, we do
not designate formal requirements for the nature or contents of an APA Style student paper. Thus, questions about paper length,
required sections, and so forth are best answered by the instructor or institution setting the assignment. Students should follow
the guidelines and requirements developed by their instructors, departments, and/or academic institutions when writing papers,
including dissertations and theses; these guidelines and requirements may entail adaptations of or additions to the APA Style
guidelines described in this guide. We encourage writers, students, instructors, departments, and academic institutions outside of
the journal publication context to adapt APA Style to fit their needs.

1.2 Student Essays

Undergraduate students commonly write many types of essays as well as response and reaction papers. The descriptions that
follow are generally representative of these types of papers; check with your assigning instructor or institution for specific
guidelines.

Cause-and-Effect Essays. In cause-and-effect essays, writers discuss how specific events lead to particular outcomes while often
advocating for a position. A clear and strong thesis provides a solid foundation for this type of essay. The paper is generally
structured by describing each cause and its collateral effect, with logical transitions between them.

Comparative Essays. In comparative essays, writers compare and contrast two (or more) topics with the goal of linking disparate
 items under a central thesis. The paper can be structured to focus separately on Topic 1 and then Topic 2, or the topics
may be interwoven as the writer discusses specific aspects of each.

Expository Essays. In expository essays, writers explain or provide information on a specific topic with evidence used to reinforce
the claims made. The paper is structured in multiple paragraphs and includes an introduction, body, and conclusion.

Narrative Essays. In narrative essays, writers convey a story from a clear point of view. The paper is structured to include a
beginning, middle, and end; has a clearly defined purpose; and is written in concise, evocative language.

Persuasive Essays. In persuasive essays, writers present arguments intended to convince readers to adopt a certain viewpoint or
take a particular action. Persuasive essays have a similar paper structure to expository essays and include clear arguments
connected by logical transitions.

Précis. In précis, writers concisely summarize essential points, statements, or facts from a single work. The paper should include a
brief thesis and sections that match those of the original work (e.g., Method, Results, Discussion), but it should be much shorter
than the original work and be written in the writer’s own words.

Response or Reaction Papers. In response or reaction papers, writers summarize one or more works and describe their personal
reactions or responses to them, such as how the work or works affected them, are relevant to their life, and so forth. This type of
paper is typically short (i.e., three pages or so) and written in the first person (see Section 2.16).

1.3 Annotated Bibliographies

An annotated bibliography is a type of student paper in which reference list entries are followed by short descriptions of the work
called annotations. The annotations inform readers about the relevance and quality of the sources the writer has used. Annotated
bibliographies can also constitute one element of a research paper in fields that require bibliographies rather than reference lists.
Most APA Style guidelines are applicable to annotated bibliographies.

For guidance on font, line spacing, and paper margins, see Sections 1.18, 1.20, and 1.21, respectively.
For guidance on writing the text of your annotations, consult the writing style and grammar guidelines in Chapter 2.
For guidance on discussing people’s personal characteristics such as age, gender, or disability status, see the bias-free
language guidelines in Chapter 3.
For guidance on punctuation, capitalization, and so forth, see the mechanics of style guidelines in Chapters 4 to 6.
For guidelines on creating and properly ordering references in an annotated bibliography, see Chapter 9.
For templates and examples of reference entries, see Chapter 10. In general, it is not necessary to cite the work being
annotated in the annotation because the origin of the information is clear through context. However, do include in-text
citations (see Chapter 8) to clarify the source if you refer to multiple works within an annotation.

Instructors generally set all other requirements for annotated bibliographies (e.g., number of references to include, length and
focus of each annotation). In the absence of other guidance, format an annotated bibliography as follows:

Format and order references in an annotated bibliography in alpha betical order, the same as you would order entries in a
reference list (see Sections 9.42–9.43).
Write each annotation as a new paragraph below its reference entry. Indent the entire annotation 0.5 in. from the left
margin, the same as you would a block quotation (see Section 8.27). Do not indent the first line of the annotation further.
If the annotation spans multiple paragraphs, indent the first line of the second and any subsequent paragraphs an
additional 0.5 in., the same as you would a block quotation with multiple paragraphs.

See Figure 1.1 for an example of an annotated bibliography.

Figure 1.1 Sample Annotated Bibliography

1.4 Dissertations and Theses
Dissertations or theses are typically required of graduate students, but undergraduate students completing advanced research
projects may also write them or similar types of papers. Academic institutions or departments have detailed guidelines for how to
format and write dissertations and theses, and the requirements and acceptable format vary by discipline. Some dissertations and
theses are hundreds of pages long and contain thorough literature reviews and exhaustive reference lists, whereas others follow a
multiple-article format consisting of several shorter, related papers that are intended for individual publication. Students should
follow the guidelines of their institution or department first and follow APA Style guidelines in the absence of other specific
guidance. More information on adapting dissertations and theses for publication in a scholarly journal can be found in Section 12.1
of the Publication Manual.

1.5 Student Paper Required Elements

Student papers usually include, at minimum, a title page (see Section 1.6), which contains the paper title (see Section 1.7), author
names and affiliations (see Sections 1.8–1.9), and course and assignment information (i.e., course name and number, professor’s
name, assignment due date; see Section 1.6); page headers with the page number (see Section 1.17); text (see Section 1.11); and a
reference list (see Section 1.12). They may also include tables (see Chapter 7), figures (see Chapter 7), footnotes (see Section 1.13),
and/or appendices (see Section 1.14). Student papers do not typically include a running head, an author note, or an abstract unless
specifically requested by the instructor or institution. Information on paper elements usually required only in a professional paper
(i.e., author note, running head, keywords, supplemental materials) can be found in Sections 2.7, 2.8, 2.10, and 2.15 of the
Publication Manual.

Paper Elements
1.6 Title Page
A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both professional and student versions of the title page. The Concise
Guide includes information on only a student title page; for guidance on a professional title page, see Sections 2.3 to 2.8 of the
Publication Manual. Students should follow the guidelines of their instructor or institution when determining what elements to
include on the title page and how to format them. If not instructed otherwise, students should include the following elements on
the title page (see Figure 1.2):

title of the paper (see Section 1.7);

name of each author of the paper (the byline; see Section 1.8 for formatting the byline);
affiliation for each author, typically the university attended (including the name of any department or division; see
Section 1.9);
course number and name for which the paper is being submitted (use the format shown on institutional materials; e.g.,
PSY204, PSYC 4301, NURS 303);
instructor name (check with the instructor for the preferred form; e.g., Dr. Hülya F. Akış; Professor Levin; Kwame Osei,
PhD; Mariam Sherzai, RN);
assignment due date, written in the month, date, and year format used in your country (usually November 4, 2020, or 4
November 2020; we recommend spelling out the month, although 2020-11-04 is the format in countries that use the
international standard date); and
page number in the header (also included on all pages; see Section 1.17).

Format. See the sections for the title, byline, affiliation, and page numbers for formatting instructions for these elements. Place the
course number and name, instructor name, and assignment due date on separate lines on the title page, centered and in that order,
starting one line below the affiliation (see Section 1.20 for more on line spacing). Do not add extra lines between these elements.

Figure 1.2 Sample Student Title Page

1.7 Title
The title should summarize the main idea of your paper simply and, if possible, in a way that is engaging for readers. For research
papers, it should be a concise statement of the main topic of the research and identify the variables or theoretical issues under
investigation and the relationship between them.
Although there is no prescribed limit for title length in APA Style, keep your titles focused and succinct. Include essential
terms in the title that clarify the topic of your paper for readers. Avoid words that serve no purpose; they increase the title length
and can mislead readers. For example, the words “introduction,” “method,” and “results” do not normally appear in a title, nor
should such phrases as “a study of” or “an experimental investigation of.” Occasionally, terms such as “literature review,”
“research synthesis,” or “meta-analysis” convey important information for potential readers and are included in the title. Avoid
using abbreviations in a title; spelling out all terms helps readers more readily comprehend a title’s meaning. When an animal name
—for example, “Rat”—is in the title, also include the scientific name in italics and parentheses: Rat (Rattus norvegicus). See Table
1.1 for examples of effective versus ineffective paper titles.

Table 1.1 Effective and Ineffective Paper Titles

Effe ctive title Ine ffe ctive title Rationale

Effect of Depression on the Decision to A Study of the Effect of More direct: Unnecessary w ords have been cut.
Join a Clinical Trial Depression on the Decision to
Join a Clinical Trial

Transition to Higher Education for Higher Education for Students More precise: The focus of the research has been clarified; the
Students With Autism: A Systematic With Autism type of research (literature review ) has been specified.
Literature Review

Closing Your Eyes to Follow Your Heart: Closing Your Eyes to Follow More informative: A creative title has been balanced w ith a
Avoiding Information to Protect a Strong Your Heart substantive subtitle.
Intuitive Preference

Predator Stress Negatively Impacts Does Predator Stress Impact More explanatory: The title tells readers the direction of the
Cognitive Performance in Rats (Rattus Cognitive Performance in relationship betw een the variables. It also includes the scientific
norvegicus) Rats? name of the animal used in the study.

Format. Write the paper title in title case (see Section 5.7), bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title page (e.g.,
three or four lines down from the top margin of the page). If the title is longer than one line, the main title and the subtitle can be
separated on double-spaced lines if desired. Note that the paper title also appears at the top of the first page of text (see Sections
1.11 and 1.27).

Running Head. Although a running head is not required of student papers in APA Style, some instructors or institutions may
request it. The running head is an abbreviated version of the paper title that appears at the top of every page to identify it for
readers. When including a running head, place it in the page header, flush left and across from the right-aligned page number. Write
the running head in all-capital letters. The same running heads appears in all page headers.
The running head should contain a maximum of 50 characters, counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words. If the
title is already 50 characters or fewer, the full title can be used as the running head. Avoid using abbreviations in the running head;
however, the ampersand symbol (&) may be used rather than “and” if desired. The running head does not have to consist of the
same words in the same order as the title; rather, the idea of the title should be conveyed in a shortened form. For example, the
article title “Restless Nights: Sleep Latency Increases and Sleep Quality Decreases With Caffeine Intake” could be shortened to a
running head of “CAFFEINE-INDUCED REDUCTIONS IN SLEEP EFFICIENCY.” For examples of a running head on a paper, see
the professional title page and sample paper in Chapter 2 of the Publication Manual and on the APA Style website
(https://apastyle.apa.org).

1.8 Author Name (Byline)

Every paper includes the name of the author or authors—the byline. The preferred form of an author’s name is first name, middle
initial(s), and last name; this form reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity (e.g., that authors with the same first and last names
are the same person). Use the same form of your name for all papers. If you change your name, present your new name in a
consistent form as well. Omit all academic degrees or licenses (e.g., PhD, RN, LCSW, BA, BS) from the byline.
Authors are responsible for determining the order of authorship (i.e., the order in which two or more authors’ names appear in
the byline) on papers that will be submitted to an instructor. Students who contribute equally to a group project may put their
names in any order in the byline (e.g., alphabetical order, reverse alphabetical order). Students who contribute different amounts to
a group project should list their names in the order of contribution.

Format. Write the byline on the title page after the paper title. Include one blank double-spaced line between the paper title and the
byline. Follow these guidelines for byline formatting:

If the paper has one author, write the author name centered and in standard (i.e., nonbold, nonitalic) font.
If the paper has multiple authors, write all names on the same line (flowing onto additional lines if needed), centered, and
in standard font. For two authors, separate the names with the word “and”; for three or more authors, separate the names
with commas and include “and” before the final author’s name.
For names with suffixes, separate the suffix from the rest of the name with a space, not a comma (e.g., Roland J. Thorpe
Jr.).

See Table 1.2 for examples of how to set up author bylines and affiliations.

Table 1.2 Examples of Author Bylines and Affiliations

Variation Exam ple

One author, one affiliation Maggie C. Leonard

Department of Psychology, George Mason University

One author, no institutional affiliation Isabel de Vries

Rochester, New York, United States

Tw o authors, shared affiliation Mackenzie J. Clement and Talia R. Cummings

College of Nursing, Michigan State University

Tw o authors, different affiliations Wilhelm T. Weber 1 and Latasha P. Jackson2

1
Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
2
College of Education, University of Georgia

Three or more authors, shared affiliation Madina Wahab, DeAndre L. Washington Jr., and Julian H. Lee
School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley

Three or more authors, different affiliations Savannah C. St. John1, Fen-Lei Chang2, 3, and Carlos O. Vásquez III1
1
Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, United States
2
MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, England
3
Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge

1.9 Author Affiliation

The affiliation identifies where the author(s) studied (or worked, in the case of professional authors) when the paper was written
or the work was conducted, which is usually a university or other institution. Follow these guidelines when presenting affiliations:

Academic affiliations (e.g., universities, teaching hospitals affiliated with a university) should include the name of any
department or division and the name of the institution, separated by a comma. It is not necessary to include the location
of the institution unless the location is part of the institution’s name.
Nonacademic institutional affiliations (e.g., hospitals or agencies not affiliated with a university, independent
laboratories, other organizations) should include the name of any department or division, the name of the institution, and
the location of the institution, separated by commas.
When providing a location (as for nonacademic institutions), give the city; state, province, or territory as applicable; and
country. Spell out state, province, and territory names rather than abbreviating them.

Format. The format of the affiliation depends on the number of authors and whether different authors have different affiliations, as
follows. Begin the affiliation(s) on a new line after the byline. Place different affiliations on their own lines. Do not add blank lines
between affiliations or between the byline and the first affiliation. See Table 1.2 for examples of how to set up author bylines and
affiliations.

All Authors Share One Affiliation. If the paper has one author with one affiliation, or if all authors of a multiauthored paper share
one affiliation, include the affiliation centered and in standard font on its own line, beginning one line below the byline. Do not
include a superscript numeral.

Multiple Authors With Different Affiliations. If the paper has two or more authors with different affiliations (even if only the
department is different within the same university), use superscript Arabic numerals to connect author names to the appropriate
affiliation(s). List authors’ affiliations in the order the authors appear in the byline; for example, for a paper with two authors who
have different affiliations, list the affiliation of the first author first, followed by the affiliation of the second author, with each
affiliation centered and in standard font on its own line beginning one line below the byline Place a superscript numeral 1 after the
first author’s surname, without a space between the name and the numeral (when a paper has three or more authors and thus
commas appear after author names, put the numeral after the surname and before the comma). Then put a superscript numeral 1
before the corresponding affiliation (with a space between the numeral and the start of the affiliation). Repeat this process for the
second author using the numeral 2 (and so on when a paper has more authors).

If some, but not all, authors share an affiliation, list the affiliation once and reuse the superscript numeral in the byline. Identify
authors with two affiliations in the byline by separating the appropriate superscript numerals with a superscript comma and space.
If the paper has only one author, or if there are multiple authors but all authors share the same affiliation, then superscript numerals
are not used.

1.10 Abstract
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of your paper. An abstract is not usually required for student
papers unless requested by the instructor or institution.
The abstract needs to be dense with information. A good abstract is

accurate: Ensure that the abstract correctly reflects the purpose and content of the paper. Do not include information
that does not appear in the text.
nonevaluative: Report rather than evaluate; do not add to or comment on what is in the text.
coherent and readable: Write in clear and deliberate language. Use verbs rather than their noun equivalents and the
active rather than the passive voice (e.g., “investigated” instead of “an investigation of”; “we present results” instead of
“results are presented”; see Section 2.13). Use the present tense to describe conclusions drawn or results with
continuing applicability; use the past tense to describe specific variables manipulated or outcomes measured.
concise: Be brief, and make each sentence maximally informative, especially the lead sentence. Begin the abstract with
the most important points. Do not waste space by repeating the title. Include only the four or five most important
concepts, findings, or implications.

Format. Abstracts typically are limited to 250 words. Place the abstract on its own page after the title page (i.e., page 2). Write the
section label “Abstract” in bold title case (see Section 5.7), centered at the top of the page, and place the abstract below the label.
Abstracts are usually written as a single paragraph without indentation of the first line. Some instructors may require a
structured abstract, which is also written as a single paragraph without indentation and includes labels to identify various sections
(e.g., Objective, Method, Results, Conclusions); unless instructed otherwise, write the labels in bold italic font.

1.11 Text (Body)

The text, or body of the paper, contains the writer’s main contribution. The text can be organized in many ways, and the
organization generally depends on the paper type (see Sections 1.2–1.4). Most papers include an introduction, consisting of one or
a few focused paragraphs that address the paper’s importance, contextualization within the existing literature, and aims. Often the
introduction for a research paper contains a literature review of relevant background studies on the topic of the paper; this review
provides enough information for readers to understand the paper’s content but does not go into detail about every study.
Beyond the introduction, the paper should include paragraphs or sections explaining its main premises. There are many
possible formats for the rest of the text; for example, a quantitative research paper typically includes sections called “Method,”
“Results,” and “Discussion,” whereas a qualitative research paper may include a section called “Findings” instead of “Results,” or
it may have different section headings altogether. A brief student paper (e.g., a response paper) may not have section headings or
may have sections with headings different from those described in this guide. For example, a comparative essay may contain
headings for each topic as well as subheadings for specific aspects of each topic. See Section 1.25 for more on organization.

Format. The text should start on a new page after the title page (if your paper does not include an abstract) or after the abstract (if
your paper includes one). On the first line of the first page of the text, write the title of the paper again in title case (see Section 5.7),
bold, and centered. The text then starts on the next line, left-aligned and written as double-spaced paragraphs, with the first line of
each paragraph indented by one tab key (0.5 in.; see Sections 1.22–1.23). Use headings as needed and appropriate within the text
to separate sections and to reflect the organizational structure of the content (see Sections 1.26–1.27). Do not start a new page or
add extra line breaks when a new heading occurs; each section of the text should follow the next without a break.

1.12 Reference List

The reference list provides a reliable way for readers to identify and locate the works cited in a paper. References are used to
document and substantiate statements made about the literature, just as data in the paper are used to support interpretations and
conclusions. The references cited in the paper do not need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support the need for your
paper and to enable readers to place it in the context of previous research and theorizing. Each entry in the reference list should
have a corresponding citation in the text. For detailed guidance on citing sources in the text and preparing the reference list,
consult Chapters 8 and 9, respectively.

Format. Start the reference list on a new page after the text and before any tables, figures, and/or appendices. Write the section
label “References,” capitalized, in bold, and centered at the top of the page. Double-space all reference list entries (including
between and within references). Use a hanging indent for all references, meaning that the first line of each reference is flush left
and subsequent lines are indented by 0.5 in. Automatically apply the hanging indent using the paragraph-formatting function of
your word-processing program. For the order of works in the reference list, see Sections 9.43 to 9.48.

1.13 Footnotes
A footnote is a brief note that provides additional content or copyright attribution. Any type of paper may include footnotes as
needed.

Content Footnotes. Content footnotes supplement or enhance substantive information in the text; they should not include
complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information. Because they can be distracting, content footnotes should be included only if
they strengthen the discussion. A content footnote should convey just one idea; if you find yourself creating paragraphs as you
are writing a footnote, then the main text or an appendix would likely be a more suitable place to present the information.

Copyright Attribution. When authors reproduce lengthy quotations and/or test or scale items in the text, a copyright attribution is
usually required and should be presented in a footnote. A reproduced table or figure also requires a copyright attribution, but this
attribution appears in the table or figure note. Further directions on seeking permission to reproduce material and appropriate
wording for the copyright attribution appear in Sections 8.35 to 8.39.

Footnote Callout Numbering and Format. Number all footnotes consecutively in the order in which their callouts appear in the text
with superscript Arabic numerals. Footnote callouts should be superscripted, like this,1 following any punctuation mark except a
dash. A footnote callout that appears with a dash—like this 2—always precedes the dash. (The callout falls inside a closing
parenthesis if it applies only to matter within the parentheses, like this.3) Do not put a space before the footnote callout in text. Do
not place footnote callouts in headings. To refer to a footnote again after it has been called out, identify it in the text by the
footnote number (e.g., write “see Footnote 3”); do not repeat the footnote callout or the whole footnote.
Place each footnote at the bottom of the page on which it is discussed using the footnote function of your word-processing
program. Footnotes may alternatively be placed in consecutive order on a separate page after the references. In this case, write the
section label “Footnotes,” capitalized, in bold, and centered at the top of the page, then write the footnotes themselves as double-
spaced indented paragraphs that begin with a superscript footnote number; put a space between the footnote number and the text
that follows. Be sure that the number of the footnote callout corresponds with the number that appears with the footnoted text.

1.14 Appendices
Material that supplements the paper’s content but that would be distracting or inappropriate in the text of the paper can be
included in an appendix. In general, an appendix is appropriate for materials that are relatively brief and easily presented in print.
Include an appendix only if it helps readers understand, evaluate, or replicate the study or theoretical argument being made. Some
examples of material suitable for an appendix are (a) lists of stimulus materials (e.g., those used in psycholinguistic research); (b)
instructions to participants; (c) tests, scales, or inventories developed for the study being reported; (d) data sets, maps, or long
tables; (e) detailed descriptions of complex equipment; (f) detailed demographic descriptions of subpopulations in the study; and
(g) other items that are too detailed or complex to report within the body of the paper. Be sure that you have followed all relevant
ethical standards for materials placed in the appendices, including copyright attribution, accurate representation of data, and
protection of human participants (e.g., as the standards apply to images or videos of identifiable people; for more information on
ethical standards in research, see Sections 1.1–1.25 of the Publication Manual).

Format. Begin each appendix on a separate page after any references, footnotes, tables, and figures. Give each appendix a label
and a title. If a paper has one appendix, label it “Appendix”; if a paper has more than one appendix, label each appendix with a
capital letter (e.g., “Appendix A,” “Appendix B”) in the order in which it is mentioned in the text. Each appendix should be
mentioned (called out by its label) at least once in the text (e.g., “see Appendix A”). The appendix title should describe the
appendix content. Place the appendix label and title in bold, title case (see Section 5.7), and centered on separate lines at the top of
the page on which the appendix begins.
The appendix may consist of text, tables, figures, or a combination of these. A text appendix may contain headings. If an
appendix contains text, write the paragraphs as regular indented paragraphs, the same as in the body of the paper. If a text appendix
contains tables, figures, footnotes, and/or displayed equations, give each one a number preceded by the letter of the appendix in
which it appears (e.g., Table A1 is the first table within Appendix A or of a sole appendix that is not labeled with a letter; Equation
B1 is the first equation within Appendix B; Figure C2 is the second figure of Appendix C). In a sole text appendix, which is not
labeled with a letter, precede all table, figure, footnote, and equation numbers with the letter “A” to distinguish them from those of
the main text. All tables and figures within a text appendix must be mentioned in the appendix and numbered in order of mention.
The tables and figures in a text appendix should be embedded within the text, as described in Section 7.6.
If an appendix consists of a table only or a figure only, then the appendix label takes the place of the table or figure number,
and the appendix title takes the place of the table or figure title. Thus, if Appendix B is a table-only appendix, the table is referred to
as Appendix B rather than as Table B1. Likewise, if Appendix C is a figure-only appendix, the figure is referred to as Appendix C
rather than as Figure C1. If multiple tables and/or figures (but no text) are combined into one appendix, label and title the appendix
and also number and title the tables and/or figures within the appendix (e.g., Tables D1 and D2 are two tables in Appendix D).

Format
1.15 Importance of Format
Use the guidelines in this section to format all APA Style papers. A well-prepared paper encourages instructors and readers to
view your work as professional. In contrast, mechanical flaws can lead instructors and readers to misinterpret content and question
your understanding of the material or attention to detail. Depending on the requirements of the instructor, students may receive a
lower grade because of formatting errors in their papers.

1.16 Order of Pages

Arrange the pages of the paper in the following order:

title page (page 1)

abstract (if needed, start on a new page after the title page)
text (start on a new page after the abstract or, if the paper does not have an abstract, on a new page after the title page)
references (start on a new page after the end of the text)
footnotes (if needed, start on a new page after the references)
tables (if needed, start each on a new page after the footnotes)
figures (if needed, start each on a new page after the tables)
appendices (if needed, start each on a new page after the references or after any tables and/or figures)

APA Style provides options for the display of footnotes, tables, and figures. Footnotes may appear either in the footer of the page
where they are first mentioned (see Section 1.13) or on a separate page after the references. Tables and figures may be embedded
within the text after they are first mentioned, or each table and figure can be displayed on a separate page after the footnotes (or
after the references if there is no footnotes page; see Section 7.6).

1.17 Page Header

All papers should contain the page number, flush right, in the header of every page. Use the automatic page-numbering function of
your word-processing program to insert page numbers in the top right corner; do not type page numbers manually. The title page
is page number 1.
If requested, the running head also appears in the page header (see Section 1.7) along with the page number. When both
elements appear, the running head should be flush left and the page number should be flush right. Student papers need only the
page number in the page header unless the instructor or institution also requires a running head.

1.18 Font
APA Style papers should be written in a font that is accessible to all users. Historically, sans serif fonts have been preferred for
online works and serif fonts for print works; however, modern screen resolutions can typically accommodate either type of font,
and people who use assistive technologies can adjust font settings to their preferences. Thus, a variety of font choices are
permitted in APA Style; check with your instructor or institution for any requirements regarding font.
Use the same font throughout the text of the paper. Options include

a sans serif font such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode or
a serif font such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or normal (10-point) Computer Modern (the latter is the
default font for LaTeX).

We recommend these fonts because they are legible and widely available and because they include special characters such as
math symbols and Greek letters.
An APA Style paper may contain other fonts or font sizes under the following circumstances:

Within figure images, use a sans serif font with a type size between 8 and 14 points.
When presenting computer code, use a monospace font, such as 10-point Lucida Console or 10-point Courier New.
When presenting a footnote in a page footer, the default footnote settings of your word-processing program are
acceptable (e.g., 10-point font with single line spacing).

Because different fonts take up different amounts of space on the page, we recommend using word count rather than page count
to gauge paper length (see Section 1.24). See the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org) for further discussion of font and
accessible typography.

1.19 Special Characters

Special characters are accented letters and other diacritical marks, Greek letters, math signs, and symbols. Type special characters
using the special character functions of your word-processing program or a plug-in such as MathType. Characters that are not
available should be presented as images. For more information on Greek letters and mathematical symbols, see Sections 6.10 and
6.11.
1.20 Line Spacing
Double-space the entire paper, including the title page, abstract, text, headings, block quotations, reference list, table and figure
notes, and appendices, with the following exceptions:

title page: Elements of the title page are double-spaced, and an additional double-spaced blank line appears between the
title and byline (see Figure 1.2).
table body and figure image: The table body (cells) and words within the image part of a figure may be single-spaced,
one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced, depending on what format creates the most effective presentation of the data.
If text appears on the same page as a table or figure, insert a double-spaced blank line between the text and the table or
figure (for more information on placement of tables and figures, see Section 7.6).
footnotes: Footnotes that appear at the bottom of the page on which they are called out should be single-spaced and
formatted with the default settings of your word-processing program. Footnotes that appear on their own page after the
references should be formatted like regular paragraphs of text—that is, indented and double-spaced.
displayed equations: It is permissible to use triple- or quadruple-spacing in special circumstances, such as before and
after a displayed equation.

It is not necessary to add blank lines before or after headings, even if a heading falls at the end of a page. Do not add extra spacing
between paragraphs.

1.21 Margins
Use 1-in. (2.54-cm) margins on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right) of the page. This is the default page margin in most word-
processing programs. The page header is placed within these margins; insert page numbers using the automatic page-numbering
function of your word-processing program (see Section 1.17 for more). Dissertations and theses may have different requirements if
they are to be bound (e.g., 1.5-in. left margins).

1.22 Paragraph Alignment

Align the text to the left and leave the right margin uneven (“ragged”). Do not use full justification, which adjusts the spacing
between words to make all lines the same length (flush with the margins). Do not manually divide words at the end of a line, and do
not use the hyphenation function to break words at the ends of lines. Do not manually insert line breaks into long DOIs or URLs;
however, breaks in DOIs or URLs applied automatically by a word-processing program are permissible.

1.23 Paragraph Indentation

Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 in. For consistency, use the tab key or the automatic paragraph-formatting function of
your word-processing program. The default settings in most word-processing programs are acceptable. The remaining lines of the
paragraph should be left-aligned.
Exceptions to these paragraph indentation requirements are as follows:

On the title page, the title (in bold), byline, affiliations, course number and name, instructor, and assignment date should
be centered (see Figure 1.2).
At the top of the first page of text, the title (in bold) should be centered (see Figure 1.3).
Section labels, such as “Abstract” and “References,” should be centered (and in bold; see Section 1.27).
The first line of the abstract should be flush left (not indented; see Section 1.10).
The entirety of a block quotation should be indented from the left margin 0.5 in. If the block quotation spans more than
one paragraph, the first line of the second and any subsequent paragraphs of the block quotation should be indented
another 0.5 in. so that those first lines are indented a total of 1 in. (see Section 8.27).
Level 1 headings should be centered (and in bold), and Level 2 and 3 headings should be left-aligned (and in bold or bold
italic, respectively; see Section 1.26).
Table and figure numbers (in bold; see Section 7.10), titles (in italic; see Sections 7.11 and 7.25), and notes (see Sections
7.14 and 7.28) should be flush left.
Reference list entries should have a hanging indent of 0.5 in. (see Section 1.12).
Appendix labels and titles should be centered (and in bold; see Section 1.14).

1.24 Paper Length

The length for student papers is specified by the assignment guidelines. If a paper exceeds the target length, try shortening it by
stating points clearly and directly, confining discussion to the specific problem under investigation, deleting or combining data
displays, eliminating repetition across sections, and writing in the active voice. For guidance on improving sentence and paragraph
length, see Section 2.6. If your paper is still too long, you may need to focus on a narrower topic or, if the instructor allows, divide
the paper into two or more papers, each with a specific focus.
Paper length targets may be specified by either page count or word count; we recommend word count because different fonts
are slightly different sizes and may produce variations in the number of pages. However, follow the directions of your assigning
instructor or institution for determining paper length. In general, to determine the page count, count every page, including the title
page and reference list. Likewise, to determine word count, count every word from beginning to end, including all in-text citations,
reference entries, tables, figures (other than words in a figure image, which may not be captured by word count), and appendices.
Use the word-count function of your word-processing program to determine the word count. Do not count text in the page header
(i.e., running head and page numbers) or manually add any words within figure images to the word count (these words are
generally not included in the automatic word count in programs such as Microsoft Word, Academic Writer, or Google Docs).

Organization
1.25 Principles of Organization
In scholarly writing, sound organizational structure is the key to clear, precise, and logical communication. Before beginning to
write, consider the best paper length and structure for your findings. Ordering your thoughts logically at both sentence and
paragraph levels will also strengthen the impact of your writing.
Headings in a document identify the topic or purpose of the content within each section. Headings help readers become
familiar with how a paper’s content is organized, allowing them to easily find the information they seek. Headings should be
succinct yet long enough to describe the content; see the sample student paper at the end of this chapter for examples of effective
headings. Concise headings help readers anticipate key points and track the development of your argument. Headings that are well
formatted and clearly worded aid both visual and nonvisual readers of all abilities. It is important for headings to be clearly
distinguishable from the text. For a deeper discussion of how to effectively create and use headings (and related text) for all users
(including those using assistive technologies), visit the APA Style website (https://apastyle.apa.org).
There are five levels of heading in APA Style (see Section 1.26), and all topics of equal importance should have the same level
of heading. For example, in a comparative essay, the heading for each topic being compared should be at the same level, with
parallel wording. Avoid having only one subsection heading within a section, just like in an outline; use at least two subsection
headings within a section, or use none (e.g., in an outline, a section numbered with a Roman numeral would be divided into either a
minimum of A and B subsections or no subsections; an A subsection could not stand alone).

1.26 Heading Levels

APA Style headings have five possible levels: Level 1 headings are used for top-level or main sections, Level 2 headings are
subsections of Level 1, and so on (see Table 1.3). Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the heading
structure for all sections follows the same top-down progression. Each section starts with the highest level of heading, even if one
section has fewer levels of subheading than another section. For example, in a psychology paper with Level 1 Method, Results,
and Discussion headings, the Method and Results sections may each have two levels of subheading (Levels 2 and 3), and the
Discussion section may have only one level of subheading (Level 2). Thus, there would be three levels of heading for the paper
overall.

Table 1.3 Format for the Five Levels of Heading in APA Style

Le ve l Form at

1 Ce nte re d, Bold, Title Cas e He ading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

2 Flus h Le ft, Bold, Title Cas e He ading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

3 Flush Left, Bold Ita lic, Title Ca se Hea ding

Text begins as a new paragraph.

4 Inde nte d, Bold, Title Cas e He ading, Ending With a Pe riod. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

5 Indented, Bold Ita lic, Title Ca se Hea ding, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular
paragraph.

Note. In title case, most words are capitalized (see Section 5.7).

Headings in the Introduction. Do not begin a paper with an “Intro duction” heading; because the first paragraphs of a paper are
understood to be introductory, the paper title at the top of the first page of text acts as a de facto Level 1 heading (see Figure 1.3).
For subsections within the introduction, use Level 2 headings for the first level of subsection, Level 3 for subsections of any Level
2 headings, and so on. After the introduction (regardless of whether it includes headings), use a Level 1 heading for the next main
section of the paper (e.g., Method).

Number of Headings in a Paper. The number of levels of heading needed for a paper depends on its length and complexity; three is
average. If only one level of heading is needed, use Level 1; if two levels are needed, use Levels 1 and 2; if three levels are needed,
use Levels 1, 2, and 3; and so forth. Use only the number of headings necessary to differentiate distinct sections in your paper;
short student papers may not require any headings. Do not label headings with numbers or letters.1

Format. Table 1.3 shows how to format each level of heading, Figure 1.3 demonstrates the use of headings in the introduction, and
Figure 1.4 lists all the headings used in a sample paper in correct format. The sample student paper at the end of this chapter also
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
De Laet, writing in 1647, states that he remembers when it was the
custom (and an ancient one) for the gentleman to present the lady
on their betrothal with two rings, the one set with a diamond, the
other with a ruby table-cut. This gift went by the French name
‘Mariage.’
Among the Germans at the present day the interchange of rings is
practised at the publication of the banns among the Lutherans; the
minister joins the hands of the couple, and rings are interchanged.
‘The Italians,’ observes Mr. Wood, ‘in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries used betrothing rings, which were generally made of silver,
inlaid with niello. The bezel was either oval or circular, and the
shoulders of the hoop were shaped so as to form sleeves, from each
of which issued a right hand. The hands were clasped together in
the Fede. Some of these rings were of a large size, and were worn
by men. The diamond was long esteemed by the mediæval Italians
as the favourite stone for setting in espousal rings, and it was called
“pietra della reconciliazione,” from its supposed power to maintain
concord between man and wife.’
It was also usual, at the periods mentioned, for the Italian ladies to
give their lovers rings which contained their portraits. Lovers wore
these rings on holidays, as was the practice in England, as we find in
‘England’s Helicon’ (1600):—
My songs they be of Cinthia’s prayse,
I weare her rings on holly-dayes.
When a noble Venetian married in the seventeenth century, a day
was appointed for giving the bride a ring, and the ceremony was
performed in her house, in the presence of relations and friends. The
ring-giving was followed by the usual sacrament in church.
In modern Greece, two rings, one of gold and the other of silver, are
interchanged at the betrothal, which takes place as follows:—The
priest, remaining in the sacrarium, delivers to the persons to be
betrothed, and who are standing without the sacred doors, lighted
candles into the hands of each, and then returns with them into the
body of the church. Here, after prayers have been said, two rings
are brought out, of gold and silver respectively, which had previously
been placed upon the altar to be dedicated and consecrated, and
the priest gives the gold ring to the man, and the silver ring to the
woman, repeating three times this form of words: ‘The servant of
God, M., espouses the handmaid of God, N., in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, now and ever, and to
endless ages, Amen.’
After a threefold repetition of the same words to the woman, the
rings are put on the right-hand finger, and are taken off, and
interchanged by the bridegroom’s man, both in order that the
woman may not take too deeply to heart her inferiority, which the
less costly material of the ring seems to hint at, as also to confirm
the mutual right and possession of property, either present or future.
The ring ceremony in Russian marriages differs materially from that
of English usage. In the first place, there are two rings, and these
are changed three times. The man places the ring first on the
woman’s finger, then the priest changes the man’s ring, and places it
on her finger, and then again the priest and the man join and place
the ring where it is to remain for life.
Have these three changes anything in connection with a peculiarity
in Russian legends of the ever-predominating number ‘three’? Thus
fathers are said usually to have three sons, the heroes and knights-
errant ride through three times nine empires; the bravest are always
thirty-three years old; they achieve their deeds only on the third
attempt. Or, are the three changes emblematic of the Trinity?
At the Russian marriages of the Imperial family the rings are
exchanged by a third person. At the wedding of the Duke of
Edinburgh and the Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna, daughter of
the Emperor of Russia (January 23, 1874), the master of the
ceremonies carried the marriage rings on plates of gold, and placed
them on the altar. The confessor of the Emperor and Empress then
received the rings from the Archipretres of the court, and, whilst a
prayer was being said, placed them upon the fingers of the bride
and bridegroom, when the Metropolitan began the office.
In Spain the gift of a ring is looked upon as a promise of marriage,
and is considered sufficient proof to enable a maiden to claim her
husband.
Among the Armenians (observes Madame de Barrera) children are
betrothed from their earliest youth, sometimes when only three
years old, sometimes as soon as born. When the mothers on both
sides have agreed to marry their son and daughter, they propose the
union to their husbands, who always sanction the choice of the
wives. The mother of the boy then goes to the friends of the girl,
with two old women and a priest, and presents to the infant maiden
a ring from the future bridegroom. The boy is then brought, and the
priest reads a portion of the Scripture, and blesses the parties. The
parents of the girl make the priest a present, in accordance with
their means; refreshments are partaken of by the company, and this
constitutes the ceremonies of the betrothals. Should the betrothals
take place during the infancy of the contracting parties, and even
should twenty years elapse before the boy can claim his bride, he
must every year, from the day he gives the ring, send his mistress at
Easter a new dress, &c.
The olden matrimonial Gemmel, or Gemmow, ring was a kind of
double ring, curiously made. There were links within each other, and
though generally double, they were, by a further refinement, made
triple, or even more complicated; thus Herrick writes:—
Thou sent’st to me a true love-knot, but I
Return a ring of jimmals, to imply
Thy love had one knot, mine a triple tye.
Ray, among his north-country words, explains ‘jimmers’ as ‘jointed
hinges,’ and adds, ‘in other parts called wing-hinges.’
At a meeting of the Archæological Institute, in November 1851, the
Rev. W. C. Bingham exhibited a silver gemmel-ring of singular
fashion, date fourteenth century, found in Dorsetshire, the hoop
formed in two portions, so that a moiety of the letters composing
the legend, ✠ Ave Mari, appears on each, and it only becomes
legible when they are brought together side by side. Each demi-
hoop is surmounted by a projecting neck and a small globular knob,
so that the ring appears to have a bifid head. The two portions of
this ring are not intertwined, and as no adjustment now appears by
which they might be kept together in proper juxtaposition, it is
possible that in this instance it was intended that each of the
affianced parties should retain a moiety of the gemmel.
There is an allusion to the ‘joint’ ring in Dryden’s play of ‘Don
Sebastian’:—
A curious artist wrought ’em,
With joynts so close as not to be perceived;
Yet are they both each other’s counterpart.
(Her part had Juan inscribed, and his, had Zayda—
You know those names were theirs:) and in the midst
A heart divided in two halves was placed.
Now if the rivets of those rings, inclos’d,
Fit not each other, I have forged this lye,
But if they join, you must for ever part.
A ring in the Londesborough Collection illustrates this passage. It
parts into three hoops, secured on a pivot; the toothed edge of the
central hoop forming an ornamental centre to the hoop of the ring,
and having two hearts in the middle; a hand is affixed to the side of
the upper and lower hoop; the fingers slightly raised, so that when
the hoops are brought together they link in each other, and close
over the hearts, securing all firmly.
 Jointed betrothal ring.
The late Mr. Crofton Croker, in his privately-printed catalogue of Lady
Londesborough’s Collection, gives the following account of the use to
which the ring has been put: ‘There can be little doubt, from the
specimens that have come under observation, that it had been used
as a betrothing ring by an officer of the King’s German Legion with
some Irish lady, and that the notched ring was retained by some
confidential female friend, who was present as a witness at the
betrothal ceremony—usually one of the most solemn and private
character—and at which, over the Holy Bible, placed before the
witness, both the man and the woman broke away the upper and
lower rings from the centre one, which was held by the intermediate
person. It would appear that the parties were subsequently married,
when it was usual, as a proof that their pledge had been fulfilled, to
return to the witness or witnesses to the contract the two rings
which the betrothed had respectively worn until married; and thus
the three rings, which had been separated, became reunited, as in
the present instance.’
A gemmel-ring, of which a representation is given (page 316), was
dug up in 1800, at Horselydown, Surrey, found among some Roman
and English remains and skeletons of human bodies, about nine feet
below the surface. The ring is constructed in twin or double hoops,
one side being flat, the other convex. On the lower hand is
represented a heart. On the flat side of the hoops are engraved in
Roman capitals, ‘Usé de Vertu.’ This ring is probably not later than
Queen Elizabeth’s reign.
A plain gemmel wedding-ring, with an inscription inside each hoop,
which the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV., had given to Mrs.
Fitzherbert, was exhibited, with the lady’s miniature, at the Loan
Collection of precious objects at the South Kensington Museum in
1872.

Gemmel-ring, found at Horselydown.

This practice of dividing the betrothal rings has its origin from
ancient times, and reminds us of the practice among the Franks of
breaking the sou d’or in two pieces, in sign of a sacred engagement.
Thus we read of Childeric, King of France, when in exile, wishing to
know when he might return to his country, dividing the sou d’or,
keeping one part, and giving the other to a trusty friend, who tells
him: ‘When I send to you this half, and you find that it unites with
the other, you will understand that you can return.’ The propitious
moment having arrived, Childeric received the token, and, returning,
was re-established in his dominions.[64]
From other passages in ‘Don Sebastian,’ it appears that one of the
two rings was worn by Sebastian’s father, the other by Almeyda’s
mother, as pledges of love. Sebastian takes off his ring, which had
been placed on his finger by his dying father; Almeyda does the
same with hers, which had been given to her by her mother at
parting, and Alvarez unscrews both the rings and fits one half to the
other.
In Sir Henry Ellis’s ‘Original Letters Illustrative of English History’
(series ii. vol. ii. page 290) we have a curious anecdote in
connection with linked rings. Lady Catherine Grey (a sister of Lady
Jane Grey) married the Earl of Hertford, much to the displeasure of
Queen Elizabeth, who sent the bridegroom to the Tower, and
subjected the countess to great hardships. They were both exposed
to an ordeal of examination to prove the validity of the marriage,
and amongst other evidence Lady Catherine exhibited a ring which
she declared had been used at the marriage ceremony.
It was of gold, and consisted of five links, on four of which were
engraved as many verses of the Earl’s composition, expressing the
assurance of his lasting faith and love, and the ring could,
apparently, have been prepared for no other purpose than that of
serving as their marriage-ring.
The judgment of the commissioners appointed to examine into the
marriage was to dissolve it, and it was so pronounced in the Bishop
of London’s palace in 1562. Lady Hertford sank under this cruel
conduct of the Queen, and on her dying bed called to her attendants
to bring her the box in which her wedding-ring was. She first took
from it a ring with a pointed diamond in it, and said to Sir Owen
Hopton (at whose house, Cockfield Hall, Suffolk, she had been
staying): ‘Here, Sir Owen, deliver this unto my lord; it is the ring that
I received of him, and gave myself unto him, and gave him my faith.’
‘What say you, madam,’ answered Sir Owen, ‘was this your wedding-
ring?’
‘No, Sir Owen, this is the ring of my assurance unto my lord, and
there is my wedding-ring,’ taking another ring of gold out of the box.
This consisted of five links, having engraved in it the verses of the
Earl’s composition, which she had exhibited to the commissioners of
inquiry. (See chapter on ‘Posy, Inscription, and Motto Rings.’)
‘Deliver this,’ she said, ‘unto my lord, and pray him, as I have been a
faithful and true wife, that he would be a loving and natural father
unto my children, to whom I give the same blessing that God gave
unto Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.’ (See chapter on ‘Remarkable
Rings.’)

Ring with representation of Lucretia.

A gemmel-ring of the fifteenth century, in the Londesborough
Collection, bears an engraved head of Lucretia, the same kind as
that mentioned by Shakspeare (‘Twelfth Night,’ act ii. sc. v.) where
Malvolio, breaking open the letter, purporting to be in the
handwriting of his mistress, says:—
By your leave, wax. Soft! and the impressure her Lucrece, with
which she uses to seal.
Lucretia is seen grasping her dagger. The clasped hands, adopted on
the gemmel-rings, became a frequent emblem on the solid wedding-
ring.

Wedding-ring of Sir Thomas Gresham.

The betrothal or wedding ring of Sir Thomas Gresham (1544)
engraved in Burgon’s life of that eminent merchant prince, opens
horizontally, thus forming a double ring of gold, linked together in
the form of a gemmel; in one half is set a white stone, in the other a
red; in the interior of each half is a cavity, in one of which is a small
figure of a child in gold, enamelled; ‘qvod devs conivnsit’ is engraved
on one half, and ‘homo non separet’ on the other.
This interesting relic was formerly in the possession of the Thruston
family, at Weston Hall, Suffolk, and was exhibited at the Society of
Antiquaries (April 1862) by Granville Leveson Gower, Esq.
A gemmel-ring of the sixteenth century, found in the Thames, is in
the Londesborough Collection. Originally gilt, it is of silver: two
hands are clasped; on the opposite side two quatrefoils spring from
a heart engraved: ‘Help God!’ or ‘God help!’
 Gemmel-ring.
A remarkably fine gemmel-ring (Londesborough) is here engraved. It
is set with sapphire and amethyst, the elaborate and beautiful
design enriched by coloured enamels. The lower figure in the
representation of this ring shows it parted, displaying the inscription
on the flat side of each section, which is also enriched by engraving
and niello.
The clasped hands (originating from the ancient Romans), adopted
on the gemmel-rings, we are told in Chambers’s ‘Book of Days,’ are
still the fashion, and in constant use in that curious local community
of fishermen inhabiting the Claddugh at Galway on the western
coast. They number with their families between five and six
thousand, and are particularly exclusive in their tastes and habits;
rarely intermarrying with others than their own people. The
wedding-ring is an heirloom in the family; it is regularly transferred
from the mother to the daughter who is first married, and so passes
to her descendants. Many of these gemmel-rings, still worn there,
are very old.
 ‘Claddugh’ ring.
Mr. Mackenzie E. C. Walcot, F.S.A., etc., in ‘Notes and Queries,’
writes: ‘A ring of gold, about the time of the thirteenth century, was
found at Burbage, near Marlborough, and, apparently, from the
clasped hands on the lower side, a gemmel or betrothal ring, has a
sapphire uncut, held by four bent cramps, and on the circle the
following letters in two lines, divided by punctuation in the form of
×. The letters, of course, are of the period:—
ⱯɅ NI WⱯ IⱯ
× × ×
IE AU AL HN
I have alluded to sacred inscriptions on some betrothal rings. The
following engraving refers to one in the Londesborough Collection,
described in page 306.

Betrothal ring with sacred inscription.

In the Braybrooke Collection is a splendid gold gemmel ring, with
enamelled and jewelled twin or double hoops, which play one within
another, like the links of a chain. Each hoop has one of its sides
convex, the other flat, and each is set with a stone, one a fine ruby,
the other an aquamarine, or beryl, so that, upon bringing together
the flat surfaces of the hoops the latter immediately unite in one
ring, and as they close, the stones slide into contact, forming a head
to the whole. The inside flat surfaces are inscribed with the words
‘Quod Deus conjunxit, homo non separet,’ part on one hoop, part on
the other, so as to be legible when these are opened, but entirely
concealed when they are reunited in one ring. This seems to be an
exception to the general rule, with respect to rings of the same
denomination, since the hoops cannot be dissevered according to
the usual custom at betrothals. Nares, in his ‘Glossary,’ observes that
the name ‘gimmal’ was preserved to rings made triple, or even more
complimentary. This splendid specimen is of Italian workmanship,
dating about the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the
sixteenth century.
At a meeting of the Archæological Institute in March 1863 the Rev.
John Beck exhibited some curious specimens of linked or ‘puzzle-
rings.’ One of gold consists of seven slender rings linked together,
which, when properly adjusted, combine in a knot. Another, of silver,
consists of four slight rings, set with a blue stone, and ornamented
with flowers of forget-me-not. A third, also of silver, has nine rings,
which, when intertwined, unite so as to present a fede as the head
of the ring.
The French term for the hooped rings is foi, alliance, which last word
in the ‘Dictionnaire de Trevoux’ is defined to be a ring ‘que l’accordé
donne à son accordée, où il y a un fil d’or et un fil d’argent.’
Devices on Wedding-rings.
 CHAPTER VI.
TOKEN RINGS.
Rings as ‘tokens’ date from very early times. We are told that Clovis,
King of the Franks, in the latter part of the fifth century, wishing to
marry Clotilde, niece of Gondebauld, King of Burgundy, deputed
Aurelianus, in whom he had perfect confidence, to ascertain whether
the maiden had any predilection for him. The messenger travelled in
very humble guise, and arrived at the castle in Burgundy where
Clotilde resided. The princess, however, knew beforehand his
mission, and was prepared to receive him. She concealed this
knowledge, however, and treated him as an ordinary mendicant,
receiving him hospitably, and, according to the custom of those
times, even washing his feet. While this operation was being
performed, Aurelianus said: ‘Princess, if you will permit me, I will tell
you of strange things.’
‘Speak,’ replied Clotilde.
‘Clovis, King of the Franks, has sent me to announce his wish to
marry you. Is it your desire that I should ask permission from your
father?’
‘What proof can you give me of the truth of your mission?’
‘The ring of my Sovereign, which he entrusted me with for this
object.’
‘But,’ said Clotilde, ‘I am a Christian, and I cannot marry a pagan. If,
however, it is the will of God that I should become the wife of Clovis,
I am content.’
Thus saying, she received the ring, and gave Aurelianus her own
ring in return, and after some difficulties with Gondebauld were
overcome, Aurelianus married Clotilde in the name of King Clovis, by
the gift of ‘one sou and one denier,’ as the price of her liberty,
according to the custom of that period.
If the old historians are to be credited, this is the earliest instance of
a marriage by proxy.
Edward the First, in 1297, presented Margaret, his fourth daughter,
with a golden pyx, in which he deposited a ring, the token of his
unfailing love. He placed it in her hands with a solemn benediction,
when she bade him farewell, preparatory to rejoining her husband at
Brussels.
Hardyng, in his ‘Chronicles,’ relates a pretty story of Oswald, King of
Northumberland (seventh century), and Kineburg, his consort. A
hermit, of extraordinary sanctity, desirous of ascertaining whether
any person surpassed himself in purity of life, was, in answer to his
meditation, told by revelation ‘that King Oswald was more holy,
though he had wedded a wife.’ The pious hermit accordingly
repaired to the king, with holy zeal, to be informed concerning his
course of life. On which Oswald, in the true spirit of that love and
confidence which reposed on the purity and virtue of his beloved
wife, referred the hermit to her, bidding him carry to her his ring,
with his command that she should entertain him (the hermit) as
though he were her own royal spouse. The Queen, who had the
greatest veneration for her husband, failed not to obey his
instructions, but, while she shared with the holy man the regal
repast, showed him that it consisted only of bread and water, no
other food being permitted to him; thus exhibiting an example of
that self-denial by which purity of life is alone attainable. When night
came, the hermit was more surprised than ever when the queen
ordered him to be put into a cold-water bath, according to the
custom of the King whom he wished to imitate. Gladly, and yet right
early in the morning, did the venerable man take leave of the queen;
and, having restored to King Oswald his ring, frankly acknowledged
that his whole entire life was not so holy as one of the King’s days
and nights. I must observe, however, that, with this rigid observance
of sobriety and virtue, King Oswald is the first prince of our Saxon
rulers who is recorded to have been served in silver dishes. We can
easily understand a hermit’s repugnance to bathing of any kind.
Some other instances of rings as tokens are related by mediæval
historians. We are told by Matthew Paris that Pope Innocent,
desiring to gain King John over to favour his plans, and knowing that
he was covetous, and a diligent seeker after costly jewels, sent him
four gold rings adorned with precious stones, in token that the
rotundity of the rings signified eternity; ‘therefore your royal
discretion may be led by the form of them to pray for a passage
from earthly to heavenly, from temporal to eternal things. The
number of four, which is a square number, denotes the firmness of
mind which is neither depressed in adversity nor elated in prosperity;
which will then be fulfilled, when it is based on the four principal
virtues, namely—justice, fortitude, prudence, and virtue.... Moreover,
the greenness of the emerald denotes faith; the clearness of the
sapphire, hope; the redness of the pomegranate denotes charity,
and the purity of the topaz, good works.... In the emerald, therefore,
you have what to believe; in the sapphire, what to hope for; in the
pomegranate, what to love; and in the topaz, what to practise; that
you ascend from one virtue to another, until you see the Lord in
Zion.’
Henry the Fourth, Emperor of Germany, was cruelly treated by his
son, who conspired against him, and forced him to abdicate the
throne. The degraded emperor is said to have been reduced by
famine to such extremities that he ate the leather of his boots for
hunger. He sent his ring and sword as his last token of forgiveness to
his rebel son, with the simple and touching message: ‘If thou hadst
left me more, I would have sent more to thee.’
Thomas Chester, a writer for the minstrels in the reign of Henry the
Sixth, and who is stated to have translated the ‘Erle of Tolouse,’ a
metrical romance, relates that an Earl of this house, disguised in
pilgrim’s weeds, asked alms of the empress, consort of Diocletian,
Emperor of Germany, to whom his secret is known, and who gives
him forty florins and a ring. He receives the latter present with the
greatest satisfaction, and, although obliged to return home, comforts
himself with this reflection:—
Well is me I have thy grace
Of the to hav thys thyng,
If ever I hav grace of the
That any love between us be
This may be a tokenyng.
The empress, on the false accusation of two knights, is thrown into
prison. The Earl of Toulouse, disguised as a monk, obtains
permission to act as her confessor; the empress, not knowing him in
his present disguise, confesses that she once gave a ring to the
‘Erle.’ On this he challenges the two knights, and, of course,
overcomes them in combat. On the death of the emperor he marries
the empress.
This story reminds us of the lines in ‘Marmion,’ by Sir Walter Scott:—
The fair Queen of France
Sent him a turquoise ring and glove,
And charged him as her knight and love
For her to break a lance:
a fatal gift, as Flodden Field proved.[65]
In the ‘Lays’ of Marie, the Princess Guilliadun, having fallen in love
with Sir Eliduc, sends him as tokens a ring and a rich girdle.
In the ‘Lyfe of Ipomydon,’ the manuscript of which is in the Harleian
Collection at the British Museum, the queen gives her son a ring-
token:—
It befell upon a day,
The queen to her son gan say,
In privitie and in counsail,
 ‘Thou hast a brother withouten fail,
Privily gotten me upon,
Ere I was wedded to any mon.
But hastily he was done fro me,
I ne wot if he alive be,
And he me sent, this ender (last) year,
A rich ring of gold full clear;
An ever he any brother had,
That I should give it him, he bade;
That where he come, among high or low,
By that ring he should him know.
Than take this ring, my son, of me:
In what country that he be,
Who that knoweth this ilke ring,
He is thy brother without lesing.’
Ipomydon accepts the ring, and promises to spare no pains in
searching for its original proprietor, who, after various adventures, is
found in the person of Sir Campanys, with whom he has an
encounter, during which the latter discovers his mother’s ring on the
finger of Ipomydon.
In the romance of ‘Sir Isumbras,’ when he and his wife and child are
taken prisoners by the ‘Soudan,’ the lady, before her separation from
her husband and child—
———callyd hir lorde to hir agayne,
A rynge was thaire takynnynge.
The mother of Sir Perceval of Galles gives him a ring-token:—
His moder gaffe hym a ryng,
And bad he solde agayne it bryng;
‘Sonne, this salle be oure takynnynge,
For here I salle the byde.’
The knight sets forth on his travels, and soon changes the ring for
another:—
 Thofe he were of no pryde
Forthirmore ganne he glyde
Tille a chambir ther besyde,
Moo sellys to see;
Riche clothes faude he sprede
A lady slepuned on a bedde
He said, ‘forsothe a tokyne to wedde
Salle thou lefe with mee;’
Ther he kyste that swete thynge,
Of hir fynger he tuke a rynge,
His aweune moder takynnynge
He lefte with that fre.
In the very pretty poem of ‘Lay le Fraine,’ by Marie, the lady of a
knight, ‘a proud dame and malicious,’ having twins, consigns the
charge of one of them to a confidential servant, to be taken away
and left to the mercy of anyone who might find it. At the same time,
that the child might be known to have been born of noble parents,
she took a rich mantle lined with fur—
And lapped the little maiden therein,
And took a ring of gold fine,
And on her right arm it knit
With a lace of silk in plit.
The child is placed in a hollow ash-tree, near a nunnery, by the
maid, and on being discovered by the porter is taken to the abbess,
by whom she is reared and becomes an accomplished and beautiful
maiden. A rich knight falls in love with her and persuades her to live
with him in his castle, to which she repairs, and
With her took she no thing
But her pel, and her ring.
The lord, however, is induced to marry her sister, taking Le Fraine
with him to the wedding, who places on her bed in her room the
magnificent ‘pel,’ or mantle, by which and the ring she is discovered
by her mother.
In the romance of the ‘Seven Wise Masters’ (Cotton MSS.) is a story,
‘The Two Dreams,’ in which a ring displays a prominent feature.
In the ballad of the ‘Lass of Lochroyan’ (‘Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border’) Lord Gregory says:—
‘Gin thou be Annie of Lochroyan
(As I trow thou binna she),
Now tell me some of the love-token
That passed between thee and me.

‘O dinna ye mind, Lord Gregory,

As we sat at the wine,
We changed the rings from our fingers,
And I can show thee thine?

‘O yours was gude and gude enough,

But aye the best was mine;
For yours was of the gude red gowd,
But mine o’ the diamond fine.’
In the ballad of ‘Cospatrick’ (the designation of the Earl of Dunbar in
the days of Wallace and Bruce) we have:—
‘He gae to me a gay gowd ring,
And bade me keep it abune a’ thing.’

‘And what did you wi’ the gay gowd ring

I bade you keep abune a’ thing?’

‘I gae them to a ladye gay

I met in greenwood on a day.’
In the ballad of ‘Prince Robert,’
 Prince Robert has wedded a gay ladye
He has wedded her with a ring,
Prince Robert has wedded a gay ladye,
But he darna bring her hame.
The Prince is poisoned, and his lady-love arrives just after the
funeral, and is told:—
‘Ye’se get nane o’ his gowd, ye’se get nane o’ his gear,
Ye’se get nothing frae me.
Ye’se no get an inch o’ his good braid land,
Though your heart suld burst in three.’

‘I want nane o’ his gowd, I want nane o’ his gear,

I want nae land frae thee:
But I’ll hae the rings that’s on his finger,
For them he did promise to me.’

‘Ye’se no get the rings that’s on his finger,

Ye’se no get them frae me;
Ye’se no get the rings that’s on his finger,
An your heart suld burst in three.’
In the ballad of ‘Broomfield Hill’ a witch-woman says to ‘a lady
bright:’
Take ye the rings off your fingers,
Put them on his right hand,
To let him know when he doth wake,
His love was at his command.
The Child of Elle receives from the page of his lady-love, the ‘fayre
Emmeline,’ some tokens of her affection to him in her ‘woe-begone’
state:—
And here she sends thee a ring of golde,
The last boone thou mayst have,
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about testbank and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebooksecure.com