Uni

tTwo:St
ates,
pol
it
icsandgov
ernmenti
ntheHor
n

St
ateFor
mat
ion:Col
oni
ali
sm andt
heI
ssueofNat
ionalI
dent
it
y

Lar
gepar
tsoft
heHor
nofAf
ri
cawer
ecol
oni
zedbyI
tal
y:Er
it
rea(
1880–1941)
,theI
tal
i
an
Somal
i
land (
1890–1960)and a br
iefoccupat
ion ofEt
hiopi
a(1936–1941)
.Br
it
ain
est
abl
i
shedi
nNor
thSomal
i
a(Br
it
ishSomal
i
land)SudanandKeny
a,andFr
ancei
n
Dj
i
bout
i(Fr
ench Somal
i
land)
.Thecol
oni
all
egacyand i
tscont
inuat
ion bearst
rong
ef
fect
sont
hepeopl
esandnat
ionsoft
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Thear
bit
rar
inessofbor
der
s
del
i
neat
edbycol
oni
alpower
sandt
heco-
exi
stenceofsi
mil
arnat
ional
i
tiesdi
vi
dedby
t
hesebor
der
shav
eint
ensi
fi
edt
hepr
obl
emsandatt
imescont
ri
but
edt
owar
s.I
nSudan,
t
heSout
hhad f
aced compl
etenegl
ectdur
ing Br
it
ishcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
ion. The
condi
ti
onwasonl
ywor
senedaf
teri
ndependencei
n1956t
hankst
othepr
ejudi
ceand
shor
t-
sight
ednessofNor
ther
npol
i
tici
ansf
inal
l
ycausi
ngt
hecr
eat
ionofSout
hSudan.
Memor
iesofpastsl
aver
yandpr
esenti
njust
iceandmar
ginal
i
zat
ionhav
epr
oduced
per
sist
entf
eel
i
ngofr
esent
ment
.InSomal
i
a,t
hedi
vi
dedmemor
yofSomal
i
-speaki
ng
peopl
eunderBr
it
ish,I
tal
i
anandFr
enchr
ulewasf
urt
herhur
twhen,t
eny
ear
saf
ter
i
ndependence,
SiadBar
esei
zedpowerbyacoupd’
étatusher
ingt
wodecadesofmi
srul
e
char
act
eri
zedbyasi
nist
ermi
xofcl
ani
sm,nepot
ism andani
gnor
antunder
standi
ngof
sci
ent
if
icsoci
ali
sm.Whatf
oll
owedBar
e’sdepar
tur
ein1990wascompl
eteanar
chyi
n
mostpar
tsofSomal
i
a.TheonceBr
it
ishr
uledpar
tofSomal
i
adecl
aredi
ndependence
wi
thoutsecur
ingi
nter
nat
ional
recogni
ti
on.

Thef
actt
hatHor
nisar
egi
onwher
enew count
ri
esar
ebei
ngcr
eat
edi
scausi
nga
pr
obl
em i
nst
atebui
l
dingandont
hemat
terofnat
ionali
dent
it
y.I
nthi
sregar
d,Sout
h
Sudani
sthel
atestst
atei
nthewor
ldt
osecede,
andSomal
i
land,whi
chdecl
aredi
ts
i
ndependencef
oll
owi
ngt
hecol
l
apseoft
heSomal
ist
atei
n1991,
buti
thasy
ett
oobt
ain
i
nter
nat
ionalr
ecogni
ti
onf
ori
tssov
erei
gnt
y,wer
einst
ant
lypl
ungedi
ntot
hear
duous
pr
ocessofst
atebui
ldi
ng.Somal
i
ahasembar
kedont
her
esusci
tat
ionoft
hest
ate
f
oll
owi
ngt
heendofi
tsl
ongt
ransi
ti
onalper
iodi
nAugust2012.Thest
ate-
bui
l
ding
pr
ocesst
her
eal
soi
nvol
vesdet
ermi
ningi
tsr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thSomal
i
land.Meanwhi
l
e

1
Sudan,
fol
l
owi
ngt
hesecessi
onofSout
hSudan,
isal
soengagedi
nst
ater
econst
ruct
ion.
Ther
uli
ngpar
tyi
nSout
hSudani
sdet
ermi
nedl
ypur
sui
ngauni
tar
yst
ate-
bui
l
dingpr
oject
al
ong t
he l
i
nes ofmoder
nit
y,whi
l
e Somal
i
land combi
nes moder
n and t
radi
ti
onal
i
nst
it
uti
onsandaut
hor
it
ies.Somal
i
aandSudanar
ebot
hpur
sui
ngaf
eder
alsy
stem.

Hor
ncount
ri
esl
i
keSudan,Sout
hSudan,Somal
i
aandSomal
i
landnotonl
yfacet
he
chal
l
engesofst
atebui
l
dingandst
ater
econst
ruct
ionbutmustal
sor
econst
it
utet
hei
r
nat
ional i
dent
it
ies f
oll
owi
ng secessi
on and t
ransi
ti
on. Post
-secessi
on i
dent
it
y
r
econst
it
uti
on i
n bot
h Sudan and Sout
h Sudan needs t
o be gear
ed t
o a new
di
spensat
ionandr
equi
resanewappr
oach.I
nthecaseofSomal
i
a,t
hechal
l
engei
sthe
r
esusci
tat
ionofanat
ionali
dent
it
yint
hepost
-t
ransi
ti
onper
iodwhent
hecount
ryi
s
t
ryi
ngt
ocomposet
hedi
ff
erentuni
tst
hatwi
l
lconst
it
utet
hepost
-t
ransi
ti
onf
eder
alst
ate.
Wi
thr
efer
ence t
o Somal
i
land,t
he concer
nis how nat
ionali
dent
it
y shoul
d be
r
econf
igur
edv
is-
à-v
ist
her
estofSomal
i
a.

Thesecessi
onofSout
hSudandi
dnotr
esul
tinhomogenoussoci
eti
esi
nei
therSudanor
Sout
hSudan.Bot
hcount
ri
esneedt
oreconf
igur
ethei
rnat
ionali
dent
it
iesaccor
dingt
o
t
hesenewr
eal
i
ties.Sout
hSudanr
emai
nsamul
ti
ethni
c,mul
ti
rel
i
giousandmul
ti
li
ngual
soci
ety
.Thesamei
str
ueofSudanf
oll
owi
ngt
hesepar
ati
onofSout
hSudan.Thi
s
soci
etal
set
ti
ngposesachal
l
enget
onat
ional
ident
it
yreconf
igur
ati
on.

Somal
i
aiswi
del
yper
cei
vedt
obeet
hni
cal
l
yhomogenous.Howev
er,
ithasgonet
hrough
av
erydest
ruct
ivepr
ocesst
hatr
efl
ect
sthecont
est
ednat
ureofnat
ionali
dent
it
yint
hat
t
orment
edcount
ry.Bey
ondanydoubti
tdemonst
rat
esnat
ionali
dent
it
yasapol
i
tical
i
ssue,
transcendi
nget
hni
chomogenei
tyandcul
tur
alst
ri
ngency
.

Somal
ia
Thecl
anf
act
ori
nSomal
ipol
it
ics
Cl
anpol
i
ticaldi
scour
sei
satt
hecent
eroft
hepol
i
ticsofSomal
i
a.Cl
anr
ival
ryand
cooper
ati
oni
spar
tof‘
tr
adi
ti
on’i
nSomal
i
a,par
ti
cul
arl
yor
alt
radi
ti
on.Thedi
scour
seof
cl
ani
swel
lpr
eser
vedi
nor
alpoet
ryandgeneal
ogi
calmemor
y,andi
sreadi
l
yact
ivat
ed

2
whenneedbe.Cl
ansorgeneal
ogi
caldescentgr
oups,
are‘
notonl
ygoodt
ofi
ghtwi
th(
or
pl
aypol
i
ticsordobusi
nesswi
th)
,butgoodt
othi
nkwi
th’
.Whenev
ert
her
ehasbeenan
at
tempt
—ei
therf
rom Somal
i
sorf
rom anout
sider—t
oreconci
l
ether
ivalsi
des,i
tfai
l
s
duet
othei
nher
entdy
nami
sm oft
heSomal
icl
ansy
stem t
hatpr
ovi
desal
ter
nat
ive
l
eader
shi
psandopposi
ti
onal
fact
ions.

Tr
adi
ti
onalSomal
ipol
i
ticswasgov
ernedbyt
wodi
alect
ical
l
yrel
atedpr
inci
ples:ki
nshi
p
andsoci
alcont
ract(
toli
yoxeer
).Theki
nshi
psy
stem i
sbasedonbl
oodr
elat
ion,butt
he
t
iest
hatbi
ndbl
oodr
elat
ivesar
egr
oundedonsoci
alcont
ract–onapubl
i
csy
stem of
r
ulespubl
i
clynegot
iat
ed.Wi
thoutanunder
standi
ngoft
het
wopi
l
lar
sSomal
isoci
ety
,iti
s
i
mpossi
blet
o gr
asp t
hef
orm and cont
entofSomal
ipol
i
tics.Cl
anshi
pist
hef
ir
st
pr
inci
pleofSomal
ipol
i
tics.Howev
er,t
hesecondpr
inci
ple– t
hesoci
alcont
ract– i
s
equal
l
yimpor
tant
,becausei
test
abl
i
shest
her
ulesofcl
anshi
p.

Somal
i
sar
eroughl
ydi
vi
dedi
nfi
vel
argef
ami
l
ycl
ans:t
heDi
rar
emai
nlypr
esenti
nthe
west
ernpar
tofSomal
i
landandi
nthesout
her
npar
tofSomal
i
a;t
heI
saaqar
emai
nly
pr
esenti
nthemi
ddl
epar
tofSomal
i
land;
theDar
oodar
emai
nlyset
tl
edi
nPunt
land,
int
he
east
ernpar
tofSomal
i
landandi
nthesout
her
nmostpar
tofSomal
i
a;t
heHawi
year
e
mai
nlypr
esenti
ncent
ralSomal
i
a;t
heRahanwey
n,somet
imescal
l
edt
heDi
gil
-Mi
ri
fl
e
gr
oup,
aremai
nlypr
esentbet
weent
heJubbaandt
heShabel
l
eri
ver
s.

Taki
ngt
heexampl
eoft
hecur
rentar
rangement
,domi
nantcl
anshav
esof
armai
ntai
ned
an‘
art
if
ici
al’
bal
ancei
nter
msofpol
it
icalpoweri
ntheFeder
alSt
ateofSomal
i
a,wi
tht
he
pr
esi
dency and pr
emi
ershi
p al
ter
nat
ing bet
ween t
he Hawi
ye and t
he Dar
ood,t
he
speaker
shi
poft
hepar
li
amentassi
gnedt
otheRahanwey
nandt
hesupr
emecour
ttot
he
Di
r.Thef
eder
almemberst
ates’admi
nist
rat
ionsf
unct
ion,i
ngener
al,wi
thcl
ear
ercl
an
af
fi
li
ati
on,wi
thal
lmai
npowerf
unct
ionsgat
her
edi
nthehandsoft
hel
ocal
l
ydomi
nant
cl
ans.

Themosti
mpor
tantl
evelofsol
i
dar
it
yinSomal
isoci
ety
,thej
i
li
b,doesnotr
efert
oa
par
ti
cul
arnumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
soral
eveli
nthegeneal
ogi
calt
reebutr
athert
othegr
oup

3
bel
owwhi
cht
hecommuni
tyassumest
hepay
mentof‘
thebl
oodpr
i di
ce’( ya)
.Int
heor
y,
i
nsi hej
det i
li
b,t
hecommuni
tymusthel
pindi
vi
dual
sincaseofsmal
l
erorl
argerpr
obl
ems,
r
eachi
ngasf
arast
hemut
il
ati
onort
hemur
derofsomeonef
rom anot
hercl
an(
blood
pr
ice)
.

Ar
rangement
scanal
sobemadebet
weencl
ansf
orpr
otect
ionout
sidet
hecl
an.These
agr
eement
sar
eof
tenf
orapr
eci
sedur
ati
onandspeci
fyt
heki
ndofpr
otect
ion,t
he
meansofr
esol
uti
onofconf
li
cts,mar
ri
ager
ules,et
c.Ther
ear
eal
sobi
ndsofpr
otect
ion
andsol
i
dar
it
ywi
thoutdur
ati
onoraspeci
fi
cagr
eement
.Fori ance,agaashaanbuur
nst
(
mil
i
tar
yal
l
iance)i
ntegr
atesoneorsev
eral
clansorpar
tsoft
heset
owagewar
.

Cl
ansof
tencompet
eagai
nsteachot
her
,aswel
lasagai
nstot
heract
ors,
li
ket
hecur
rent
f
eder
algov
ernment
,forpol
i
tical
,resour
ceandt
err
it
ori
alcont
rol
,whi
l
eresor
ti
ngt
oa
sy
stem ofi
nst
rument
alal
l
iances.Cl
anmi
l
iti
asar
eal
soi
mpor
tantact
orsofpol
i
ticall
i
fe
acr
ossSomal
i
a.

Somal
iadur
ingCol
oni
zat
ion

TheSomal
ipeopl
ewer
eli
vi
ngundert
her
uleoft
hreef
orei
gnpower
s:t
heBr
it
ish(
innor
th
cent
ral
Somal
i
aandi
nnor
theastKeny
a),
theI
tal
i
ans(
insout
her
nSomal
i
a),
theFr
ench(
in
t
henor
thwest
,inwhati
snowDj
i
bout
i)
.

Towar
dtheendoft
he19t
hcent
ury
,Somal
i
atookpar
tinagener
alMusl
i
mreact
ioni
n
Nor
thAf
ri
caagai
nstcol
oni
ali
sm.I
n1899,Mohammedi
bnAbdul
l
ahHassan,cal
l
edt
he
"
MadMul
l
ah"byt
heBr
it
ishandknownas"
theSay
yid"bySomal
i
s,l
auncheda20-
year
r
esi
stanceagai
nstcol
oni
aloccupat
ion.Hi
smov
ementcont
rol
l
edal
argepar
tofi
nland
Br
it
ishSomal
i
landandi
nit
ial
l
yenj
oyedst
rongsuppor
tamongSomal
i
sint
heOgadenand
I
tal
i
anSomal
i
a.TheSay
yid'
sabi
l
iti
esasapoetandor
ator
,hi
ghl
yval
uedski
l
lsamong
Somal
i
s,wonhi
m manyf
oll
ower
s,andmuchofhi
ssuccesswasi
ncommandi
ngt
rans-
cl
anl
oyal
ty.Al
thoughul
ti
mat
elyhef
ail
edt
omai
ntai
nuni
ty,t
heSay
yidi
snonet
hel
ess
v
iewedasoneoft
hef
ounder
sofSomal
inat
ionali
dent
it
y,t
heuni
fi
cat
ionofSomal
i
sint
o
onest
ate:
whatcamet
obeknownasgr
eat
erSomal
i
apr
oject
.

4
Thet
wodecadesbet
ween1900and1920wer
eaper
iodofcol
oni
alconsol
i
dat
ion.
Howev
er,oft
hecol
oni
alpower
sthathaddi
vi
dedt
heSomal
i
s,onl
yIt
alydev
elopeda
compr
ehensi
veadmi
nist
rat
ivepl
anf
ori
tscol
ony
.TheI
tal
i
ansi
ntendedt
opl
antacol
ony
ofset
tl
ersandcommer
cialent
repr
eneur
sint
her
egi
onbet
weent
heShebel
l
eandJubba
r
iver
sinsout
her
nSomal
i
a.Themot
ivat
ionwast
hreef
old:t
o"r
eli
evepopul
ati
onpr
essur
e
athome,
"toof
fert
he"
civ
il
izi
ngRomanmi
ssi
on"t
otheSomal
i
s,andt
oincr
easeI
tal
i
an
pr
est
ige t
hrough ov
erseas col
oni
zat
ion. Lar
ge-
scal
e dev
elopment pr
oject
s wer
e
l
aunched,
incl
udi
ngasy
stem ofpl
ant
ati
onsonwhi
chci
tr
usf
rui
ts,
pri
mar
il
ybananas,
and
sugar
cane,
wasgr
own.

I
n cont
rastt
otheI
tal
i
an col
ony
,Br
it
ish Somal
i
land st
ayed a negl
ect
ed backwat
er.
Daunt
edbyt
hedi
ver
sionofsubst
ant
ialdev
elopmentf
undst
othesuppr
essi
onoft
he
der
vishi
nsur
rect
ionandbyt
heunr
ulychar
act
eroft
heanar
chi
cSomal
ipast
oral
i
sts,
Br
it
ainusedi
tscol
onyasl
i
ttl
emor
ethanasuppl
i
erofmeatpr
oduct
stoAden.Thi
s
pol
i
cyhadat
ragi
cef
fectont
hef
utur
euni
tyandst
abi
l
ityofi
ndependentSomal
i
a.

Ther
ival
rybet
weenal
l
iedandAxi
spower
sinEur
opei
nthe1930sand1940swasal
so
pl
ayedouti
ntheHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Ear
lyi
n1940,
Ital
yinv
adedBr
it
ishSomal
i
landandt
hrew
outt
heBr
it
ish.A y
earl
ater
,theBr
it
ish r
etookt
hepr
otect
orat
e,conquer
ing I
tal
i
an
Somal
i
aandt
heOgadenaswel
l
,andpl
acedal
lthr
eeunderBr
it
ishadmi
nist
rat
ion.Br
it
ain
admi
nist
eredt
heent
ir
ear
eaf
ornear
lyadecade.Thi
sper
iodwi
tnessedagr
owi
ng
nat
ionalawar
eness,asmor
eandmor
eSomal
i
squest
ionedt
hel
egi
ti
macyofcol
oni
al
r
uleandcal
l
edf
orpol
i
tical
uni
ty.

Dur
ingt
heSecondWor
ldWar
,thedef
eatofI
tal
yputt
hef
utur
eofi
tscol
oni
alhol
dingsi
n
Af
ri
ca-Er
it
rea,
Somal
i
a,andLi
byaont
heagendaofpostwarset
tl
ement
.TheUSandt
he
Sov
ietUni
onsoughtt
odi
smant
let
hemonopol
yoft
heEur
opeanpower
senj
oyedi
nthe
t
hir
dwor
ldbywayofal
l
owi
ngt
hei
ndi
genouspeopl
etogeti
ndependencef
rom di
rect
col
oni
ali
sm.Et
hiopi
aont
heot
herhandl
aidacl
aim onEr
it
reaandOgaden.Ont
heot
her
hand,t
hei
ndi
genouspopul
ati
onoft
het
err
it
ori
esconcer
nedexpr
essedt
hei
rdesi
ref
or
i
ndependence.Thi
slat
terv
oice,accor
ding t
o Mar
kaki
s,i
sthe v
oice ofnascent
nat
ional
i
sm i
nthehor
nofAf
ri
ca.

5
Fol
l
owi
ngI
tal
y'
sdef
eat
,theBr
it
ishest
abl
i
shedmi
l
itar
yadmi
nist
rat
ionsi
nwhathadbeen
Br
it
ish Somal
i
land,I
tal
i
an Somal
i
land,and Et
hiopi
an Somal
i
land.Thus,al
lSomal
i
-
i
nhabi
ted t
err
it
ori
es-
-wi
tht
heex
cept
ionofFr
enchSomal
i
land and Keny
a'sNor
ther
n
Fr
ont
ierDi
str
ict(
NFD)
--
wer
efort
hesecondt
imebr
oughtunderasi
ngl
eadmi
nist
rat
ion.
Howev
er,underi
ntense pr
essur
efr
om Hai
l
e Sel
assi
e,Br
it
ain agr
eed t
oret
urnt
he
Ogadent
oEt
hiopi
anj
uri
sdi
cti
on.

I
near
ly1943,
Ital
i
answer
eper
mit
tedt
oor
gani
zepol
it
icalassoci
ati
ons.AhostofI
tal
i
an
or
gani
zat
ionsofv
ary
ingi
deol
ogi
esspr
angupt
ochal
l
engeBr
it
ishr
ule,t
ocompet
e
pol
i
tical
l
ywi
thSomal
i
sandAr
abs(
thel
att
erbei
ngpol
i
tical
l
ysi
gni
fi
cantonl
yint
heur
ban
ar
eas,par
ti
cul
arl
ythe t
owns ofMogadi
shu,Mer
ca,and Bar
aawe)
,and t
o agi
tat
e,
somet
imesv
iol
ent
ly,
fort
her
etur
noft
hecol
onyt
oIt
ali
anr
ule.Facedwi
thgr
owi
ngI
tal
i
an
pol
i
ticalpr
essur
e,i
nimi
calt
ocont
inuedBr
it
isht
enur
eandt
oSomal
iaspi
rat
ionsf
or
i
ndependence,t
heSomal
i
sand t
heBr
it
ish camet
o seeeach ot
herasal
l
ies.The
si
tuat
ion pr
ompt
ed Br
it
ish col
oni
alof
fi
cial
sto encour
aget
heSomal
ist
o or
gani
ze
pol
i
tical
l
y;t
her
esul
twast
hef
ir
stmoder
nSomal
ipol
it
icalpar
ty,t
heSomal
iYout
hCl
ub
(
SYC)
,est
abl
i
shedi
nMogadi
shui
n1943.

Toempowert
henew par
ty,t
heBr
it
ishal
l
owedt
hebet
tereducat
edpol
i
ceandci
vi
l
ser
vant
stoj
oini
t,t
husr
elaxi
ngBr
it
ain'
str
adi
ti
onalpol
i
cyofsepar
ati
ngt
heci
vi
lser
vice
f
rom l
eader
shi
p,i
fnotmember
shi
p,i
npol
i
ticalpar
ti
es.TheSYCexpandedr
api
dlyand
boast
ed25,
000car
d-car
ryi
ngmember
sby1946.I
n1947i
trenamedi
tsel
ftheSomal
i
Yout
h League (
SYL)and began t
o open of
fi
ces notonl
yint
he t
wo Br
it
ish-
run
Somal
i
land’
sbutal
soi
nEt
hiopi
a'
sOgadenandi
ntheNor
ther
nFr
ont
ierDi
str
ict(
NFD)of
Keny
a.

TheSYL'
sst
atedobj
ect
iveswer
etouni
fyal
lSomal
iter
ri
tor
ies,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heNFDand
t
heOgaden;t
ocr
eat
eoppor
tuni
ti
esf
oruni
ver
salmoder
neducat
ion;t
odev
elopt
he
Somal
ilanguagebyast
andar
dnat
ionalor
thogr
aphy
;tosaf
eguar
dSomal
iint
erest
s;and
t
oopposet
her
est
orat
ionofI
tal
i
anr
ule.SYLpol
i
cybannedcl
anni
shnesssot
hatt
he
t
hir
teenf
oundi
ngmember
s,al
thoughr
epr
esent
ingf
ourofSomal
i
a'ssi
xmaj
orcl
ans,
r
efusedt
odi
scl
oset
hei
rcl
ani
dent
it
ies.

6
Asecondpol
it
icalbodyspr
angup,
ori
ginal
l
ycal
l
ingi
tsel
fthePat
ri
oti
cBenef
itUni
onbut
l
aterr
enami
ngi
tsel
ftheHi
sbi
aDi
gilMi
ri
fl
e(HDM)
,repr
esent
ingt
het
woi
nter
ri
ver
ine
cl
ansofDi
gil
-Mi
ri
fl
e.TheHDM al
l
egedl
ycooper
atedwi
tht
heI
tal
i
ansandaccept
ed
si
gni
fi
cantI
tal
i
anf
inanci
albacki
ngi
nit
sst
ruggl
eagai
nstt
heSYL.Al
thought
heSYL
enj
oyedconsi
der
abl
epopul
arsuppor
tfr
om nor
ther
ner
s,t
hepr
inci
palpar
ti
esi
nBr
it
ish
Somal
i
landwer
etheSomal
iNat
ionalLeague(
SNL)
,mai
nlyassoci
atedwi
tht
heI
saaq
cl
an-
fami
l
y,and t
he Uni
ted Somal
iPar
ty(
USP)
,whi
ch had t
he suppor
toft
he Di
r
(
Gadabur
siandI
ssa)andDaar
ood(
Dul
bhant
eandWar
sangal
i
)cl
an-
fami
l
ies.

Al
though sout
her
n Somal
i
alegal
l
y was an I
tal
i
an col
ony
,in 1945 t
he Pot
sdam
Conf
erencedeci
dednott
oret
urnt
oIt
alyt
heAf
ri
cant
err
it
oryi
thadsei
zeddur
ingt
hewar
.
Thedi
sposi
ti
onofSomal
i
ather
efor
efel
ltot
heAl
l
iedCounci
lofFor
eignMi
nist
ers,
whi
ch
assi
gnedaf
our
-powercommi
ssi
onconsi
sti
ngofBr
it
ain,Fr
ance,t
heSov
ietUni
on,and
t
heUni
tedSt
atest
odeci
deSomal
i
a'sf
utur
e.TheBr
it
ishsuggest
edt
hatal
ltheSomal
i
s
shoul
dbepl
acedunderasi
ngl
eadmi
nist
rat
ion,pr
efer
abl
yBr
it
ish,butt
heot
herpower
s
accused Br
it
ain ofi
mper
ialpl
ott
ing.I
n Januar
y1948,commi
ssi
on r
epr
esent
ati
ves
ar
ri
vedi
nMogadi
shut
olear
ntheaspi
rat
ionsoft
heSomal
i
s.TheSYLr
equest
edand
obt
ained per
missi
on f
rom t
he mi
l
itar
y admi
nist
rat
ion t
o or
gani
ze a massi
ve
demonst
rat
iont
oshow t
hecommi
ssi
ondel
egat
est
hest
rengt
hofpopul
ardemandf
or
i
ndependence.When t
heSYLhel
dit
sral
l
y,acount
erdemonst
rat
ion l
ed byI
tal
i
an
el
ement
scameoutt
ovoi
cepr
o-I
tal
iansent
imentandt
oat
temptt
odi
scr
edi
ttheSYL
bef
oret
hecommi
ssi
on.Despi
tet
heconf
usi
on,t
hecommi
ssi
onpr
oceededwi
thi
ts
hear
ingsandseemedf
avor
abl
yimpr
essedbyt
hepr
oposalt
heSYLpr
esent
ed:t
oreuni
te
al
lSomal
is and t
o pl
ace Somal
ia undera t
en-
yeart
rust
eeshi
p ov
erseen by an
i
nter
nat
ionalbodyt
hatwoul
dleadt
hecount
ryt
oindependence.Thecommi
ssi
onhear
d
t
woot
herpl
ans.Onewasof
fer
edbyt
heHDM,
whi
chdepar
tedf
rom i
tspr
o-I
tal
i
anst
ance
t
opr
esentanagendasi
mil
art
othatoft
heSYL,butwhi
chi
ncl
udedar
equestt
hatt
he
t
rust
eeshi
pper
iodl
astt
hir
tyy
ear
s.Theot
herwasputf
orwar
dbyacombi
nat
ionof
I
tal
i
anandSomal
igr
oupspet
it
ioni
ngf
ort
her
etur
nofI
tal
ianr
ule.

Thecommi
ssi
onr
ecommendedapl
ansi
mil
art
othatoft
heSYL,
butt
heAl
l
iedCounci
lof

7
For
eignMi
nist
ers,undert
hei
nfl
uenceofconf
li
cti
ngdi
plomat
ici
nter
est
s,f
ail
edt
oreach
consensusont
hewayt
ogui
det
hecount
ryt
oindependence.Fr
ancef
avor
edt
hecol
ony
's
r
etur
ntoI
tal
y;Br
it
ainf
avor
edaf
ormul
amuchl
i
ket
hatoft
heSYL,butt
heBr
it
ishpl
an
wasf
rust
rat
edbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesandt
heSov
ietUni
on,whi
chaccusedBr
it
ainof
seeki
ngi
mper
ialgai
nsatt
heex
penseofEt
hiopi
anandI
tal
i
ani
nter
est
s.Br
it
ainwas
unwi
l
li
ngt
oquar
relwi
thi
tser
stwhi
l
eal
l
iesov
erSomal
iwel
l
-bei
ngandt
heSYLpl
anwas
wi
thdr
awn.Meanwhi
l
e,Et
hiopi
ast
rongl
ypr
essur
edBr
it
aint
hrought
heUni
tedSt
ates,
whi
chwasanxi
oust
oaccommodat
eEmper
orHai
l
eSel
assi
einr
etur
nforhi
spr
omi
set
o
of
fert
heUni
tedSt
atesami
l
itar
ybasei
nEt
hiopi
a.Fori
tspar
t,t
heSov
ietUni
onpr
efer
red
t
orei
nst
ateI
tal
i
ant
enur
e,mai
nlybecauseoft
hegr
owi
ngcommuni
sti
nfl
uenceonI
tal
i
an
domest
icpol
i
tics.UnderUni
tedSt
atesandSov
ieti
nfl
uence,Br
it
ainr
etur
nedt
heOgaden
t
oEt
hiopi
ain1948.

Meanwhi
l
e,because of di
sagr
eement
s among commi
ssi
on member
s ov
er t
he
di
sposi
ti
onofSomal
i
a,t
heAl
l
iedCounci
lofFor
eignMi
nist
ersr
efer
redt
hemat
tert
othe
Uni
tedNat
ions(
UN)Gener
alAssembl
y.I
nNov
ember1949,t
heGener
alAssembl
yvot
ed
t
omakesout
her
nSomal
i
aat
rustt
err
it
oryt
obepl
acedunderI
tal
i
ancont
rol
fort
eny
ear
s,
f
oll
owi
ngwhi
chi
twoul
dbecomei
ndependent
.TheGener
alAssembl
yst
ipul
atedt
hat
undernoci
rcumst
anceshoul
dIt
ali
anr
uleov
ert
hecol
onyext
endbey
ond1960.The
Gener
alAssembl
yseemst
ohav
ebeenper
suadedbyt
hear
gumentt
hatI
tal
y,becauseof
i
tsexper
ienceandeconomi
cint
erest
s,wasbestsui
tedt
oadmi
nist
ersout
her
nSomal
i
a.
Thus,t
heSYL'
svehementopposi
ti
ont
other
e-i
mposi
ti
onofI
tal
i
anr
ulewasi
gnor
edat
t
heUN.

Post
-i
ndependenceSomal
ia
I
ndependentSomal
ia(
1960-
1969)
:Thepar
li
ament
aryr
egi
me
I
n1960,
Ital
i
anSomal
i
landandBr
it
ishSomal
i
landwer
emer
gedi
ntoasi
ngl
eindependent
st
ate,t
heSomal
iRepubl
i
c.Unl
i
kemuchofAf
ri
ca,t
hepost
col
oni
alst
atewasbl
essedby
cul
tur
alhomogenei
ty,ar
arecoi
nci
dencebet
weencul
tur
alandpol
i
ticalboundar
iesi
n
post
col
oni
alAf
ri
ca.Ni
net
y-ni
neper
centt
hepopul
ati
onoft
henew st
atewer
eet
hni
c
Somal
i
s.Howev
er,manySomal
i
swer
elef
tout
sidet
het
err
it
oryoft
heSomal
irepubl
i
c.

8
Hence,ati
ndependenceSomal
inat
ional
i
sm f
acednopr
obl
em ofi
ntegr
ati
on,butoneof
uni
fi
cat
ionoft
hedi
smember
ednat
iont
hrought
hei
ncor
por
ati
onofsucht
err
it
ori
es.
Whatcamet
obeknownasGr
eat
erSomal
i
a,t
heuni
fi
cat
ionofal
lSomal
ii
nhabi
tedar
eas
i
ntoasi
ngl
est
ate,becamet
hef
ir
stagenda.Themosti
mpor
tantpol
i
ticali
ssuei
npost
i
ndependenceSomal
ipol
i
ticswast
heuni
fi
cat
ionofal
lar
easpopul
atedbySomal
i
sint
o
one count
ry-
-a concepti
dent
if
ied as pan-
Somal
i
sm,orGr
eat
erSomal
i
a.Pol
i
tici
ans
assumedt
hatt
hisi
ssuedomi
nat
edpopul
aropi
nionandt
hatanygov
ernmentwoul
dfal
l
i
fitdi
dnotdemonst
rat
eami
l
itantat
ti
tudet
owar
dnei
ghbor
ingcount
ri
esoccupy
ing
Somal
iter
ri
tor
y.

Pr
eoccupat
ionwi
thGr
eat
erSomal
i
ashapedt
hechar
act
eroft
hecount
ry'
snewl
yfor
med
i
nst
it
uti
onsandl
edt
othebui
l
d-upoft
heSomal
imi
l
itar
yandul
ti
mat
elyt
othewarwi
th
Et
hiopi
aand f
ight
ing i
ntheNFD i
n Keny
a.Byl
aw,t
heexactsi
zeoft
heNat
ional
Assembl
ywasnotest
abl
i
shedi
nor
dert
ofaci
l
itat
ethei
ncl
usi
onofr
epr
esent
ati
vesof
t
hecont
est
edar
easaf
teruni
fi
cat
ion.Thenat
ionalf
lagf
eat
uredaf
ive-
poi
ntedst
ar
whosepoi
ntsr
epr
esent
edt
hosear
eascl
aimedaspar
toft
heSomal
inat
ion-
-t
hef
ormer
I
tal
i
anandBr
it
isht
err
it
ori
es,t
heOgaden,Dj
i
bout
i,andt
heNFD.Mor
eov
er,t
hepr
eambl
e
t
otheconst
it
uti
onappr
ovedi
n1961i
ncl
udedt
hest
atement
,"TheSomal
iRepubl
i
c
pr
omot
esbyl
egal
andpeacef
ulmeans,
theuni
onoft
het
err
it
ori
es.
"Theconst
it
uti
onal
so
pr
ovi
dedt
hatal
let
hni
cSomal
i
s,nomat
terwher
etheyr
esi
ded,wer
eci
ti
zensoft
he
r
epubl
i
c.TheSomal
i
sdi
dnotcl
aim sov
erei
gnt
yov
eradj
acentt
err
it
ori
es,butr
ather
demandedt
hatSomal
i
sli
vi
ngi
nthem begr
ant
edt
her
ightt
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.Somal
i
l
eader
sasser
tedt
hatt
heywoul
dbesat
isf
iedonl
ywhent
hei
rfel
l
owSomal
i
sout
sidet
he
r
epubl
i
chadt
heoppor
tuni
tyt
odeci
def
ort
hemsel
veswhatt
hei
rst
atuswoul
dbe.

Dur
ing t
he ni
ne-
year per
iod of par
li
ament
ary democr
acy t
hat f
oll
owed Somal
i
i
ndependence,f
reedom ofexpr
essi
onwaswi
del
yregar
dedasbei
ngder
ivedf
rom t
he
t
radi
ti
onalr
ightofev
erymant
obehear
d.Thenat
ionali
dealpr
ofessedbySomal
i
swas
oneofpol
i
ticalandl
egalequal
i
tyi
nwhi
chhi
stor
icalSomal
ival
uesandacqui
redWest
ern
pr
act
icesappear
edt
ocoi
nci
de.Pol
i
ticswasv
iewedasar
eal
m notl
i
mit
edt
oone
pr
ofessi
on,cl
an,orcl
ass,butopent
oal
lmal
emember
sofsoci
ety
.Ther
oleofwomen,

9
howev
er,wasmor
eli
mit
ed.Womenhadv
otedi
nIt
ali
anSomal
i
landsi
ncet
hemuni
cipal
el
ect
ionsi
n1958.I
nMay1963,byanassembl
ymar
ginof52t
o42,suf
fragewas
ext
endedt
owomeni
nfor
merBr
it
ishSomal
i
landaswel
l
.Pol
i
ticswasatoncet
he
Somal
i
s'mostpr
act
icedar
tandf
avor
it
espor
t.Themostdesi
redpossessi
onofmost
nomadswasar
adi
o,whi
chwasusedt
okeepi
nfor
medonpol
i
tical
news.

Despi
tet
he benef
it
s accr
uing f
rom a homogeneous,t
he Somal
ist
ater
emai
ned
v
ulner
abl
etost
rongcent
ri
fugalpr
essur
es,
whi
chunder
minedt
hepol
i
ticalef
fect
iveness
oft
henat
ional
i
str
egi
me.Onesuchcent
ri
fugalt
endencyst
em f
rom t
hepr
edomi
nant
ly
past
oralsoci
etyt
hatdi
d notpr
ovi
de a sol
i
d base f
ort
he post
col
oni
alst
ate.The
endur
anceoft
hepast
oralmodeofpr
oduct
ioni
nhi
bit
edi
ntegr
ati
onast
hef
rameof
r
efer
encef
ort
hepast
oralsoci
alandeconomi
cor
gani
zat
ionr
emai
nedt
heki
nshi
pand
t
he cl
an sy
stem. Pol
i
ticalcommi
tmentt
othe st
ate was medi
ated bysect
ional
consi
der
ati
onf
ramedbyki
nshi
pandcl
ani
nter
est
s.Thel
ogi
cofpol
i
ticsmedi
ated
t
hroughcl
anandki
nshi
pint
eresthasbecomet
hedomi
nantmodeoft
hepr
act
iceof
pol
i
ticsi
nSomal
i
a.Thi
scont
radi
ctedt
hecent
ral
izat
iondesi
ret
henat
ional
ist
ssoughtt
o
achi
eveandhencel
i
ket
hei
rpeer
sel
sewher
einAf
ri
cat
heSomal
inat
ional
i
stsbecame
i
deol
ogi
cal
l
yhost
il
etot
hepast
oralpol
i
ticalpr
act
ice.Duet
othecent
ral
i
zat
ionder
iveof
t
henat
ional
i
stgov
ernmentpast
oral
ism wasnegl
ect
edi
ndev
elopmentpol
icy
.Thest
ate
opt
edf
ori
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionandapat
ter
nofdev
elopmentt
hatf
oll
owedt
hecol
oni
alst
yle
ofcommer
cialcul
ti
vat
ionf
orexpor
tthatsuppor
tsanur
banandsedent
arypopul
ati
on.
Consequent
ly,t
he r
egi
onali
nequal
it
ythatr
esul
ted f
rom t
he di
ff
erent
iali
mpactof
col
oni
ali
sm haswi
dened.Hence,t
hebenef
itofdev
elopmentwasl
opsi
dedt
othesout
h
att
heexpenseoft
henor
thandt
heur
bansect
oratt
heexpenseoft
her
uralpast
oral
communi
ty.Howev
er,t
hedemandf
orl
i
vest
ocki
ntheoi
l
-ri
chMi
ddl
eEast
erncount
ies
pav
edt
hewayf
ornewi
nvest
menti
nthel
i
vest
ocksect
or,
whi
chi
ntegr
atedt
hel
i
vest
ock
pr
oducer
soft
henor
thi
ntot
heexpandi
ngeconomy
.

Second,t
hedi
ff
erentexper
ienceoft
hesout
handt
henor
thdur
ingcol
oni
ali
sm pr
oved
di
ff
icul
ttor
econci
l
eint
hewakeoft
heeconomi
candadmi
nist
rat
ivei
ntegr
ati
onoft
he
t
wor
egi
onsi
nanov
erar
chi
ngpol
i
ticalf
ramewor
k.Al
thoughuni
fi
edasasi
ngl
enat
ionat

10
i
ndependence,t
hesout
handt
henor
thwer
e,f
rom ani
nst
it
uti
onalper
spect
ive,t
wo
separ
atecount
ri
es.I
tal
yandBr
it
ainhadl
eftt
het
wowi
thsepar
ateadmi
nist
rat
ive,l
egal
,
and educat
ion sy
stems i
n whi
ch af
fai
rs wer
e conduct
ed accor
ding t
o di
ff
erent
pr
ocedur
esandi
ndi
ff
erentl
anguages.Pol
i
ce,t
axes,andt
heexchanger
atesoft
hei
r
r
espect
ivecur
renci
esal
sodi
ff
ered.Thei
reducat
edel
it
eshaddi
ver
genti
nter
est
s,and
economi
ccont
act
sbet
weent
het
wor
egi
onswer
evi
rt
ual
l
ynonexi
stent
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
many sout
her
ner
s bel
i
eved t
hat
,because ofexper
ience gai
ned undert
he I
tal
i
an
t
rust
eeshi
p,t
hei
rswast
hebet
terpr
epar
edoft
het
wor
egi
onsf
orsel
f-
gov
ernment
.
Nor
ther
npol
i
tical
,admi
nist
rat
ive,
andcommer
cialel
i
teswer
erel
uct
antt
orecogni
zet
hat
t
heynowhadt
odeal
wit
hMogadi
shu.

I
npr
esi
dent
ialel
ect
ionshel
d,i
ssueofmoder
ati
onv
ersusmi
li
tancyont
hepan-
Somal
i
quest
ionwascr
it
ical
.Int
hepr
ocess,t
her
ewer
eat
tempt
sregi
onaldét
ent
eresul
tedi
n
i
mpr
ovedr
elat
ionswi
thEt
hiopi
aandKeny
a.Howev
er,t
heeconomi
ccondi
ti
onsandt
he
nat
ional
i
stsaccusat
ionoft
hegov
ernment
’sf
ail
uret
opr
omot
ethecauseofGr
eat
er
Somal
i
a,amongot
her
sledt
oacoup.

The1969Mi
li
tar
yCoup:
Towar
dSoci
ali
sm
Ar
mycommanderMaj
orGener
alMahammadSi
adBar
reassumedl
eader
shi
poft
he
of
fi
cer
swhodeposedt
heci
vi
li
angov
ernment
.Thenew gov
erni
ngbody
,theSupr
eme
Rev
olut
ionar
yCounci
l(SRC)
,inst
all
edSi
adBar
reasi
tspr
esi
dent
.TheSRCar
rest
edand
det
ainedatt
hepr
esi
dent
ialpal
acel
eadi
ngmember
soft
heci
vi
li
angov
erment
,incl
udi
ng
I
gaal
.TheSRCbannedpol
i
tical
par
ti
es,
abol
i
shedt
heNat
ional
Assembl
y,andsuspended
t
he const
it
uti
on.The new r
egi
me'
s goal
sincl
uded an end t
o"t
ri
bal
i
sm,nepot
ism,
cor
rupt
ion,andmi
srul
e."Exi
sti
ngt
reat
ieswer
etobehonor
ed,butnat
ionall
i
ber
ati
on
mov
ement
sandSomal
iuni
fi
cat
ionwer
etobesuppor
ted.Thecount
rywasr
enamedt
he
Somal
iDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
c.

The r
ise oft
he mi
l
itar
yto pol
i
ticalpr
omi
nence,t
her
efor
e was,was pav
ed byt
he
nat
ional
i
st’
saspi
rat
ionsoft
heuni
fi
cat
ionofSomal
i
a.TheSomal
ist
atewasbor
nwi
tha

11
r
eady
-madecausef
orconf
li
ctwi
thal
lit
snei
ghbor
sasi
tref
usedt
orecogni
zet
he
col
oni
alboar
der
sthatpar
ti
ti
onedt
heSomal
inat
ion,whi
l
eit
snei
ghbor
ssuppor
tedt
he
consensushel
dbyAf
ri
canst
atest
o mai
ntai
nthest
atus-
quo.Despi
tet
hepeacef
ul
mechani
smspr
ofessedi
ntheconst
it
uti
oni
tist
ruet
hatf
orcecoul
donl
yachi
evet
he
pr
ojectofgr
eat
erSomal
i
a

“
Sci
ent
if
icSoci
ali
sm”
:domest
icpol
ici
esunderSi
adBar
re

Themi
l
itar
ycoupt
hatendedt
hedemocr
ati
cregi
mer
etr
oact
ivel
ydef
inedi
tsact
ionasa
Mar
xistr
evol
uti
onnotonl
yinst
it
uti
nganewpol
i
ticalor
derbutal
sopr
oposi
ngt
her
adi
cal
t
ransf
ormat
ion ofSomal
isoci
etyt
hrough t
he appl
i
cat
ion of"
sci
ent
if
ic soci
ali
sm.
"
Despi
tet
hepr
esenceofSov
ietadv
iser
swi
tht
hear
medf
orces,noev
idencei
ndi
cat
ed
t
hatt
hecoupwasSov
iet
-i
nspi
red.TheSupr
emeRev
olut
ionar
yCounci
l(SRC)
,whi
chwas
sy
nony
mouswi
tht
henew gov
ernment
,reor
gani
zedt
hecount
ry'
spol
i
ticalandl
egal
i
nst
it
uti
ons,f
ormul
atedagui
dingi
deol
ogybasedont
heQur
anaswel
lasonMar
x,and
pur
gedci
vi
li
anof
fi
cial
swhower
enotsuscept
ibl
eto"
reeducat
ion.
"Thei
nfl
uenceof
l
i
neagegr
oupsatal
llev
elsandel
it
ism i
npubl
icl
if
ebasedoncl
anaf
fi
li
ati
onwer
e
t
arget
ed f
orer
adi
cat
ion.Ev
ent
ual
l
y,Si
ad Bar
re emer
ged as Somal
i
a's st
rongman,
spokesper
sonf
ori
tsr
evol
uti
on,
andl
eaderofi
tsgov
ernment
.In1971,
heannouncedt
he
r
egi
me'
sint
ent
iont
ophaseoutmi
l
itar
yrul
eaf
tert
heest
abl
i
shmentofapol
i
ticalpar
ty
whosecent
ralcommi
tt
eeul
ti
mat
elywoul
dsuper
sedet
heSRC)asapol
i
cy-anddeci
sion-
maki
ngbody
.

TheSRCr
efor
medl
ocalgov
ernment
,br
eaki
ngupt
heol
dregi
onsi
ntosmal
leruni
tsas
par
tofal
ong-
rangedecent
ral
i
zat
ionpr
ogr
am i
ntendedt
odest
royt
hei
nfl
uenceoft
he
t
radi
ti
onalcl
anassembl
i
esand,i
nthegov
ernment
'swor
ds,t
obr
inggov
ernment"
closer
t
othepeopl
e."Localcounci
l
s,composedofmi
l
itar
yadmi
nist
rat
orsandr
epr
esent
ati
ves
appoi
ntedbyt
heSRC,wer
eest
abl
i
shedundert
heMi
nist
ryofI
nter
ioratt
her
egi
onal
,
di
str
ict
,andv
il
lagel
evel
stoadv
iset
hegov
ernmentonl
ocalcondi
ti
onsandt
ospeedup
i
tsdi
rect
ives.

TheSRCt
ooki
tst
oughestpol
it
icalst
ancei
nthecampai
gnt
obr
eakdownt
hesol
idar
it
y

12
oft
hel
ineagegr
oups.Tr
ibal
i
sm wascondemnedast
hemostser
iousi
mpedi
mentt
o
nat
ionaluni
ty.Si
ad Bar
re denounced t
ri
bal
i
sm i
n a wi
dercont
extas a "
disease"
obst
ruct
ingdev
elopmentnotonl
yinSomal
i
a,butal
sot
hroughoutt
heThi
rdWor
ld.

Si
adBar
repr
ocl
aimedt
hatSomal
i
awasasoci
ali
stst
ate,despi
tet
hef
actt
hatt
he
count
ryhadnohi
stor
yofcl
assconf
li
cti
ntheMar
xistsense.Forpur
posesofMar
xist
anal
ysi
s,t
her
efor
e,t
ri
bal
ism wasequat
edwi
thcl
assi
nasoci
etyst
ruggl
i
ngt
oli
ber
ate
i
tsel
ffr
om di
sti
nct
ionsi
mposedbyl
i
neagegr
oupaf
fi
li
ati
on.Att
het
ime,Si
adBar
re
expl
ainedt
hatt
heof
fi
ciali
deol
ogyconsi
stedoft
hreeel
ement
s:hi
sownconcept
ionof
communi
tydev
elopmentbasedont
hepr
inci
pleofsel
f-
rel
i
ance,af
orm ofsoci
ali
sm
based on Mar
xistpr
inci
ples,and I
slam.These wer
e subsumed under"
sci
ent
if
ic
soci
ali
sm,
"al
thoughsuchadef
ini
ti
onwasatv
ari
ancewi
tht
heSov
ietandChi
nese
model
stowhi
chr
efer
encewasf
requent
lymade.

Opposi
ti
ont
oSi
adBar
re'
sRegi
me

Fr
om 1969unt
ilt
hemi
d-1970s,Si
adBar
re'
saut
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
meenj
oyedadegr
eeof
popul
arsuppor
t,l
argel
ybecausei
tact
edwi
thadeci
siv
enessnotdi
spl
ayedbyt
heci
vi
li
an
gov
ernment
soft
he1960s.Howev
er,Somal
i
a'sdef
eati
ntheOgadenWarsi
gnal
edt
he
begi
nni
ngofadecl
i
nei
nSi
adBar
re'
spopul
ari
tyt
hatcul
minat
edi
nhi
sJanuar
y1991f
all
f
rom power
.

Bef
oret
hewar
,manySomal
i
shadcr
it
ici
zedSi
adBar
ref
ornott
ryi
ngt
orei
ncor
por
atet
he
Ogadeni
ntoSomal
i
aimmedi
atel
yaf
terEt
hiopi
anemper
orHai
l
eSel
assi
e'
sdeat
hin1975.
Thegov
ernmentwasunabl
etost
if
let
hiscr
it
ici
sm l
argel
ybecauset
heSomal
icl
aimt
o
t
he Ogaden had ov
erwhel
ming nat
ionalsuppor
t.Howev
er,Somal
i
a's def
eati
nthe
OgadenWarr
efocusedcr
it
ici
sm onSi
adBar
re.

Despi
tet
her
evol
uti
onar
yregi
me'
sint
ent
iont
ocr
usht
hecl
anpol
i
tics,t
hegov
ernment
wascommonl
yref
err
edt
obyt
hecodenameMOD.Thi
sacr
ony
m st
oodf
orMar
eehaan
(
SiadBar
re'
scl
an)
,Ogaaden(
thecl
anofSi
adBar
re'
smot
her
),andDul
bhant
e(t
hecl
anof
Si
adBar
reson-
in-
law)
.

13
Themostsi
gni
fi
cantpol
i
ticalconsequenceofSi
adBar
re'
stwent
y-one-
yearr
ulewasan
i
ntensi
fi
ed i
dent
if
icat
ion wi
th par
ochi
alcl
ans.By1992,t
he mul
ti
pli
cit
yofpol
i
tical
r
ival
ri
esamongt
hecount
ry'
snumer
ouscl
ansser
iousl
yjeopar
dizedSomal
i
a'scont
inued
exi
stenceasauni
fi
edst
ate.Ther
ewasconsi
der
abl
eir
onyi
nthi
ssi
tuat
ionbecauseSi
ad
Bar
re,f
oll
owi
ngt
he1969mi
l
itar
ycoupt
hathadbr
oughthi
mtopower
,hadpr
ocl
aimed
hi
sopposi
ti
ont
ocl
anpol
i
ticsandhadj
ust
if
iedt
hebanni
ngofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esont
he
gr
oundst
hatt
heywer
emer
elypar
ti
sanor
gani
zat
ionst
hati
mpedednat
ionali
ntegr
ati
on.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,
from t
hebegi
nni
ngofhi
srul
eSi
adBar
ref
avor
edt
hel
i
neagesandcl
ansof
hi
sowncl
an-
fami
l
y,t
heDaar
ood.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,hedi
str
ibut
edpol
i
ticalof
fi
cesandt
he
power
sandr
ewar
dsconcomi
tantwi
tht
heseposi
ti
onsdi
spr
opor
ti
onat
elyt
othr
eecl
ans
oft
heDaar
ood:hi
sowncl
an,t
heMar
eehaan;t
hecl
anofhi
sson-
in-
law,t
heDul
bhant
e;
andt
hecl
anofhi
smot
her
,theOgaaden.Theexcl
usi
onofot
hercl
ansf
rom i
mpor
tant
gov
ernmentpost
swasagr
adualpr
ocess,butbyt
hel
ate1970s,t
her
ewasagr
owi
ng
per
cept
ion,atl
eastamongt
hepol
i
ticalel
i
te,t
hatSi
adBar
rewasundul
ypar
ti
alt
owar
d
t
het
hreeDaar
oodcl
anst
owhi
chhehadf
ami
l
yti
es.

Thef
orceddi
ssol
uti
onofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esi
n1969andt
hecont
inui
ngpr
ohi
bit
ionof
pol
i
ticalact
ivi
tyt
endedt
oenhancet
hei
mpor
tanceofcl
ansbecausef
ami
l
ygat
her
ings
r
emai
nedv
irt
ual
l
ytheonl
yregul
arv
enuewher
epol
i
ticscoul
dbedi
scussedf
reel
y.The
cr
eat
ioni
n1976oft
hegov
ernmentsponsor
edSomal
iRev
olut
ionar
ySoci
ali
stPar
ty
(
SRSP)f
ail
edt
ofi
l
lthepol
i
tical
vacuum cr
eat
edbyt
heabsenceofl
egi
ti
mat
epar
ti
es.

I
ssuesofDi
scussi
on:
TheSomal
i
landI
ssues
TheUNI
nter
vent
ion
Ter
ror
ism (
Al-
Shabaab)

Sudan

Sudandur
ingcol
oni
ali
sm:Br
it
ish-Egy
pti
anSov
erei
gnt
y

Sudanwasundert
hecondomi
nium r
uleoft
heBr
it
ishandEgy
pt.OnFebr
uar
y12,1953,

14
t
het
wogov
ernment
ssi
gnedanagr
eementpr
ovi
dingsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionf
orSudanwi
thi
n
at
hree-
yeart
ransi
ti
onal
per
iodandSudangai
nedi
ndependencei
n1956.

Sudani
zat
ionandI
ndependence

I
ncompl
i
ancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
heagr
eement
,thef
ir
stSudanesepar
li
ament
ary
el
ect
ionswer
ehel
dlat
ein1953.Thepr
o-Egy
pti
anNat
ionalUni
oni
stPar
tywonadeci
siv
e
v
ict
ory
.The f
ir
stal
l
-Sudanese gov
ernmentassumed of
fi
ce on Januar
y 9,1954.
Desi
gnat
ed“
Appoi
ntedDay
,”t
hedat
emar
kedt
heof
fi
cialbegi
nni
ngoft
het
ransi
ti
onal
per
iod of “
Sudani
zat
ion,
” a pr
ocess of r
epl
aci
ng al
lfor
eigner
sinr
esponsi
ble
gov
ernment
alandmi
l
itar
ypost
sbySudanese.

TheSudani
zat
ionpr
ogr
am,whi
chwascompl
etedi
nAugust1955,dr
awat
tent
iont
othe
geogr
aphi
candsoci
aldi
ff
erencesbet
weennor
ther
nandsout
her
nSudan.

Pol
it
icsandgov
ernmenti
npost
-i
ndependenceSudan

Thef
ir
stgener
alpar
li
ament
aryel
ect
ionsaf
terSudanat
tai
nedi
ndependencewer
ehel
d
onFebr
uar
y27,
1958.TheUmmaPar
tywonamaj
ori
tyandf
ormedanewgov
ernmenton
Mar
ch20.I
twasov
ert
hrownonNov
ember17byLi
eut
enantGener
alI
brahi
m Abboud,
the
commanderi
nchi
efoft
hear
medf
orces.Abboudr
eput
edl
yanadv
ocat
eofcl
oser
r
elat
ionswi
thEgy
pt,
dismi
ssedpar
li
ament
,suspendedt
heconst
it
uti
on,
decl
aredmar
ti
al
l
aw,
andest
abl
i
shedacabi
netwi
thhi
msel
faspr
imemi
nist
er.

I
nNov
ember1964,
Presi
dentAbboudr
esi
gned.Hewasr
epl
acedbyasupr
emecounci
lof
st
ate.Ar
evol
tinsout
her
nSudant
hathadbegununderAbboudagai
nstdomi
nat
ionby
t
heAr
abnor
thcont
inuedasaci
vi
lwarunt
ilMar
ch1972,whent
hesout
hwasgr
ant
ed
someaut
onomy
.Ashi
ftt
owar
dapr
o-Ar
abf
orei
gnpol
i
cywasev
identaf
tert
heAr
ab-
I
srael
iWarof1967.

Cont
inuedcoupsmani
fest
edi
npost
-i
ndependenceSudan.Ther
ewer
eswayatt
imest
o
Uni
onofSov
ietSoci
ali
stRepubl
icsandt
heWestaswel
l.Fori
nst
ance,I
nit
ial
l
y,Ni
mei
ry
t
urnedt
otheUni
onofSov
ietSoci
ali
stRepubl
i
cs(
USSR)andLi
byaf
orsuppor
t,butaf
ter

15
coupat
tempt
s(1976)al
l
egedl
ybackedbyLi
byaandl
ocalCommuni
sts,het
urnedt
o
Egy
pt,conser
vat
iveAr
abst
ates,andt
heWestf
orpol
i
ticalandeconomi
cai
d.Ni
mei
ry
wast
heonl
yAr
ab l
eadert
o backEgy
pti
an pr
esi
dentAnwaral
-Sadati
n hi
speace
negot
iat
ionswi
thI
srael
.

TheNat
ionalI
slami
cFr
ont(
NIF)r
egi
meofGener
alOmerEl
-Beshi
rcamet
opower
t
hroughami
l
itar
ycoupi
nMay1989.

Byt
hemi
d-1990st
heSout
her
nPeopl
e’sLi
ber
ati
onAr
my(
SPLA)
,ledbyJohnGar
ang,a
f
ormerof
fi
ceri
ntheSudanesear
my,
cont
rol
l
edmostofsout
her
nSudanandanumberof
i
mpor
tantt
owns.I
nmi
d-1998peacet
alks,t
heSPLA andt
hegov
ernmentt
ent
ati
vel
y
agr
eedt
oacceptani
nter
nat
ional
l
ysuper
visedv
oteonsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ioni
ntheSout
h.
Howev
er,
nodat
ewassetf
ort
hev
ote,
andt
het
alksf
ail
edt
opr
oduceacease-
fi
re.Peace
t
alkscont
inuedt
hrought
he1990s,
butt
heyr
epeat
edl
yst
all
edov
ermaj
ori
ssuessuchas
t
hegov
ernment
’sunwi
l
li
ngnesst
osepar
atest
ateandr
eli
gionanddi
sagr
eementov
er
wher
etheboundar
ybet
weennor
thandsout
hwoul
dli
e.Sev
eralt
empor
arycease-
fi
res
wer
ecal
l
eddur
ingt
hist
imei
nsuppor
toft
hepeaceef
for
tandt
ofaci
l
itat
ethedel
i
ver
yof
humani
tar
ianai
d,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hedel
i
ver
yoff
oodandv
acci
nes,
tot
hewar
-t
ornsout
h.

Ul
ti
mat
ely
,Sout
hSudanbecomeani
ndependentst
ateonJul
y9,2011f
oll
owi
nga
r
efer
endum.

TheDar
furcr
isi
s

Theci
vi
lwari
ntheDar
furr
egi
onofwest
ernSudanhasbeenont
hewor
ld’
sagendaf
or
qui
tesomet
imenow.Thecr
isi
s,opposi
ngt
heGov
ernmentoft
heSudan(
GoS)andi
ts
pr
oxymi
l
iti
afor
ce(
theJanj
aweed)ont
heonehand,andt
hedi
ff
erentr
egi
onalr
ebel
mov
ement
schampi
onedbyt
heSudanLi
ber
ati
onMov
ement
/Ar
my(
SLM/
A),andt
he
Just
iceandEqual
i
tyMov
ement(
JEM)onanot
herhand,hasr
esul
tedi
nthel
ossofl
i
ves
andpr
oper
ty.

Thr
eemaj
orcausescanbei
dent
if
ied.(
1)Conf
li
ctbet
weenGoSandt
heDar
furr
egi
on
ov
ert
heshar
ingofnat
ionalweal
thandpower
;(2)conf
li
ctoccasi
onedbyt
ri
balr
ival
ri
es

16
champi
onedbyt
ri
bal
eli
te;
and,
final
l
y(3)conf
li
ctbet
weent
hei
dent
it
ygr
oups.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hese t
hree t
ypes of conf
li
cts hav
e t
he same r
oot
:the i
ssue
mar
ginal
izat
ion (
bot
h hi
stor
icaland cont
empor
ary
)orwhati
sref
ert
o as ‘
rel
ati
ve
under
dev
elopment
’thathasbadl
yaf
fect
edev
eryf
acetofDar
fur
’sl
i
fe;whi
chi
ntur
ncan
bet
racedt
ogov
ernancecr
isi
soccasi
onedbyt
hel
opsi
dedpol
i
ciesoft
heKhar
toum
gov
ernmentdomi
nat
edbyAr
abel
i
te.Under
standabl
y,t
he‘
unj
ust
’pol
i
ciesofKhar
toum
ar
eunsur
pri
singsi
ncet
hesewer
einher
it
edf
rom t
heBr
it
ishcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
iont
hat
pl
acedt
heAr
absabov
eAf
ri
canet
hni
cgr
oups.

Mar
ginal
izat
ionandt
heMaki
ngoft
heCi
vi
lWar

Dar
furi
sar
egi
onf
oundi
nthewest
ernpar
toft
heSudan.Dar
furhasanav
eragear
eaof
160,
000squar
emi
l
es,andi
stopogr
aphi
cal
l
ydi
ver
sewi
thhi
ghdeser
tint
henor
thf
lows
i
ntogr
eengr
assl
andi
nthesout
h.Thet
roubl
edr
egi
on,wi
thapopul
ati
onof7mi
l
li
on,
becamepar
toft
hel
argerAngl
o-Egy
pti
anSudani
n1916.

Thehi
stor
yofDar
furandi
tsmar
ginal
i
zat
ioni
simper
ati
vewhenexpl
aini
ngt
heor
igi
nof
t
heongoi
ngunst
abl
esi
tuat
ion.Ther
egi
onwast
hesi
teofi
ndependentSul
tanat
esunt
il
t
heTur
co–Egy
pti
anconquestoft
hel
ate1870’
s,wheni
tral
l
iedear
lyt
oMahdi
yyai
nthe
1880’
sandsubsequent
lyf
ost
eredacount
er-
Mahdi
yyaopposi
ti
onwhencont
rolf
rom
Omdur
manbecamet
oooppr
essi
ve.Towar
dst
heendoft
he19t
hCent
ury
,theAngl
o-
Egy
pti
anCondomi
nium r
uledt
her
egi
on;
thatal
l
owedal
i
mit
edaut
onomyunt
il1914.Two
y
ear
slat
er(
preci
sel
yin1916)t
heSul
tanat
ewasi
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
heSudan.

Ther
ear
eaboutt
hir
tyet
hni
cgr
oups,
allofwhom hav
eli
vedt
her
eforcent
uri
es,
andal
lof
t
hem Musl
i
ms.Ther
efor
e,“
despi
tet
alkof‘
Arabs’
and‘
Afr
icans’
,i
tisr
arel
ypossi
blet
otel
l
ont
hebasi
sofski
ncol
orwhi
chgr
oupani
ndi
vi
dualDar
fur
ianbel
ongs.Ther
eissucha
l
onghi
stor
yofi
nter
nalmi
grat
ion,mi
xi
ngandi
nter
mar
ri
aget
hatet
hni
cboundar
iesar
e
most
lyamat
terofconv
eni
ence.Mor
eov
er,i
ndi
vi
dual
s,ev
enwhol
egr
oups,candi
scar
d
onel
abel
andacqui
reanot
her
.

The1916i
ncor
por
ati
onoft
heDar
furr
egi
oni
ntot
heSudanhast
hreel
i
fel
ongi
mpact
son

17
t
he pol
i
ticalpr
ocesses and st
ruct
ures of t
he r
egi
on.Fi
rst
ly,i
tresul
ted i
nthe
est
abl
i
shmentoft
hesy
stem ofi
ndi
rectr
ule,
whi
l
ether
egi
onbecamet
hest
ronghol
dof
t
heAnsarsectandi
tsUmmahpar
ty.Secondl
y,t
heest
abl
i
shmentofamoder
npol
i
tical
sy
stem i
nthe ent
ir
e Sudan and t
he concent
rat
ion ofpol
i
ticalpoweri
n Khar
toum
f
undament
all
yal
ter
edt
het
radi
ti
onalmechani
sm ofgov
ernancebyi
ntr
oduci
ngov
er
t
imet
hepol
i
tici
zat
ionofaut
hor
it
ythr
oughpat
ronage.Thi
rdl
y,t
hei
ncor
por
ati
onl
aunched
t
her
egi
oni
nthepol
i
ticalcal
cul
usoft
heSudan’
spol
i
ticalel
i
tesi
ncet
hesuppor
tsoft
he
Dar
fur
iansspeakv
olumei
nst
rengt
heni
ngt
hel
egi
ti
macyoft
hecent
ral
stat
e.

Thel
opsi
dedpol
i
ciesofKhar
toum andi
tsr
iver
sideAr
abpol
i
ticalel
i
ter
eachedt
hei
r
zeni
thwi
tht
hef
ragment
ati
onoft
heDar
furr
egi
oni
ntot
hreesmal
lSt
atesi
n1994.The
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
hisdi
vi
sionar
ethati
tspl
i
tst
hemaj
ori
ty‘
non-
Arab’
Furet
hni
cfor
mat
ion
i
nther
egi
onacr
osseachoft
het
hreeSt
ates,
ther
ebybecomi
ngmi
nor
it
yet
hni
cgr
oupi
n
t
hei
rrespect
ivenewSt
ates.Thedi
vi
sionofDar
furi
snot
hing,butacal
cul
atedef
for
tto
pr
omot
eAr
abi
sm i
nther
egi
on.Byt
his,Ar
abpol
i
ticalel
i
tear
emor
efav
oredt
hant
hei
r
non-
Arabcount
erpar
tsoast
orei
nfor
cingKhar
toum’
spol
i
ciesi
nther
egi
on.

Thef
rust
rat
ionsoft
heDar
fur
ians,t
heFur
,Massal
i
t,Tungur
,andZaghawa]ov
ert
he
domi
nat
ionofdomi
nat
ionandcont
rol
lbyt
het
hreeAr
ab-
speaki
nget
hni
cgr
oupsoft
he
Nor
th—t
heShai
gia,
Jaal
i
yeenandDangagl
awer
epr
esent
edt
otheSudanesegov
ernment
butgotdeafear
.

I
n1971,Pr
esi
dentNi
mei
riabol
ishedt
he“
nat
iveadmi
nist
rat
ion”sy
stem r
esponsi
blef
or
mai
ntai
ningt
ri
balr
elat
ions,al
l
ocat
ingofl
andf
oragr
icul
tur
eorgr
azi
ngpur
posesand
admi
nist
eri
ngl
ocalcour
tsascent
ersofconf
li
ctr
esol
uti
on,andr
epl
acedt
hem wi
th
r
egi
onal
,di
str
ictandar
eacounci
l
s.Theer
adi
cat
ionoft
hist
ri
balt
ierofgov
ernance
meantt
hatt
her
ewasnocr
edi
bleaut
hor
it
yinpl
acet
oint
erv
enei
nthecompl
exand
gr
owi
ngsoci
o-ecol
ogi
calcr
isi
sinDar
fur
,leav
ingt
hepat
hopent
othemi
l
itar
izat
ionof
gr
oupst
odef
endt
hei
rint
erest
s.Henceatt
hecent
eroft
heconf
li
ctl
i
es,
thecont
radi
cti
on
i
nthehi
stor
yofSudanr
einf
orcedbyt
hedi
scr
imi
nat
orypol
ici
esengi
neer
edbyt
he
nor
ther
nAr
abel
i
tedeepl
yroot
edi
ncol
oni
ali
sm.

18
Si
nce t
he mi
d-1980s,l
ow-
int
ensi
ty conf
li
cts bet
ween t
he nomadi
c and f
armi
ng
communi
ti
es,ov
erl
andaf
teroccasi
onaldr
ought
s,hav
ebeent
hedomi
nantf
eat
ureof
Dar
fur
.Ther
egi
onaldr
oughtoft
hemi
d-1980sbecameunbear
abl
esi
ncei
ttr
ansf
ormed
t
hear
abl
esoi
lint
odeser
twi
thaccompani
edf
ami
net
hatl
ast
edf
ormor
ethanay
ear
.As
ar
esul
t,host
il
it
yensued bet
ween t
he Ar
ab her
der
s and Af
ri
can f
armer
s ov
ert
he
scr
ambl
eforscar
cepast
ureandwat
er.Ther
esent
mentoft
heNor
thDar
fur
’snomads
agai
nstt
heseasonalmi
grat
ionofZaghawaher
dsmeni
ntoAr
ab-
occupi
edgr
azi
ngl
ands
st
ared.Af
ri
canf
armer
sgr
ew host
il
etocamel
-r
idi
ngAr
abnomadsf
rom t
heNor
thwho
i
ncr
easi
ngl
ycompr
essed t
hei
rfar
mland ast
heymov
ed i
n sear
ch ofpast
ure.Thi
s
si
tuat
ionbecamepar
adoxbecauset
heAr
abf
armi
nggr
oups:whohadoncecel
ebr
ated
t
heannualr
etur
nofAr
abnomads,whoseani
mal
shadf
ert
il
izedt
hei
rfar
mlandand
hel
pedcar
ryt
hei
rhar
vest
stomar
ket
,begant
oimpedet
hei
rmi
grat
ion.

Compoundi
ngt
hisf
ragi
l
eet
hno-
pol
i
ticalandeconomi
cset
-upi
sthef
actt
hatt
heage-
old
l
ocal
/tr
ibal
-admi
nist
rat
ivesy
stem hadal
readybeenweakenedi
npr
efer
encef
orst
ate
i
nst
it
uti
onst
hathadl
i
ttl
e,orv
irt
ual
l
yno,
rel
evanceandl
egi
ti
macyi
nDar
fur
.Si
nceDar
fur
l
ackedat
rust
ed,t
est
edandpr
efer
redconf
li
ctr
esol
uti
onmechani
sm,t
hegul
fbet
ween
andamongt
her
ivalt
ri
beswi
dened,and,consequent
lyst
art
edgat
her
ingweaponst
o
def
endt
hei
rvest
edeconomi
cint
erest
s.Theper
iodbet
ween1987and1989,wi
tnessed
af
ier
cebat
tl
ebet
weenFurf
armi
ngandAr
abcamelher
dergr
oupswi
thhugehuman
andmat
eri
all
osst
obot
hsi
des.Ev
ent
houghal
ocali
nter
-t
ri
balconf
erencewashel
din
1989, i
ts r
ecommendat
ions f
or compensat
ion and puni
shment went l
argel
y
unheeded—l
eav
ingout
standi
nggr
iev
ancest
hatwoul
dexpl
odef
our
teeny
ear
slat
er.

The‘
wor
st’conf
li
cti
nDar
furst
art
edi
nFebr
uar
y2003andi
tsescal
ati
oni
sli
nkedt
othe
si
gni
ngoft
heNai
vashaagr
eement(
TheCompr
ehensi
vePeaceAgr
eement
)(of26May
2004bet
weent
heGoSandt
heSPLM/
A.Theexcl
usi
onf
rom t
hepeacepr
ocessofal
l
,
exceptt
heGoSandt
heSPLM/
A,appar
ent
lybecamet
hedeadl
ypr
iceoft
heagr
eement
.
Ot
heri
nter
est
sint
he count
rywer
e consi
der
ed secondar
yoratbest
,rel
egat
ed t
o
secondar
y.