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John Vince

Foundation
Mathematics
for Computer
Science
A Visual Approach
Third Edition
Foundation Mathematics for Computer Science
John Vince

Foundation Mathematics
for Computer Science
A Visual Approach
Third Edition
John Vince
Bournemouth University
Poole, UK

ISBN 978-3-031-17410-0 ISBN 978-3-031-17411-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17411-7

1st edition: © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

2nd & 3rd editions: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020, 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my wife and best
friend, Heidi.
Preface

Computer science is a very large subject, and graduates pursue a wide variety of
careers, including programming, systems design, cryptography, website design, real-
time systems, computer animation, computer games, data visualisation, etc. Conse-
quently, it is impossible to write a mathematics book that caters to all of these career
paths. Nevertheless, I have attempted to describe a range of mathematical topics that
I believe are relevant, and have helped me during my own career in computer science.
The book’s subtitle ‘A Visual Approach’ reflects the importance I place on coloured
illustrations and function graphs, of which there are over 210 and 90 tables. Many
chapters contain a variety of worked examples.
This third edition remains an introductory text, and is aimed at students studying
for an undergraduate degree in computer science. There are now nineteen chap-
ters on numbers, counting, algebra, logic, combinatorics, probability, modular arith-
metic, trigonometry, coordinate systems, determinants, vectors, complex numbers,
matrices, geometric matrix transforms, differentiation, integration, area and volume,
which should provide readers with a solid foundation, upon which more advanced
topics of mathematics can be studied.
I have referenced the key people behind the various mathematical discoveries
covered, which I hope adds a human dimension to the subject. I have found it very
interesting and entertaining to discover how some mathematicians ridiculed their
fellow peers, when they could not comprehend the significance of a new invention.
There is no way I could have written this book without the assistance of the Internet
and my books previously published by Springer Verlag. In particular, I would like to
acknowledge Wikipedia and Richard Elwes’ excellent book Maths 1001. I prepared
this book on an Apple iMac, using LaT eX 2e, Pages and the Grapher package,
and would recommend this combination to anyone considering writing a book on
mathematics. I do hope you enjoy reading this book, and that you are tempted to
study mathematics to a deeper level.

Breinton, Herefordshire, UK John Vince

October 2022

vii
Contents

1 Visual Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Visual Brains Versus Analytic Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Learning Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 What Makes Mathematics Difficult? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Does Mathematics Exist Outside Our Brains? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Symbols and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.1 The Arithmetic of Positive and Negative
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 Observations and Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6.1 Commutative Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6.2 Associative Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6.3 Distributive Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Types of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.1 Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.2 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.3 Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.4 Irrational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.5 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.6 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.7 Imaginary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.8 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.9 Quaternions and Octonions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

ix
x Contents

2.8 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.8.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8.2 Is 1 a Prime? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.8.3 The Goldbach Conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8.4 Prime Number Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8.5 Infinity of Primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8.6 Mersenne Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9 Perfect Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.10 Triangular Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.12 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.12.1 Algebraic Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.12.2 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.12.3 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Systems of Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Decimal Positional System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.3 Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.4 Hexadecimal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Converting Decimal to Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal . . . . . . . 34
3.3.1 Converting Decimal to Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.2 Converting Decimal to Octal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.3 Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Converting Between Binary and Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Converting Between Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers . . . . . . 39
3.6 Adding and Subtracting Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.1 Adding Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.2 Subtracting Binary Numbers Using Two’s
Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7 Adding and Subtracting Decimal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7.1 Adding Decimal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7.2 Subtracting Decimal Numbers Using Ten’s
Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.8 Adding and Subtracting Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8.1 Adding Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8.2 Subtracting Octal Numbers Using Eight’s
Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Contents xi

3.10 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.10.1 Convert a Decimal Number into Binary . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.10.2 Convert a Decimal Number into Binary Using
an Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.10.3 Convert a Binary Number into Decimal . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10.4 Convert a Binary Number into Octal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10.5 Convert an Octal Number into Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10.6 Convert an Octal Number into Hexadecimal . . . . . . . 46
3.10.7 Convert a Hexadecimal Number into Octal . . . . . . . . 47
3.10.8 Convert a Decimal Number into Octal . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.10.9 Convert a Decimal Number into Octal Using
an Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.10.10 Convert a Decimal Number into Hexadecimal . . . . . 48
3.10.11 Add Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.10.12 Subtract Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10.13 Add Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10.14 Subtract Octal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10.15 Add Hexadecimal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.1 Solving the Roots of a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4.1 Laws of Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 Further Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7.1 Explicit and Implicit Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7.2 Function Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.7.3 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.7.4 Function Domains and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.7.5 Odd and Even Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.7.6 Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.8 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.9 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.11 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.11.1 Algebraic Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.11.2 Solving a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.11.3 Factorising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.11.4 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
xii Contents

5 Logic ......................................................... 73
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3.1 Logical Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4 Logical Premises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.1 Material Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4.2 Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.4 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.5 Inclusive Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.6 Exclusive Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.7 Idempotence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.8 Commutativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.9 Associativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4.10 Distributivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4.11 de Morgan’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.12 Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.13 Excluded Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.14 Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.15 Double Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.16 Implication and Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.17 Exportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4.18 Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4.19 Reductio Ad Absurdum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4.20 Modus Ponens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.4.21 Proof by Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.1 Empty Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.2 Membership and Cardinality of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.5.3 Subsets, Supersets and the Universal Set . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.4 Set Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.5 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5.6 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5.7 Relative Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5.8 Absolute Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5.9 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.1 Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.2 Set Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.6.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.6.4 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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Contents xiii

6 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3 Permutations of Multisets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.1 Eight-Permutations of a Multiset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5.2 Eight-Permutations of a Multiset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5.3 Number of Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.4 Number of Five-Card Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.5 Hand Shakes with 100 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5.6 Permutations of MISSISSIPPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2 Definition and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2.1 Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2.2 Dependent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.2.3 Mutually Exclusive Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.2.4 Inclusive Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.5 Probability Using Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.3 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.1 Product of Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3.2 Book Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.3 Winning a Lottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.4 Rolling Two Dice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.5 Two Dice Sum to 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3.6 Two Dice Sum to 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.7 Dealing a Red Ace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.8 Selecting Four Aces in Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.9 Selecting Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.10 Selecting Four Balls from a Bag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.11 Forming Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.12 Dealing Five Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.2 Informal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.4 Congruence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5 Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6 Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6.1 Sums of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.6.2 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.6.3 Multiplying by a Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.6.4 Congruent Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
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8.6.5 Multiplicative Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

8.6.6 Modulo a Prime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6.7 Fermat’s Little Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.7 Applications of Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.7.1 ISBN Parity Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.7.2 IBAN Check Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.8 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.8.1 Negative Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.8.2 Sums of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.8.3 Remainders of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.8.4 Multiplicative Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.8.5 Product Table for Modulo 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.8.6 ISBN Check Digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.3 Units of Angular Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.4 The Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.4.1 Domains and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.5 Inverse Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.6 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.7 The Sine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.8 The Cosine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.9 Compound-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.9.1 Double-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.9.2 Multiple-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.9.3 Half-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.10 Perimeter Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.11 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.11.1 Degrees to Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.11.2 Sine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.11.3 Cosine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.11.4 Compound Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.11.5 Double-Angle Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.11.6 Perimeter Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.3 The Cartesian Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.4 Function Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.5 Shape Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.5.1 2D Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.5.2 Areas of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
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10.6 Theorem of Pythagoras in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

10.6.1 Pythagorean Triples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.7 3D Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.7.1 Theorem of Pythagoras in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.8 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.9 Spherical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.10 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.11 Barycentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10.12 Homogeneous Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.13 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.13.1 Area of a Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.13.2 Distance Between Two Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.13.3 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.13.4 Spherical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.13.5 Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.13.6 Barycentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.3 Linear Equations with Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.4 Linear Equations with Three Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.4.1 Sarrus’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.5 Mathematical Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.5.1 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.5.2 Order of a Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.5.3 Value of a Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.5.4 Properties of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11.6 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.6.1 Determinant Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.6.2 Complex Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
11.6.3 Simple Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.6.4 Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.3 2D Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
12.3.1 Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
12.3.2 Graphical Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.3.3 Magnitude of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.4 3D Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.4.1 Vector Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.4.2 Scaling a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
12.4.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
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12.4.4 Position Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

12.4.5 Unit Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.4.6 Cartesian Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.4.7 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
12.4.8 Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
12.4.9 The Dot Product in Lighting Calculations . . . . . . . . . 202
12.4.10 The Scalar Product in Back-Face Detection . . . . . . . . 203
12.4.11 The Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
12.4.12 The Right-Hand Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12.5 Deriving a Unit Normal Vector for a Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12.6 Surface Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
12.6.1 Calculating 2D Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.8 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.8.1 Position Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.8.2 Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.8.3 Vector Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.8.4 Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.8.5 Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
13 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.2 Representing Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.2.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
13.2.2 Real and Imaginary Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.2.3 The Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.3 Complex Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.3.1 Algebraic Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
13.3.2 Complex Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
13.3.3 Complex Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
13.3.4 Powers of i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
13.3.5 Rotational Qualities of i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
13.3.6 Modulus and Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
13.3.7 Complex Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
13.3.8 Complex Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.3.9 Complex Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.3.10 de Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
13.3.11 nth Root of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
13.3.12 nth Roots of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.3.13 Logarithm of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.3.14 Raising a Complex Number to a Complex
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.3.15 Visualising Simple Complex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.3.16 The Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
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13.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

13.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
13.5.1 Complex Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
13.5.2 Complex Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.5.3 Complex Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.5.4 Complex Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.5.5 Polar Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
13.5.6 Real and Imaginary Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
13.5.7 Magnitude of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.5.8 Complex Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.5.9 Complex Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.5.10 de Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13.5.11 nth Root of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.5.12 Roots of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.5.13 Logarithm of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.5.14 Raising a Number to a Complex Power . . . . . . . . . . . 251
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
14 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.2 Geometric Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14.3 Transforms and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.4 Matrix Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
14.4.1 Matrix Dimension or Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.4.2 Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.4.3 Column Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.4.4 Row Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.4.5 Null Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.4.6 Unit Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.4.7 Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
14.4.8 Determinant of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
14.4.9 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
14.4.10 Symmetric Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
14.4.11 Antisymmetric Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.5 Matrix Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
14.5.1 Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.6 Matrix Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.6.1 Row and Column Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.6.2 Row Vector and a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
14.6.3 Matrix and a Column Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
14.6.4 Square Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.6.5 Rectangular Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.7 Inverse Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.7.1 Inverting a Pair of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
14.8 Orthogonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
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14.9 Diagonal Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

14.10 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14.10.1 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14.10.2 Identity Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
14.10.3 Solving Two Equations Using Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.10.4 Solving Three Equations Using Matrices . . . . . . . . . . 285
14.10.5 Solving Two Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
14.10.6 Solving Three Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
14.10.7 Solving Two Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
14.10.8 Solving Three Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15 Geometric Matrix Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.2 Matrix Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
15.2.1 2D Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.2.2 2D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
15.2.3 2D Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.2.4 2D Shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.2.5 2D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
15.2.6 2D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.2.7 2D Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.2.8 2D Rotation About an Arbitrary Point . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
15.3 3D Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.3.1 3D Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.3.2 3D Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
15.3.3 3D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
15.3.4 Rotating About an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.3.5 3D Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
15.4 Rotating a Point About an Arbitrary Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
15.4.1 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
15.5 Determinant of a Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
15.6 Perspective Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
15.7 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
15.7.1 2D Scale and Translate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
15.7.2 2D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
15.7.3 Determinant of the Rotate Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
15.7.4 Determinant of the Shear Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
15.7.5 Yaw, Pitch and Roll Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
15.7.6 Rotation About an Arbitrary Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
15.7.7 3D Rotation Transform Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
15.7.8 Perspective Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
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16 Calculus: Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.3 Small Numerical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
16.4 Equations and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.4.1 Quadratic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.4.2 Cubic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.4.3 Functions and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
16.4.4 Graphical Interpretation of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . 334
16.4.5 Derivatives and Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
16.4.6 Integration and Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
16.5 Function Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
16.6 Differentiating Groups of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.6.1 Sums of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.6.2 Function of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16.6.3 Function Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.6.4 Function Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
16.7 Differentiating Implicit Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
16.8 Differentiating Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . 352
16.8.1 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
16.8.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
16.9 Differentiating Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
16.9.1 Differentiating tan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
16.9.2 Differentiating csc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
16.9.3 Differentiating sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
16.9.4 Differentiating cot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
16.9.5 Differentiating arcsin, arccos and arctan . . . . . . . . . . 361
16.9.6 Differentiating arccsc, arcsec and arccot . . . . . . . . . . 362
16.10 Differentiating Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
16.10.1 Differentiating sinh, cosh and tanh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
16.11 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.12 Higher Derivatives of a Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.13 Identifying a Local Maximum or Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
16.14 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
16.14.1 Visualising Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
16.14.2 Mixed Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
16.15 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
16.16 Total Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
16.17 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
16.18 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
16.18.1 Antiderivative 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
16.18.2 Antiderivative 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
16.18.3 Differentiating Sums of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
16.18.4 Differentiating a Function Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
16.18.5 Differentiating an Implicit Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
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16.18.6 Differentiating a General Implicit Function . . . . . . . . 384

16.18.7 Local Maximum or Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
16.18.8 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
16.18.9 Mixed Partial Derivative 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
16.18.10 Mixed Partial Derivative 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
16.18.11 Total Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
17 Calculus: Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.2 Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.3 Integration Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
17.3.1 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
17.3.2 Difficult Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.4 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
17.4.1 Exponent Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
17.4.2 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
17.4.3 The Integrand Contains a Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
17.4.4 Converting the Integrand into a Series
of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
17.4.5 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
17.4.6 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
17.4.7 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
17.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
17.6 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
17.6.1 Integrating a Function Containing its Own
Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
17.6.2 Dividing an Integral into Several Integrals . . . . . . . . . 412
17.6.3 Integrating by Parts 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
17.6.4 Integrating by Parts 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
17.6.5 Integrating by Substitution 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
17.6.6 Integrating by Substitution 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
17.6.7 Integrating by Substitution 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
17.6.8 Integrating with Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
18 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
18.2 Area Under a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
18.3 Calculating Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
18.4 Positive and Negative Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
18.5 Area Between Two Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
18.6 Areas with the y-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
18.7 Area with Parametric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
18.8 The Riemann Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
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18.9 Surface of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

18.9.1 Surface Area of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
18.9.2 Surface Area of a Right Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
18.9.3 Surface Area of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
18.9.4 Surface Area of a Paraboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
18.10 Surface Area Using Parametric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
18.11 Double Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
18.12 Jacobians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
18.12.1 1D Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
18.12.2 2D Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
18.12.3 3D Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
18.13 Double Integrals for Calculating Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
18.14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
18.14.1 Summary of Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
19 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
19.2 Solid of Revolution: Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
19.2.1 Volume of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
19.2.2 Volume of a Right Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
19.2.3 Volume of a Right Conical Frustum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
19.2.4 Volume of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
19.2.5 Volume of an Ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
19.2.6 Volume of a Paraboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
19.3 Solid of Revolution: Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
19.3.1 Volume of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
19.3.2 Volume of a Right Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
19.3.3 Volume of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
19.3.4 Volume of a Paraboloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
19.4 Volumes with Double Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
19.4.1 Objects with a Rectangular Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
19.4.2 Rectangular Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
19.4.3 Rectangular Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
19.4.4 Curved Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
19.4.5 Objects with a Circular Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
19.4.6 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
19.4.7 Truncated Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
19.5 Volumes with Triple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
19.5.1 Rectangular Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
19.5.2 Volume of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
19.5.3 Volume of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
19.5.4 Volume of a Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
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19.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

19.6.1 Summary of Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Appendix A: Limit of (sin θ )/θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Appendix B: Integrating cosn θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
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established between the two nations, nor with the particular form of
our administration. The justice due to them is complete, and the
present administration as competent to final settlement as any
future one will be, should a future change take place. These
individuals have already lingered nine years, in expectation of their
hard and perilous earnings. Time lessens their numbers continually,
disperses their representatives, weakens the evidence of their right,
and renders more and more impracticable, his majesty's dispositions
to repair the private injury, to which public circumstances
constrained him. These considerations, the just and honorable
intentions of your Excellency, and the assurances you give us in your
letter, that no delay is wished on your part, give me strong hopes
that we may speedily obtain that final arrangement, which express
instructions render it my duty to urge. I have the honor, therefore, of
agreeing with your Excellency, that the settlement of this matter,
formerly begun at Paris, shall be continued there: and to ask that
you will be pleased to give powers and instructions for this purpose,
to such persons as you shall think proper, and in such full form as
may prevent those delays, to which the distance between
Copenhagen and Paris might otherwise expose us.
I have the honor to be, with sentiments of the most profound
respect, your Excellency's most obedient, and most humble servant.

TO MR. THOMAS DIGGES.

Paris, June 19, 1788.

Sir,—I have duly received your favor of May 12, as well as that of
the person who desires information on the state of cotton
manufactures in America, and for his interest and safety I beg leave
to address to you the answer to his queries.
In general, it is impossible that manufactures should succeed in
America, from the high price of labor. This is occasioned by the great
demand of labor for agriculture. A manufacturer going from Europe
will turn to labor of other kinds if he finds more to be got by it, and
he finds some employment so profitable, that he can soon lay up
money enough to buy fifty acres of land, to the culture of which he
is irresistibly tempted by the independence in which that places him,
and the desire of having a wife and family around him. If any
manufactures can succeed there, it will be that of cotton. I must
observe for his information that this plant grows nowhere in the
United States northward of the Potomac, and not in quantity till you
get southward as far as York and James Rivers. I know nothing of
the manufacture which is said to be set up at Richmond. It must
have taken place since 1783, when I left Virginia. In that State (for it
is the only one I am enabled to speak of with certainty) there is no
manufacture of wire or of cotton cards; or if any, it is not worth
notice. No manufacture of stocking-weaving, consequently none for
making the machine; none of cotton clothing of any kind whatever
for sale; though in almost every family some is manufactured for the
use of the family, which is always good in quality, and often tolerably
fine. In the same way they make excellent stockings of cotton,
weaving it in like manner, carried on principally in the family way:
among the poor, the wife weaves generally; and the rich either have
a weaver among their servants or employ their poor neighbors.
Cotton cost in Virginia from 12d. to 18d. sterling the pound before
the war, probably it is a little raised since. Richmond is as good a
place for a manufactory as any in that State, and perhaps the best
as to its resources for this business. Cotton clothing is very much the
taste of the country. A manufacturer, on his landing, should apply to
the well-informed farmers and gentlemen of the country. Their
information will be more disinterested than that of merchants, and
they can better put him into the way of disposing of his workmen in
the cheapest manner till he has time to look about him and decide
how and where he will establish himself. Such is the hospitality in
that country, and their disposition to assist strangers, that he may
boldly go to any good house he sees, and make the inquiry he
needs. He will be sure to be kindly received, honestly informed, and
accommodated in an hospitable way, without any other introduction
than an information who he is and what are his views. It is not the
policy of the government in that country to give any aid to works of
any kind. They let things take their natural course without help or
impediment, which is generally the best policy. More particularly as
to myself, I must say that I have not the authority nor the means of
assisting any persons in their passage to that country. I have the
honor to be, with sentiments of perfect esteem, Sir, your most
obedient, and most humble servant.

TO MR. RUTLEDGE.

Paris, January 19, 1788.

Dear Sir,—Having omitted to ask you how I should address letters to

you, I am obliged to put the present under cover to Mr. Shippen, to
the care of his banker at Amsterdam. Enclosed you will receive a
letter lately come to my hands, as also such notes as I have been
able to scribble very hastily and undigested. I am ashamed of them;
but I will pay willingly that price, if they may, on a single occasion,
be useful to you. I will at some future moment find time to write the
letters for Frankfort, Florence, Milan, Nice and Marseilles, which
those notes will point out, and lodge them on your route, if you will
be so good as to keep me always informed how and where I must
send letters to you. I would suggest an alteration in the route I had
proposed to you; that is, to descend the Danube from Vienna, so as
to go to Constantinople, and from thence to Naples and up Italy.
This must depend on your time, and the information you may be
able to get as to the safety with which you may pass through the
Ottoman territories. It is believed the Emperor is making overtures
for peace. Should this take place it would lessen the difficulties of
such a tour. In the meantime, this gleam of peace is
counterbalanced by the warlike preparations of Sweden and
Denmark, known to be made under the suggestions of the Court of
London. In this country there is great internal ferment. I am of
opinion the new regulations will be maintained. Perhaps the Cour
pleniere may be amended in its composition, and the States General
called at an earlier period than was intended. We have no accounts
yet of the decision of Maryland, South Carolina, or Virginia on the
subject of the new Constitution. Yet it seems probable they will
accept it in the same manner Massachusetts has done; and I see
nothing improbable in the supposition that our new government may
be in motion by the beginning of November. I must press on you, my
dear Sir, a very particular attention to the climate and culture of the
olive tree. This is the most interesting plant in existence for South
Carolina and Georgia. You will see in various places that it gives
being to whole villages in places where there is not soil enough to
subsist a family by the means of any other culture. But consider it as
the means of bettering the condition of your slaves in South
Carolina. See in the poorer parts of France and Italy what a number
of vegetables are rendered eatable by the aid of a little oil, which
would otherwise be useless. Remark very particularly the northern
limits of this tree, and whether it exists by the help of shelter from
the mountains, &c. I know this is the case in France. I wish to know
where the northern limit of this plant crosses the Apennines; where
it crosses the Adriatic and the Archipelago, and if possible what
course it takes through Asia. The fig, the dried raisin, the pistache,
the date, the caper, are all very interesting objects for your study.
Should you not in your passage through countries where they are
cultivated inform yourself of their hardiness, their culture, the
manner of transporting, &c., you might hereafter much repent it.
Both then and now I hope you will excuse me for suggesting them
to your attention; not omitting the article of rice also, of which you
will see species different from your own. I beg you to make use of
me on all possible occasions and in all the ways in which I can serve
you, not omitting that of money, should any disappointment take
place in your own arrangements. Mr. Berard's money was paid to
Bayoker & Co. as you desired. I have the honor to be, with very
great esteem, dear Sir, your most obedient, and most humble
servant.
 TO T. LEE SHIPPEN, ESQ.

Paris, June 19, 1788.

Dear Sir,—I have been honored with your favor of May 20, and take
the first possible moment of acknowledging it, and of enclosing such
notes as my recollection has suggested to me might be of service to
you on your route. They have been scribbled so hastily and so
informally that I would not send them, did not a desire of
accommodating yourself and Mr. Rutledge get the better of my self-
love. You will have seen in the Leyden gazette the principal articles
of intelligence received from America since you left us, and which I
have furnished to Mr. Dumas for that paper. The account of the riot
in New York was given me by Mr. Paradise, who was there at the
time, and who with his lady is now here. You may, perhaps, meet
them at Venice. Mr. Jay and Baron Steuben were wounded with
stones in that riot. General Washington writes me word he thinks
Virginia will accept of the new Constitution. It appears to me, in fact,
from all information, that its rejection would drive the States to
despair and bring on events which cannot be foreseen; and that its
adoption is become absolutely necessary. It will be easier to get the
assent of nine States to correct what is wrong in the way pointed
out by the Constitution itself, than to get thirteen to concur in a new
convention and another plan of confederation. I therefore sincerely
pray that the remaining States may accept it, as Massachusetts has
done, with standing instructions to their delegates to press for
amendments till they are obtained. They cannot fail of being
obtained when the delegates of eight States shall be under such
perpetual instructions. The American newspapers say that the
Spaniards have sunk one of our boats on the Mississippi, and we one
of theirs, by way of reprisal. The silence of my letters on the subject
makes me hope it is not true. Be so good as to keep me constantly
furnished with your address. I will take the first moment I can to
write letters for you to Baron Leimer for Frankfort, Febroni at
Florence, the Count del Verme and Clerici at Milan, Sasserns at Nice,
Cathalan at Marseilles, which at this time it is impossible for me to
do. I beg you to make on all occasions all the use of me of which I
am susceptible, and in any way in which your occasions may require,
and to be assured of the sentiments of sincere esteem and
attachment with which I have the honor to be, dear Sir, your most
obedient, and most humble servant.

TO THE COUNT DE MONTMORIN.

Paris, June 20, 1788.

Sir,—Having had the honor of mentioning to your Excellency the

wish of Congress that certain changes should be made in the articles
for a consular convention, which had been sent to them, I have now
that, conformably to the desire you expressed, of giving a general
idea of the alterations to be proposed.
The fourth article gives to the consuls the immunities of the law of
nations. It has been understood, however, that the laws of France do
not admit of this; and that it might be desirable to expunge this
article. In this we are ready to concur, as in every other case where
an article might call for changes in the established laws, either
inconvenient or disagreeable.
After establishing in favor of consuls, the general immunities of the
law of nations, one consequence of which would have been, that
they could not have been called upon to give testimony in courts of
justice, the fifth article requires that after the observance of certain
formalities, which imply very high respect, they shall make a
declaration; but in their own houses [chez eux] as may be
pretended, if not justly inferred, from the expressions in the article.
But our laws require, indispensably, a personal examination of
witnesses in the presence of the parties, of their counsel, the jury
and judges, each of whom has a right to ask of them all questions
pertinent to the fact. The first and highest officers of our
government are obliged to appear personally to the order of a court
to give evidence. The court takes care that they are treated with
respect. It is proposed, therefore, to omit this article for these
particular reasons, as well as for the general one, that the fourth
being expunged, this, which was but an exception to that, falls of
course.
The seventh, eighth, tenth and fourteenth articles extend their pre-
eminences far beyond those which the laws of nations would have
given. These articles require that the declarations made in the
presence of consuls, and certified by them, shall be received in
evidence in all courts whatever; and in some instances give to their
certificates a credibility which excludes all other testimony. The cases
are rare in which our laws admit written evidence of facts; and such
evidence, when admitted, must have been given in the presence of
both parties, and must contain the answers to all the pertinent
questions which they may have desired to ask of the witness; and to
no evidence, of whatever nature, written or oral, do our laws give so
high credit, as to exclude all counter-proof. These principles are of
such ancient foundation in our system of jurisprudence, and are so
much valued and venerated by our citizens, that perhaps it would be
impossible to execute articles which should contravene them, nor is
it imagined that these stipulations can be so interesting to this
country, as to balance the inconvenience and hazard of such an
innovation with us. Perhaps it might be found, that the laws of both
countries require a modification of this article; as it is inconceivable
that the certificate of an American consul in France could be
permitted by one of its courts to establish a fact, the falsehood of
which should be notorious to the court itself.
The eighth article gives to the consuls of either nation a jurisdiction,
in certain cases, over foreigners of any other. On a dispute arising in
France, between an American and a Spaniard or an Englishman, it
would not be fair to abandon the Spaniard or Englishman to an
American consul. On the contrary, the territorial judge, as neutral,
would seem to be the most impartial. Probably, therefore, it will be
thought convenient for both parties to correct this stipulation.
A dispute arising between two subjects of France, the one being in
France, and the other in the United States, the regular tribunals of
France would seem entitled to a preference of jurisdiction. Yet the
twelfth article gives it to their consul in America; and to the consul of
the United States in France, in a like case between their citizens.
The power given by the tenth article, of arresting and sending back
a vessel, its captain, and crew, is a very great one indeed, and, in
our opinion, more safely lodged with the territorial judge. We would
ourselves trust the tribunals of France to decide when there is just
cause for so high-handed an act of authority over the persons and
property of so many of our citizens, to all of whom these tribunals
will stand in a neutral and impartial relation, rather than any single
person whom we may appoint as consul, who will seldom be learned
in the laws, and often susceptible of influence from private interest
and personal pique. With us, applications for the arrest of vessels,
and of their masters, are made to the admiralty courts. These are
composed of the most learned and virtuous characters of the several
States, and the maritime law common to all nations, is the rule of
their proceedings. The exercise of foreign jurisdiction, within the
pale of their own laws, in a very high case, and wherein those laws
have made honorable provisions, would be a phenomenon never yet
seen in our country, and which would be seen with great jealousy
and uneasiness. On the contrary, to leave this power with the
territorial judge, will inspire confidence and friendship, and be really,
at the same time, more secure against abuse. The power of
arresting deserted seamen seems necessary for the purposes of
navigation and commerce, and will be more attentively and
effectually exercised by the consul, than by the territorial judge. To
this part of the tenth article, therefore, as well as to that which
requires the territorial judge to assist the consul in the exercise of
this function, we can accede. But the extension of the like power to
passengers, seems not necessary for the purposes either of
navigation or commerce. It does not come, therefore, within the
functions of the consul, whose institution is for those two objects
only, nor within the powers of a commissioner, authorized to treat
and conclude a convention, solely for regulating the powers,
privileges, and duties of consuls. The arrest and detention of
passengers, moreover, would often be in contradiction to our bills of
rights, which being fundamental, cannot be obstructed in their
operation by any law or convention whatever.
Consular institutions being entirely new with us, Congress think it
wise to make their first convention probationary, and not perpetual.
They propose, therefore, a clause for limiting its duration to a certain
term of years. If after the experience of a few years, it should be
found to answer the purposes intended by it, both parties will have
sufficient inducements to renew it, either in its present form, or with
such alterations and amendments as time, experience, and other
circumstances may indicate.
The convention, as expressed in the French language, will fully
answer our purposes in France, because it will there be understood.
But it will not equally answer the purposes of France in America,
because it will not there be understood. In very few of the courts
wherein it may be presented, will there be found a single judge or
advocate capable of translating it at all, much less of giving to all its
terms, legal and technical, their exact equivalent in the laws and
language of that country. Should any translation which Congress
would undertake to publish, for the use of our courts, be conceived
on any occasion not to render fully the idea of the French original, it
might be imputed as an indirect attempt to abridge or extend the
terms of a contract, at the will of one party only. At no place are
there better helps than here, for establishing an English text
equivalent to the French, in all its phrases; no person can be
supposed to know what is meant by these phrases better than those
who form them; and no time more proper to ascertain their meaning
in both languages, than that at which they are formed. I have,
therefore, the honor to propose, that the convention shall be
faithfully expressed in English as well as in French, in two columns,
side by side, that these columns be declared each of them to be
text, and to be equally original and authentic in all courts of justice.
This, Sir, is a general sketch of the alterations which our laws and
our manner of thinking render necessary in this convention, before
the faith of our country is engaged for its execution. Some of its
articles, in their present form, could not be executed at all, and
others would produce embarrassments and ill humor, to which it
would not be prudent for our government to commit itself. Inexact
execution on the one part, would naturally beget dissatisfaction and
complaints on the other, and an instrument intended to strengthen
our connection, might thus become the means of loosening it. Fewer
articles, better observed, will better promote our common interests.
As to ourselves, we do not find the institution of consuls very
necessary. Its history commences in times of barbarism, and might
well have ended with them. During these, they were perhaps useful,
and may still be so, in countries, not yet emerged from that
condition. But all civilized nations at this day, understand so well the
advantages of commerce, that they provide protection and
encouragement for merchant strangers and vessels coming among
them. So extensive, too, have commercial connections now become,
that every mercantile house has correspondents in almost every
port. They address their vessels to these correspondents, who are
found to take better care of their interests, and to obtain more
effectually the protection of the laws of the country for them, than
the consul of their nation can. He is generally a foreigner,
unpossessed of the little details of knowledge of greatest use to
them. He makes national questions of all the difficulties which arise;
the correspondent prevents them. We carry on commerce with good
success in all parts of the world; yet we have not a consul in a single
port, nor a complaint for the want of one, except from the persons
who wish to be consuls themselves. Though these considerations
may not be strong enough to establish the absolute inutility of
consuls, they may make us less anxious to extend their privileges
and jurisdictions, so as to render them objects of jealousy and
irritation in the places of their residence. That this government
thinks them useful, is sufficient reason for us to give them all the
functions and facilities which our circumstances will admit. Instead,
therefore, of declining every article which will be useless to us, we
accede to every one which will not be inconvenient. Had this nation
been alone concerned, our desire to gratify them, might have
tempted us to press still harder on the laws and opinions of our
country. But your Excellency knows, that we stand engaged in
treaties with some nations, which will give them occasion to claim
whatever privileges we yield to any other. This renders
circumspection more necessary. Permit me to add one other
observation. The English allow to foreign consuls scarcely any
functions within their ports. This proceeds, in a great measure, from
the character of their laws, which eye with peculiar jealousy every
exemption from their control. Ours are the same in their general
character, and rendered still more unpliant, by our having thirteen
parliaments to relax, instead of one. Upon the whole, I hope your
Excellency will see the causes of the delay which this convention has
met with, in the difficulties it presents, and our desire to surmount
them; and will be sensible that the alterations proposed, are dictated
to us by the necessity of our circumstances, and by a caution, which
cannot be disapproved, to commit ourselves to no engagements
which we foresee we might not be able to fulfil.
These alterations, with some other smaller ones, which may be
offered on the sole principle of joint convenience, shall be the
subject of more particular explanation, whenever your Excellency
shall honor me with a conference thereon. I shall then also point out
the verbal changes which appear to me necessary, to accommodate
the instrument to the views before expressed. In the meantime, I
have the honor to be, with sentiments of the most perfect respect
and esteem, your Excellency's most obedient, and most humble
servant.

TO —— ——.

Paris, June 28, 1788.

Sir,— * * * * * * * * A treaty of alliance between England and
Prussia was signed on the 13th instant. Sweden is believed to have
given out a declaration of the reasons of her arming, which has very
much the air of a declaration of war against Russia. We have not yet
seen it here. It would not be unexpected to hear that she has
commenced hostilities. She is subsidized by England, and if she does
begin a war, we must believe it to be on the instigation of England,
with a view to bring on a general war. This power, with Denmark and
Holland, ranging themselves on the side of England, destroys the
equilibrium of power at sea, which we had hoped was established. I
am, with great esteem, Sir, your most obedient humble servant.

TO MONSIEUR DIRIEKS.

Paris, July 2, 1788.

Sir,—As a private individual and citizen of America, I can with

propriety and truth deliver it to you as my firm belief, that the loan
office certificate you showed me, and all others of the same kind,
will be paid, principal and interest, as soon as the circumstances of
the United States will permit: that I do not consider this as a distant
epoch, nor suppose there is a public debt on earth less doubtful.
This I speak as my private opinion. But it does not belong to me to
say that it will be paid in two years, or that it will be paid at all, so as
by the authority of my affirmation to give it any new sanction or
credit. The board of treasury or Congress can alone do this. You will
be sensible, therefore, Sir, of the impropriety, and even the hazard,
of my going out of the line of my office so far as to undertake, or to
aver, that these certificates will be paid within one or two years. On
every occasion where I can do it of right, I shall be happy to render
you every possible service, being with sentiments of the most
perfect esteem, Sir, your most obedient humble servant.
 TO T. L. SHIPPEN, ESQ.

Paris, July 13, 1788.

Dear Sir,—In a former letter to Mr. Rutledge, I suggested to him the

idea of extending his tour to Constantinople, and in one of to-day, I
mention it again. I do not know how far that extension may accord
with your plan, nor indeed how far it may be safe for either of you;
for, though it has been thought there has been a relaxation in the
warlike dispositions of the belligerent powers, yet we have no
symptoms of a suspension of hostilities. The Ottoman dominions are
generally represented as unsafe for travellers, even when in peace.
They must be much more so during war. This article, therefore,
merits exact inquiry before that journey is undertaken.
We have letters from America to June 11. Maryland has acceded to
the Constitution by a vote of 63 to 11, and South Carolina by 149 to
72. Mr. Henry had disseminated propositions there for a Southern
confederacy. It is now thought that Virginia will not hesitate to
accede. Governor Randolph has come over to the Federalists. No
doubt is entertained of New Hampshire and North Carolina, and it is
thought that even New York will agree when she sees she will be left
with Rhode Island alone. Two-thirds of their Convention are
decidedly anti-federal. The die is now thrown, and it cannot be many
days before we know what has finally turned up. Congress has
granted the prayer of Kentucky to be made independent, and a
committee was occupied in preparing an act for that purpose. Mr.
Barlow, the American poet, is arrived in Paris.
We expect daily to hear that the Swedes have commenced
hostilities. Whether this will draw in the other nations of Europe
immediately, cannot be foreseen; probably it will in the long run. I
sincerely wish this country may be able previously to arrange its
internal affairs. To spare the trouble of repetition, I am obliged to
ask of yourself and Mr. Rutledge, to consider the letter of each as a
supplement to the other. Under the possibility, however, of your
going different routes, I enclose duplicates of my letters of
introduction. After acknowledging the receipt of your favor of the 6th
inst., from Spa, I shall only beg a continuance of them, and that you
will both keep me constantly informed how to convey letters to you;
and to assure you of those sentiments of sincere esteem with which
I have the honor to be, dear Sir, your friend and servant.

TO DOCTOR GORDON.

Paris, July 16, 1788.

Sir,—In your favor of the 8th instant, you mentioned that you had
written to me in February last. This letter never came to hand. That
of April the 24th came here during my absence on a journey through
Holland and Germany; and my having been obliged to devote the
first moments after my return, to some very pressing matters, must
be my apology for not having been able to write to you till now. As
soon as I knew that it would be agreeable to you, to have such a
disposal of your work for translation, as I had made for Dr. Ramsay,
I applied to the same bookseller with propositions on your behalf. He
told me, that he had lost so much by that work, that he could hardly
think of undertaking another, and at any rate, not without first
seeing and examining it. As he was the only bookseller I could
induce to give anything on the former occasion, I went to no other
with my proposal, meaning to ask you to send me immediately as
much of the work as is printed. This you can do by the Diligence,
which comes three times a week from London to Paris. Furnished
with this, I will renew my proposition, and do the best for you I can;
though I fear that the ill success of the translation of Dr. Ramsay's
work, and of another work on the subject of America, will permit
less to be done for you than I had hoped. I think Dr. Ramsay failed
from the inelegance of the translation, and the translator's having
departed entirely from the Doctor's instructions. I will be obliged to
you, to set me down as a subscriber for half a dozen copies, and to
ask Mr. Trumbull (No. 2, North street, Rathbone Place) to pay you
the whole subscription price for me, which he will do on showing
him this letter. These copies can be sent by the Diligence. I have not
yet received the pictures Mr. Trumbull was to send me, nor
consequently that of M. de La Fayette. I will take care of it when it
arrives. His title is simply, le Marquis de La Fayette.
You ask, in your letter of April the 24th, details of my sufferings by
Colonel Tarleton. I did not suffer by him. On the contrary, he
behaved very genteelly with me. On his approach to Charlottesville,
which is within three miles of my house at Monticello, he despatched
a troop of his horse, under Captain McLeod, with the double object
of taking me prisoner, with the two Speakers of the Senate and
Delegates, who then lodged with me, and of remaining there in
vidette, my house commanding a view of ten or twelve miles round
about. He gave strict orders to Captain McLeod to suffer nothing to
be injured. The troop failed in one of their objects, as we had notice
of their coming, so that the two Speakers had gone off about two
hours before their arrival at Monticello, and myself, with my family,
about five minutes. But Captain McLeod preserved everything with
sacred care, during about eighteen hours that he remained there.
Colonel Tarleton was just so long at Charlottesville, being hurried
from thence by the news of the rising of the militia, and by a sudden
fall of rain, which threatened to swell the river, and intercept his
return. In general, he did little injury to the inhabitants, on that
short and hasty excursion, which was of about sixty miles from their
main army, then in Spotsylvania, and ours in Orange. It was early in
June, 1781. Lord Cornwallis then proceeded to the Point of Fork, and
encamped his army from thence all along the main James River, to a
seat of mine called Elk-hill, opposite to Elk Island, and a little below
the mouth of the Byrd Creek. (You will see all these places exactly
laid down in the map annexed to my notes on Virginia, printed by
Stockdale.) He remained in this position ten days, his own head
quarters being in my house, at that place. I had time to remove
most of the effects out of the house. He destroyed all my growing
crops of corn and tobacco; he burned all my barns, containing the
same articles of the last year, having first taken what corn he
wanted; he used, as was to be expected, all my stock of cattle,
sheep and hogs, for the sustenance of his army, and carried off all
the horses capable of service; of those too young for service he cut
the throats; and he burned all the fences on the plantation, so as to
leave it an absolute waste. He carried off also about thirty slaves.
Had this been to give them freedom, he would have done right; but
it was to consign them to inevitable death from the small pox and
putrid fever, then raging in his camp. This I knew afterwards to be
the fate of twenty-seven of them. I never had news of the remaining
three, but presume they shared the same fate. When I say that Lord
Cornwallis did all this, I do not mean that he carried about the torch
in his own hands, but that it was all done under his eye; the
situation of the house in which he was, commanding a view of every
part of the plantation, so that he must have seen every fire. I relate
these things on my own knowledge, in a great degree, as I was on
the ground soon after he left it. He treated the rest of the
neighborhood somewhat in the same style, but not with that spirit of
total extermination with which he seemed to rage over my
possessions. Wherever he went, the dwelling houses were plundered
of everything which could be carried off. Lord Cornwallis' character in
England, would forbid the belief that he shared in the plunder; but
that his table was served with the plate thus pillaged from private
houses, can be proved by many hundred eye-witnesses. From an
estimate I made at that time, on the best information I could collect,
I supposed the State of Virginia lost, under Lord Cornwallis' hands,
that year, about thirty thousand slaves; and that of these, about
twenty-seven thousand died of the small pox and camp fever, and
the rest were partly sent to the West Indies, and exchanged for rum,
sugar, coffee and fruit, and partly sent to New York, from whence
they went, at the peace, either to Nova Scotia or England. From this
last place, I believe they have been lately sent to Africa. History will
never relate the horrors committed by the British army in the
southern States of America. They raged in Virginia six months only,
from the middle of April to the middle of October, 1781, when they
were all taken prisoners; and I give you a faithful specimen of their
transactions for ten days of that time, and on one spot only. Ex pede
Herculem. I suppose their whole devastations during those six
months, amounted to about three millions sterling. The copiousness
of this subject has only left me space to assure you of the
sentiments of esteem and respect, with which I am, Sir, your most
obedient humble servant.

TO MR. IZARD.

Paris, July 17, 1788.

Dear Sir, * * * * * * * * *
I cannot but approve your idea of sending your eldest son, destined
for the law, to Williamsburg. The professor of Mathematics and
Natural Philosophy there, (Mr. Madison, cousin of him whom you
know,) is a man of great abilities, and their apparatus is a very fine
one. Mr. Ballini, professor of Modern Language, is also an excellent
one. But the pride of the Institution is Mr. Wythe, one of the
Chancellors of the State, and professor of law in the College. He is
one of the greatest men of the age, having held without competition
the first place at the bar of our general court for twenty-five years,
and always distinguished by the most spotless virtue. He gives
lectures regularly, and holds moot courts and parliaments wherein
he presides, and the young men debate regularly in law and
legislation, learn the rules of parliamentary proceeding, and acquire
the habit of public speaking. Williamsburg is a remarkably healthy
situation, reasonably cheap, and affords very genteel society. I know
no place in the world, while the present professors remain, where I
would so soon place a son.
I have made the necessary inquiries relative to a school for your
second son. There are only two here for the line of engineering. I
send the prospectus of the best, which is so particular in its details
as to enable you to judge for yourself on every point. I will add
some observations. I have never thought a boy should undertake
abstruse or difficult sciences, such as Mathematics in general, till
fifteen years of age at soonest. Before that time they are best
employed in learning the languages which is merely a matter of
memory. The languages are badly taught here. If you propose he
should learn the Latin, perhaps you will prefer the having him taught
it in America, and of course, to retain him there two or three years
more. At that age, he will be less liable to lose his native language,
and be more able to resist the attempts to change his religion.
Probably three or four years here would suffice for the theory of
engineering, which would leave him still time enough to see
something of the practice either by land or sea, as he should choose,
and to return home at a ripe age. Decide on all these points as you
think best, and make what use of me in it you please. Whenever you
choose to send him, if I am here, and you think proper to accept my
services towards him, they shall be bestowed with the same zeal as
if he were my own son.
The war in Europe threatens to spread. Sweden, we suppose, has
commenced hostilities against Russia, though we do not yet certainly
know it. I have hoped this country would settle her internal disputes
advantageously and without bloodshed. As yet none has been spilt,
though the British newspapers give the idea of a general civil war.
Hitherto, I had supposed both the King and parliament would lose
authority, and the nation gain it, through the medium of its States
General and provincial Assemblies, but the arrest of the deputies of
Bretagne two days ago, may kindle a civil war. Its issue will depend
on two questions. 1. Will other provinces rise? 2. How will the army
conduct itself? A stranger cannot predetermine these questions.
Happy for us that abuses have not yet become patrimonies, and that
every description of interest is in favor of national and moderate
government. That we are yet able to send our wise and good men
together to talk over our form of government, discuss its
weaknesses and establish its remedies with the same sang-froid as
they would a subject of agriculture. The example we have given to
the world is single, that of changing our form of government under
the authority of reason only, without bloodshed.
I enclose herein a letter from Count Sarsfield to Mrs. Izard, to whom
I beg to present my respects. I am, with great sincerity, dear Sir,
your friend and servant.

TO JAMES MADISON OF WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE.

Paris, July 19, 1788.

Dear Sir,—My last letter to you was of the 13th of August last. As
you seem willing to accept of the crumbs of science on which we are
subsisting here, it is with pleasure I continue to hand them on to
you, in proportion as they are dealt out. Herschel's volcano in the
moon you have doubtless heard of, and placed among the other
vagaries of a head, which seems not organized for sound induction.
The wildness of the theories hitherto proposed by him, on his own
discoveries, seems to authorize us to consider his merit as that of a
good optician only. You know also, that Dr. Ingenhouse had
discovered, as he supposed, from experiment, that vegetation might
be promoted by occasioning streams of the electrical fluid to pass
through a plant, and that other physicians had received and
confirmed this theory. He now, however, retracts it, and finds by
more decisive experiments, that the electrical fluid can neither
forward nor retard vegetation. Uncorrected still of the rage of
drawing general conclusions from partial and equivocal observations,
he hazards the opinion that light promotes vegetation. I have
heretofore supposed from observation, that light effects the color of
living bodies, whether vegetable or animal; but that either the one
or the other receives nutriment from that fluid, must be permitted to
be doubted of, till better confirmed by observation. It is always
better to have no ideas, than false ones; to believe nothing, than to
believe what is wrong. In my mind, theories are more easily
demolished than rebuilt.
An Abbé here has shaken, if not destroyed, the theory of de
Dominis, Descartes and Newton, for explaining the phenomenon of
the rainbow. According to that theory, you know, a cone of rays
issuing from the sun, and falling on a cloud in the opposite part of
the heavens, is reflected back in the form of a smaller cone, the
apex of which is the eye of the observer; so that the eye of the
observer must be in the axis of both cones, and equally distant from
every part of the bow. But he observes, that he has repeatedly seen
bows, the one end of which has been very near to him, and the
other at a very great distance. I have often seen the same thing
myself. I recollect well to have seen the end of a rainbow between
myself and a house, or between myself and a bank, not twenty
yards distant; and this repeatedly. But I never saw, what he says he
has seen, different rainbows at the same time intersecting each
other. I never saw coexistent bows, which were not concentric also.
Again, according to the theory, if the sun is in the horizon, the
horizon intercepts the lower half of the bow, if above the horizon,
that intercepts more than the half, in proportion. So that generally,
the bow is less than a semi-circle, and never more. He says he has
seen it more than a semi-circle. I have often seen the leg of the bow
below my level. My situation at Monticello admits this, because there
is a mountain there in the opposite direction of the afternoon's sun,
the valley between which and Monticello, is five hundred feet deep. I
have seen a leg of a rainbow plunge down on the river running
through the valley. But I do not recollect to have remarked at any
time, that the bow was more than half a circle. It appears to me,
that these facts demolish the Newtonian hypothesis, but they do not
support that erected in its stead by the Abbé. He supposes a cloud
between the sun and the observer, and that through some opening
in that cloud, the rays pass, and form an iris on the opposite part of
the heavens, just as a ray passing through a hole in the shutter of a
darkened room, and falling on a prism there, forms the prismatic
colors on the opposite wall. According to this, we might see bows of
more than the half circle, as often as of less. A thousand other
objections occur to this hypothesis, which need not be suggested to
you. The result is, that we are wiser than we were, by having an
error the less in our catalogue; but the blank occasioned by it, must
remain for some happier hypothesist to fill up.
The dispute about the conversion and re-conversion of water and air,
is still stoutly kept up. The contradictory experiments of chemists,
leave us at liberty to conclude what we please. My conclusion is, that
art has not yet invented sufficient aids, to enable such subtle bodies
to make a well-defined impression on organs as blunt as ours; that it
is laudable to encourage investigation, but to hold back conclusion.
Speaking one day with Monsieur de Buffon, on the present ardor of
chemical inquiry, he affected to consider chemistry but as cookery,
and to place the toils of the laboratory on a footing with those of the
kitchen. I think it, on the contrary, among the most useful of
sciences, and big with future discoveries for the utility and safety of
the human race. It is yet, indeed, a mere embryon. Its principles are
contested; experiments seem contradictory; their subjects are so
minute as to escape our senses; and their result too fallacious to
satisfy the mind. It is probably an age too soon, to propose the
establishment of a system. The attempt, therefore, of Lavoisier to
reform the chemical nomenclature, is premature. One single
experiment may destroy the whole filiation of his terms, and his
string of sulphates, sulphites, and sulphures, may have served no
other end, than to have retarded the progress of the science, by a
jargon, from the confusion of which, time will be requisite to
extricate us. Accordingly, it is not likely to be admitted generally.
You are acquainted with the properties of the composition of nitre,
salt of tartar and sulphur, called pulvis fulminans. Of this, the
explosion is produced by heat alone. Monsieur Bertholet, by
dissolving silver in the nitrous acid, precipitating it with lime water,
and drying the precipitate on ammoniac, has discovered a powder
which fulminates most powerfully, on coming into contact with any
substance however. Once made, it cannot be touched. It cannot be
put into a bottle, but must remain in the capsule, where dried. The
property of the spathic acid, to corrode flinty substances, has been
lately applied by a Mr. Puymaurin, to engrave on glass, as artists
engrave on copper, with aquafortis. M. de La Place has discovered,
that the secular acceleration and retardation of the moon's motion,
is occasioned by the action of the sun, in proportion as his
eccentricity changes, or, in other words, as the orbit of the earth
increases or diminishes. So that this irregularity is now perfectly
calculable.
Having seen announced in a gazette, that some person had found in
a library of Sicily, an Arabic translation of Livy, which was thought to
be complete, I got the chargé des affaires of Naples here, to write to
Naples to inquire into the fact. He obtained in answer, that an Arabic
translation was found, and that it would restore to us seventeen of
the books lost, to wit, from the sixtieth to the seventy-seventh,
inclusive: that it was in possession of an Abbé Vella, who, as soon as
he shall have finished a work he has on hand, will give us an Italian,
and perhaps a Latin translation of this Livy. There are persons,
however, who doubt the truth of this discovery, founding their
doubts on some personal circumstances relating to the person who
says he has this translation. I find, nevertheless, that the chargé des
affaires believes in the discovery, which makes me hope it may be
true.
A countryman of ours, a Mr. Ledyard of Connecticut, set out from
hence some time ago for St. Petersburg, to go thence to
Kamtschatka, thence to cross over to the western coast of America,
and penetrate through the continent, to the other side of it. He had
got within a few days' journey of Kamtschatka, when he was
arrested by order of the Empress of Russia, sent back, and turned
adrift in Poland. He went to London; engaged under the auspices of
a private society, formed there for pushing discoveries into Africa;
passed by this place, which he left a few days ago for Marseilles,
where he will embark for Alexandria and Grand Cairo; thence
explore the Nile to its source; cross the head of the Niger, and
descend that to its mouth. He promises me, if he escapes through
his journey, he will go to Kentucky, and endeavor to penetrate
westwardly to the South Sea.
The death of M. de Buffon you have heard long ago. I do not know
whether we shall have anything posthumous of his. As to political
news, this country is making its way to a good constitution. The only
danger is, they may press so fast as to produce an appeal to arms,
which might have an unfavorable issue for them. As yet, the appeal
is not made. Perhaps the war which seems to be spreading from
nation to nation, may reach them; this would ensure the calling of
the States General, and this, as is supposed, the establishment of a
constitution.
I have the honor to be, with sentiments of sincere esteem and
respect, dear Sir, your friend and servant.

TO E. RUTLEDGE.

Paris, July 18, 1788.

Dear Sir,—Messrs. Berard were to have given me particular accounts

of the proceeds of the shipments of rice made to them. But they
have failed. I fear, from what they mention, that the price has been
less advantageous than usual; which is unlucky, as it falls on the first
essay. If on the whole, however, you get as much as you would have
done by a sale on the spot, it should encourage other adventures,
because the price at Havre or Rouen is commonly higher, and
because I think you may, by trials, find out the way to avail
yourselves of the Paris retail price. The Carolina rice sold at Paris, is
separated into three kinds: 1, the whole grains; 2, the broken
grains; 3, the small stuff; and sell at ten, eight, and six livres the
French pound, retail. The whole grains, which constitute the first
quality, are picked out by hand. I would not recommend this
operation to be done with you, because labor is dearer there than
here. But I mention these prices, to show, that after making a
reasonable deduction for sorting, and leaving a reasonable profit to
the retailer, there should still remain a great wholesale price. I shall
wish to know from you, how much your cargo of rice shipped to
Berard netts you, and how much it would have netted in hard
money, if you had sold it at home.
You promise, in your letter of October the 23d, 1787, to give me in
your next, at large, the conjectures of your philosopher on the
descent of the Creek Indians from the Carthaginians, supposed to
have been separated from Hanno's fleet, during his periplus. I shall
be very glad to receive them, and see nothing impossible in his
conjecture. I am glad he means to appeal to similarity of language,
which I consider as the strongest kind of proof it is possible to
adduce. I have somewhere read, that the language of the ancient
Carthaginians is still spoken by their descendants, inhabiting the
mountainous interior parts of Barbary, to which they were obliged to
retire by the conquering Arabs. If so, a vocabulary of their tongue
can still be got, and if your friend will get one of the Creek
languages, the comparison will decide. He probably may have made
progress in this business; but if he wishes any enquiries to be made
on this side the Atlantic, I offer him my services cheerfully; my wish
being like his, to ascertain the history of the American aborigines.
I congratulate you on the accession of your State to the new federal
constitution. This is the last I have yet heard of, but I expect daily to
hear that my own has followed the good example, and suppose it to
be already established. Our government wanted bracing. Still, we
must take care not to run from one extreme to another; not to brace
too high. I own, I join those in opinion, who think a bill of rights
necessary. I apprehend too, that the total abandonment of the
principle of rotation in the offices of President and Senator, will end
in abuse. But my confidence is, that there will, for a long time, be
virtue and good sense enough in our countrymen, to correct abuses.
We can surely boast of having set the world a beautiful example of a
government reformed by reason alone, without bloodshed. But the
world is too far oppressed, to profit by the example. On this side of
the Atlantic, the blood of the people is become an inheritance, and
those who fatten on it, will not relinquish it easily. The struggle in
this country is, as yet, of doubtful issue. It is, in fact, between the
monarchy and the parliaments. The nation is no otherwise
concerned, but as both parties may be induced to let go some of its
abuses, to court the public favor. The danger is, that the people,
deceived by a false cry of liberty, may be led to take side with one
party, and thus give the other a pretext for crushing them still more.
If they can avoid the appeal to arms, the nation will be sure to gain
much by this controversy. But if that appeal is made, it will depend
entirely on the disposition of the army, whether it issue in liberty or
despotism. Those dispositions are not as yet known. In the
meantime, there is great probability that the war kindled in the east,
will spread from nation to nation, and in the long run, become
general.
I am, with the most sincere esteem and attachment, my dear Sir,
your friend and servant.

TO MR. CUTTING.

Paris, July 24, 1788.

Dear Sir,—I am indebted to your favor of the 11th instant for many
details which I have not received otherwise. Not-withstanding a most
extensive and laborious correspondence which I keep up with my
friends on the other side the water, my information is slow,
precarious and imperfect. The New York papers, which I receive
regularly, and one or two correspondents in Congress, are my best
sources. As you are desirous of having, before your departure for
South Carolina, a sketch of European affairs, as they are seen from
this position, I will give you the best I can, taking no notice of the
"bruit de Paris," which, like the English newspapers, are but guesses,
and made generally by persons who do not give themselves the
trouble of trying to guess right. I will confine myself to facts, or well-
founded probabilities, and among these must necessarily repeat a
great deal of what you know already. Perhaps all may be of that
description.
The war undertaken by the Turks, unadvisedly, as was conjectured,
has been attended with successes which are now hastening the
public opinion to the other extreme; but it should be considered that
they have been small successes only, in the partizan way. The
probable event of the war can only be calculated after a great
general action, because it is in that we shall see whether the
European discipline has been overrated, and the want of it in the
Turks exaggerated. Russia certainly undertook the war unwillingly,
and the Emperor, it is thought, would now be glad to get out of it,
but the Turks, who demanded a restitution of the Crimea, before
they began the war, are not likely to recede from that demand, after
the successes they have obtained, nor can Russia yield to it without
some more decisive event than has yet taken place. A small affair on
the Black Sea, which is believed, though not on grounds absolutely
authentic, is calculated to revive her spirits. Twenty-seven gun boats,
Russian, have obliged fifty-seven, commanded by the Captain Pacha
himself, to retire after an obstinate action. The Russians were
commanded by the Prince of Nassau, with whom our Paul Jones
acted as volunteer, and probably directed the whole business. I
suppose he must have been just arrived, and that his command has
not yet been made up. He is to be rear-admiral, and always to have
a separate command. What the English newspapers said of
remonstrances against his being received into the service, as far as I
can learn from those who would have known it, and would have told
it to me, was false, as is everything those papers say, ever did say,
and ever will say. The probability, and almost certainty, that Sweden
will take a part in the war, adds immensely to the embarrassments
of Russia, and will almost certainly prevent her fleet going to the
Mediterranean. It is tolerably certain that she has been excited to
this by the Court of London, and that she has received, through their
negotiations, a large subsidy from the Turks (about three millions of
thalers), yet the meeting of the two fleets, and their saluting,
instead of fighting each other, induces a suspicion that if he can
hinder the Russian expedition by hectoring only, he may not mean to
do more. Should this power really engage in the war, and should it
at length spread to France and England, I shall view the Swedish
separation from France as the event which alone decides that the
late subversion of the European system will be ultimately serious to
France. This power, with the two empires, and Spain, was more than
a match for England, Prussia and Holland by land, and balanced
them by sea. For on this element France and Spain are equal to
England, and Russia to Holland. Sweden was always supposed on
the side of France, and to balance Denmark, on the side of England,
by land and sea; but if she goes over decidedly into the English
scale, the balance at sea will be destroyed by the amount of the
whole force of these two powers, who can equip upwards of sixty
sail of the line. There is a report, credited by judicious persons, that
the Dutch patriots, before their suppression, foreseeing that event,
sent orders to the East Indies to deliver Trincomale to the French,
and that it has been done. My opinion is, either that this is not true,
or that they will re-deliver it, and disavow their officer who accepted
it. If they did not think Holland, and all its possessions, worth a war,
they cannot think a single one of those possessions worth it. M. de
St. Priest has leave to go to the waters. Probably he will then ask
and have leave to come to Paris, and await events. The English
papers have said the works of Cherbourg were destroyed irreparably.
This is a mathematical demonstration that they are not. The truth is,
that the head of one cone has been very much beaten off by the
waters. But the happiness of that undertaking is, that all its injuries
improve it. What is beaten from the head widens the base, and fixes
the cone much more solidly. That work will be steadily pursued, and,
in all human probability, be finally successful. They calculate on half
a million of livres, say £20,000 sterling, for every cone, and that
there will be from seventy to eighty cones. Probably they must make
more cones, suppose one hundred, this will be two millions of
pounds sterling. Versailles has cost fifty millions of pounds sterling.
Ought we to doubt then that they will persevere to the end in a
work small and useful, in proportion as the other was great and
foolish?
The internal affairs here do not yet clear up. Most of the late
innovations have been much for the better. Two only must be
fundamentally condemned; the abolishing, in so great a degree, of
the parliaments, and the substitution of so ill-composed a body as
the cour pleniere. If the King has power to do this, the government
of this country is a pure despotism. I think it a pure despotism in
theory, but moderated in practice by the respect which the public
opinion commands. But the nation repeats, after Montesquieu, that
the different bodies of magistracy, of priests and nobles, are barriers
between the King and the people. It would be easy to prove that
these barriers can only appeal to public opinion, and that neither
these bodies, nor the people, can oppose any legal check to the will
of the monarch. But they are manifestly advancing fast to a
constitution. Great progress is already made. The provincial
assemblies, which will be a very perfect representative of the people,
will secure them a great deal against the power of the crown. The
confession lately made by the government, that it cannot impose a
new tax, is a great thing: the convocation of the States General,
which cannot be avoided, will produce a national assembly, meeting
at certain epochs, possessing at first probably only a negative on the
laws, but which will grow into the right of original legislation, and
prescribing limits to the expenses of the King. These are
improvements which will assuredly take place, and which will give an
energy to this country they have never yet had. Much may be hoped
from the States General, because the King's dispositions are solidly
good; he is capable of great sacrifices; all he wants to induce him to
do a thing, is to be assured it will be for the good of the nation. He
will probably believe what the States General shall tell him, and will
do it. It is supposed they will reduce the parliament to a mere
judiciary. I am in hopes all this will be effected without convulsions.
The English papers have told the world, with their usual truth, that
all here is civil war and confusion. There have been some riots, but
as yet not a single life has been lost, according to the best evidence
I have been able to collect. One officer was wounded at Grenoble.
The arrest of the twelve deputies of Bretagne a fortnight ago, I
apprehended would have produced an insurrection; but it seems as
if it would not. They have sent eighteen deputies more, who will
probably be heard. General Armand was one of the twelve, and is
now in the Bastille. The Marquis de La Fayette, for signing the prayer
which these deputies were to present, and which was signed by all
the other nobles of Bretagne resident in Paris (about sixty in
number), has been disgraced, in the old-fashioned language of the
country; that is to say, the command in the south of France this
summer, which they had given him, is taken away. They took all they
could from such others of the subscribers as held anything from the
Court. This dishonors them at Court, and in the eyes and
conversation of their competitors for preferment. But it will probably
honor them in the eyes of the nation. This is as full a detail as I am
able to give you of the affairs of Europe. I have nothing to add to
them but my wishes for your health and happiness, and assurances
of the esteem with which I have the honor to be, dear Sir, your most
obedient, and most humble servant.

TO MR. BELLINI.

Paris, July 25, 1788.

Dear Sir,—Though I have written to you seldom, you are often the
object of my thoughts, and always of my affection. The truth is, that
the circumstances with which I am surrounded, offer little worth
detailing to you. You are too wise to feel an interest in the
squabbles, in which the pride, the dissipations, and the tyranny of
kings, keep this hemisphere constantly embroiled. Science indeed,
finds some aliment here, and you are one of her sons. But this I
have pretty regularly communicated to Mr. Madison, with whom, I
am sure, you participate of it. It is with sincere pleasure I
congratulate you on the good fortune of our friend Mazzei, who is
appointed here, to correspond with the King of Poland. The
particular character given him is not well defined, but the salary is,
which is more important. It is eight thousand livres a year, which will
enable him to live comfortably, while his duties will find him that
occupation, without which he cannot exist. Whilst this appointment
places him at his ease, it affords him a hope of permanence also. It
suspends, if not entirely prevents, the visit he had intended to his
native country, and the return to his adoptive one, which the death
of his wife had rendered possible. This last event has given him
three quarters of the globe elbow-room, which he had ceded to her,
on condition she would leave him quiet in the fourth. Their partition
of the next world will be more difficult, if it be divided only into two
parts, according to the protestant faith. Having seen by a letter you
wrote him, that you were in want of a pair of spectacles, I undertook
to procure you some, which I packed in a box of books addressed to
Mr. Wythe, and of which I beg your acceptance. This box lay
forgotten at Havre the whole of the last winter, but was at length
shipped, and I trust has come to hand. I packed with the spectacles,
three or four pair of glasses, adapted to the different periods of life,
distinguished from each other by numbers, and easily changed. You
see I am looking forward in hope of a long life for you; and that it
may be long enough to carry you through the whole succession of
glasses, is my sincere prayer. Present me respectfully to Mrs. Bellini,
assure her of my affectionate remembrance of her, and my wishes
for her health and happiness; and accept yourself, very sincere
professions of the esteem and attachment with which I am, dear Sir,
your affectionate friend and servant.

TO MR. CUTTING.

Paris, July 28, 1788.

Sir,—When I had the honor of writing you on the 24th instant, the
transactions on the Black Sea were but vaguely known; I am now
able to give them to you on better foundation. The Captain Pacha
was proceeding with succors to Ocrakoff, as is said by some (for this
fact does not come on the same authority with the others), the
authentic account placing the two fleets in the neighborhood of each
other at the mouth of the Liman, without saying how they came
there. The Captain Pacha, with fifty-seven gun-boats, attacked the
Russian vessels of the same kind, twenty-seven in number, the right
wing of which was commanded by Admiral Paul Jones, the left by
the Prince of Nassau. After an obstinate engagement of five hours,
during which the Captain Pacha flew incessantly wherever there was
danger or distress, he was obliged to retire, having lost three of his
vessels, and killed only eight men of the Russians. I take this
account from the report of the action by the Prince of Nassau, which
the Russian minister here showed me. It is said in other accounts,
that all the balls of the Turks passed overhead, which was the
reason they did so little execution. This was on the 10th of June, and
was the forerunner of the great and decisive action between the two
main fleets, which took place on the 26th, the Russian fleet,
commanded by Admiral Paul Jones, the Turkish by Captain Pacha, of
which the result only, and not the details, are given us. This was,
that the vessels of the Turkish Admiral and Vice-Admiral, and four
others, were burnt, that is to say, six in all, two others were taken,
and between three and four thousand prisoners. The Captain
Pacha's flag was taken, and himself obliged to fly in a small vessel,
his whole fleet being dispersed. The Prince Potemkin immediately
got under march for Ocrakoff, to take advantage of the
consternation into which that place was thrown. These facts are
written by Prince Potemkin, from his head-quarters, to Prince
Gallitzin, the Russian Ambassador at Vienna, who writes them to
their minister here, who showed me the letter. The number of
prisoners taken, renders it probable that the Captain Pacha was on
his way to the relief of Ocrakoff with transports, as a less authentic
report said he was. We are not told authentically what was the force
on each side in the main action of the 26th, but it is supposed to
have been about fifteen ships of the line on each side, besides their
smaller vessels; but the evidence of this is vague, and the less to be
relied on, as we have known that the Russians were much inferior in
numbers to the Turks on that sea. A war of a less bloody kind is
begun between the Pope and the King of Naples, who has refused
this year to pay the annual tribute of the hackney as an
acknowledgment that he holds his kingdom as feudatory of the
Pope. The latter has declared him to stand deprived of his kingdom,
but gives him three months to consider of it. We shall see what will
be made of this farce. I have written this supplement to my other
letter, in hopes it may still find you at London. I am, with much
esteem, dear Sir, your most obedient humble servant.

TO M. LIMOZIN.

Paris, July 30, 1788.

Sir,—I know nothing myself of the person who was the subject of
your letter of the 27th, except a mere slight personal acquaintance.
But I have been told that he has been very unsuccessful in
commerce, and that his affairs are very much deranged. I own I
wish to see the beef-trade with America taken up by solid hands,
because it will give new life to our Northern States. In general, they
do not know how to cure it. But some persons of Massachusetts
have not very long ago brought over packers and picklers from
Ireland, and the beef cured and packed by them has been sent to
the East Indies and brought back again, and perfectly sound. We
may expect the art will spread. Is the Irish beef as good as that of
Hamburg? If I had supposed Irish beef could have been got at
Havre, I would not have sent to Hamburg for beef. I suppose that
which came for me cannot be introduced.
You have heard of the great naval victory obtained by the Russians
under command of Admiral Paul Jones, over the Turks commanded
by the Captain Pacha. We cannot see as yet, whether this will hasten
peace. The Swedish fleet having saluted instead of attacking the
Russian, makes us suspect these movements of the King of Sweden
may be a mere piece of hectoring to frighten Russia from the
purpose of sending her fleet round, if he can do it without actually
entering into the war. He is paid by the Turks. Nothing else new. I
am, Sir, with great esteem, your most obedient, humble servant.

TO JAMES MADISON.

Paris, July 31, 1788.

Dear Sir,—My last letters to you were of the 3d and the 25th of May.
Yours from Orange, of April the 22d, came to hand on the 10th
instant.
My letter to Mr. Jay, containing all the public news that is well
authenticated, I will not repeat it here, but add some details in the
smaller way, which you may be glad to know. The disgrace of the
Marquis de la Fayette, which at any other period of their history
would have had the worst consequences for him, will, on the
contrary, mark him favorably to the nation, at present. During the
present administration, he can expect nothing; but perhaps it may
serve him with their successors, whenever a change shall take place.
No change of the Principal will probably take place before the
meeting of the States General; though a change is to be wished, for
his operations do not answer the expectations formed of him. These
had been calculated on his brilliancy in society. He is very feebly
aided, too. Montmorin is weak, though a most worthy character. He
is indolent and inattentive, too, in the extreme. Luzerne is
considerably inferior in abilities to his brother, whom you know. He is
a good man, too, but so much out of his element, that he has the air
of one huskanoyed. The Garde des sceaux is considered as the
Principal's bull dog, braving danger like the animal. His talents do
not pass mediocrity. The Archbishop's brother, and the new minister
Villedeuil, and Lambert, have no will of their own. They cannot raise
money for the peace establishment the next year, without the States
General; much less if there be war; and their administration will
probably end with the States General.
Littlepage, who was here as a secret agent for the King of Poland,
rather overreached himself. He wanted more money. The King
furnished it, more than once. Still he wanted more, and thought to
obtain a high bid by saying he was called for in America, and asking
leave to go there. Contrary to his expectation, he received leave; but
he went to Warsaw instead of America, and from thence to join
the[H] * * * * I do not know these facts certainly, but recollect them,
by putting several things together. The King then sent an ancient
secretary here, in whom he had much confidence, to look out for a
correspondent, a mere letter writer for him. A happy hazard threw
Mazzei in his way. He recommended him, and he is appointed. He
has no diplomatic character whatever, but is to receive eight
thousand livres a year, as an intelligencer. I hope this employment
may have some permanence. The danger is, that he will overact his
part.
The Marquis de la Luzerne had been for many years married to his
brother's wife's sister, secretly. She was ugly and deformed, but
sensible, amiable, and rather rich. When he was ambassador to
London, with ten thousand guineas a year, the marriage was
avowed, and he relinquished his cross of Malta, from which he
derived a handsome revenue for life, and which was very open to
advancement. Not long ago, she died. His real affection for her,
which was great and unfeigned, and perhaps the loss of his order for
so short-lived a satisfaction, has thrown him almost into a state of
despondency. He is now here.
I send you a book of Dupont's, on the subject of the commercial
treaty with England. Though its general matter may not be
interesting, yet you will pick up in various parts of it, such excellent
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