10th CLASS GRAMMAR NOTES

UNIT#1 SIMPLICITY AND HUMILITY OF

HAZRAT MUHAMMAD ‫ﷺ‬
GRAMMAR98
Nouns are an all-star team of words and always have a player ready to step up to the
plate, no matter the challenge. Common nouns, proper nouns, abstract nouns, and concrete
nouns are our go-to nouns but there are many types of nouns ready to get in the game. To
learn the difference between all these nouns, use this guide to link to in-depth articles about
each type of noun.

What is a noun?
A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, or thing. The category of “things” may sound
super vague, but in this case it means inanimate objects, abstract concepts, and activities.
Phrases and other parts of speech can also behave like nouns and can be the subject in a
sentence, as in Jogging is a fun exercise. Here, the verb jogging acts like a noun and is the
subject of the sentence.

Different types of nouns

1) Common nouns
Common nouns are words that refer to undefined or generic people, places, or things. For
example, the country is a common noun that refers to a generic place while the
word Canada is not a common noun because it refers to a specific place. Common nouns
are only capitalized when they begin sentences or are used in the names or titles of
something, as in Grand Canyon or Iron Man.
 common nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
2) Proper nouns
Proper nouns help distinguish a specific person, place, or thing. These words should be
capitalized. The names and titles of things are always proper nouns, such as the brand
name Starbucks and the personal name Jenny.
 proper nouns:
Spain, Fido, Sony
3) Singular nouns
Singular nouns are nouns that refer to only one person, place or thing. For example, a cat is
one animal and a banana is one fruit.
 singular nouns:
house, cat, girl, foot, country
4) Plural nouns
A plural noun refers to more than one of something. Many singular nouns just need
an S added at the end to make them plural (e.g., bee becomes bees). For some nouns that
already end with an S, you may need to add -es to the end to make their plural forms
(e.g., classes and buses). Some singular nouns also change spelling when made plural
(e.g. countries and babies).
 regular plural nouns:
houses, cats, girls, countries

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Not all nouns follow this pattern. Those that become plural in other ways are called irregular
plural nouns. Some examples are man and men, wolf and wolves, foot and feet,
and sheep and … sheep.
 irregular plural nouns:
person and people
life and lives
mouse and mice
tooth and teeth
5) Concrete nouns
A concrete noun is something that can be perceived through the five senses. If you can see,
hear, touch, taste, or smell something, it uses a concrete noun.
 concrete nouns:
table, apple, rabbit, ear
6) Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are intangible ideas that can’t be perceived with the five senses, such as
social concepts, political theories, and character traits. For example, the abstract
noun anger refers to an emotion and the abstract noun courage refers to a quality a person
has.
 abstract nouns:
love, creativity, democracy
7) Collective nouns
A collective noun is a noun that functions as a singular noun while referring to a group of
people or things. A collective noun refers to a group that functions as one unit or performs
the same action at the same time. For example: the team plays in the main gym.
 collective nouns:
crowd, flocks, committee, a sum of money.

What Is a Noun Phrase?

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions like a noun. Also known as nominals, noun phrases
act as subjects or objects in a sentence. Noun phrases can’t function as a complete sentence — they
don’t have a verb.

Examples of noun phrases include:

 a bird
 the little boy
 man of his word
 lawyer with a kind smile
 that happy puppy
 running around the neighborhood
 my green gym socks
 the building on the corner

Types of Noun Phrases

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All noun phrases include nouns (or words that function as nouns). But there are lots of other parts of a
noun phrase that provide more information to a reader.

Noun Phrase Examples With Premodifiers

Noun phrases can include premodifiers, which are describing words that come before a noun.
Premodifiers can include articles (such as the and an) and adjectives (such as intelligent or blue).

 An elephant raised its trunk at me. (Article an modifies elephant)

 Can you hand me a sharp pencil? (Article a and adjective sharp modify pencil)
 You’re such an understanding friend. (Article a and adjective understanding modify friend)

Other types of determiners can be premodifiers, including possessive determiners (my, our,
his), demonstratives (this, those, these), and quantifiers (most, five, some).

 Her cousin lives down the street. (Possessive determiner her modifies cousin)
 That dog growled at me. (Demonstrative that modifies dog)
 Several people witnessed the aliens. (Quantifier several modifies people)

What Are Noun Clauses?

A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun. For example (noun clauses shaded):
 I like what I see.
(Like all clauses, a noun clause has a subject and a verb. In this example, the
subject of the clause is "I" and the verb is "see.")
 I know that patience has its limits.
(In this example, the subject of the clause is "patience" and the verb is "has.")
Compare the two examples above to these:
 I like innovation.
 I know people.
The words in bold are all nouns. This proves that the shaded clauses in the first two
examples are functioning as nouns.

Easy Examples of Noun Clauses

Here are some easy examples of noun clauses. In each example, the noun clause is
shaded, the subject of the clause is bold, and the verb of the noun clause is underlined.
 I know that the story is true.
 I saw how the accident happened.
 I understand why it was necessary.
 I know who said that.
(Often, the opening word (i.e., "how," "that," or the "wh"-word) is the subject of the
noun clause.)

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 More Examples of Noun Clauses
In a sentence, a noun clause will be a dependent clause. In other words, a noun clause
does not stand alone as a complete thought.
 Ask your child what he wants for dinner only if he's buying. (Fran Lebowitz)
(This noun clause is the direct object of "ask.")
 He knows all about art, but he doesn't know what he likes. (James Thurber, 1894-
1961)
(This noun clause is the direct object of "know.")
 It is even harder for the average ape to believe that he has descended from man.
(H L Mencken, 1880-1956)
(This noun clause is the direct object of "believe.")
 I never know how much of what I say is true. (Bette Midler)
(This noun clause is an object of a preposition.)
 Man is what he eats. (Ludwig Feuerbach)
(This noun clause is a subject complement.)
 My one regret in life is that I am not someone else. (Woody Allen)
(This noun clause is a subject complement.)

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UNIT#2 THE CHAMPIONS
What Is a Pronoun?

Pronouns are used in place of nouns. The purpose of pronouns is to avoid repetition and
make sentences easier to understand. Some of the most common pronouns to remember
when learning English as a second language are he, she, it, they, and this.

The Seven Types of Pronouns

There are seven types of pronouns that both English and English as a second language
writers must recognize: the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative
pronoun, the relative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the
intensive pronoun.

1. Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or thing. Their form changes to indicate a
person, number, gender, or case.

 Subjective personal pronouns are pronouns that act as the subject of a sentence. If
you are learning English as a second language, remember that the subjective
personal pronouns are I, you, she, he, it, you, and they. For example:
o "I walked directly to the party."
o "You showed up late; she was annoyed."
o "He thought you had forgotten; we know you were just behind."

 Objective personal pronouns are pronouns that act as the object of a sentence. If you
are learning English as a second language, remember that the objective personal
pronouns are me, you, her, him, it, us, you, and them. For example:
o "The police officer told my brother and me to slow down."
o "He pointed to the pedestrians and said to be careful of them."
o "The police officer said there are a lot of speedy motorists like us."

 Possessive personal pronouns are pronouns that show possession. They define a
person (or a number of people) who owns a particular object. If you are learning
English as a second language, remember that the possessive personal pronouns
are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs. For example:
o "Is this book yours or his?"
o "All the books are mine."
o "Nobody's house has as many books as theirs, not even ours."

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 2. Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point to and identify a noun or a pronoun. This and these refer to
things that are nearby in space or time, while that and those refer to things that are farther
away in space or further away in time. For example:

 "This is the dress I will wear; that is the one I wore yesterday."
 "That is not true."
 "Please pay for those."

3. Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns

are who, whom, which, and what. If you are learning English as a second language, it is
important to remember that who and whom are used to refer to people, while which is
used to refer to things and animals. Who acts as the subject, while whom acts as the
object. For example:

 "Which is the best restaurant?"

 "What did he tell you?"
 "Whom should we invite?"

4. Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The
relative pronouns are who, whom, that, and which. The compounds whoever, whomever,
and whichever are also commonly used relative pronouns. For example:

 "Whoever added the bill made a mistake."

 "The bill, which included all our meals, was larger than expected."
 "The waiter who served us doesn't know how to add."

5. Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to an identifiable, but not specified, person or thing. An indefinite
pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. If you are learning English as a second
language, remember the following common indefinite
pronouns: all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone,
everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone.
For example:

 "Everybody got lost on the way there."

 "Somebody forgot to bring the map."
 "No wonder so few showed up."

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 6. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive
pronouns used in writing English
are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
For example:

 "She baked a cake for herself."

 "We decided to eat it ourselves."
 "We heard her say, 'They should be ashamed of themselves.'"

7. Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize their antecedent. Intensive pronouns are
identical in form to reflexive pronouns. For example:

 "I myself find pronouns fascinating."

 "They themselves think everyone should know about pronouns."
 "You yourself should tell everyone how great pronouns are."

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UNIT#3 DREAMS
Transitive verbs
The action of the verb passes from the subject to the direct object. To make
sense, the verb needs the direct object. In grammar-speak: transitive verbs
‘take’ a direct object.

Example

 The director buys his lunch.

The action (buys) passes from the subject (the director) to the direct object (his
lunch).

In this sentence, ‘buys’ is a transitive verb.

Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs don’t need an object to make sense – they have meaning on
their own.

Intransitive verbs don’t take a direct object. Instead, intransitive verbs might
have an adverb or adverbial phrase that completes their meaning.

Example

 The chaplain reads.

 The chaplain reads quickly.
 The chaplain reads in the garden.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs can be broken into two types: transitive and intransitive.

Transitive Verbs
In Latin, trans means across. Therefore, the subject transfers the action to the
object. Most verbs in English are transitive.

 I  took  my car to the shop.

 We  played  basketball yesterday. 8 of 3
In the above examples, the verbs took and played are followed by the direct objects
car and
basketball, respectively.

Test for Transitive Verbs

If a verb is transitive, you will always be able to ask a question beginning with
what or whom. For example, “To what shop did you take your car?” or “With
whom did you play basketball?” By asking these questions, you are asking, “Who
or what receives the action of the verb?”

Intransitive Verbs
In Latin, intrans means not across. Therefore, intransitive verbs do not take
direct objects because there is no action to transfer.

 Pablo’s writing improved.

 We walked carefully.

Neither of the above examples has a direct object.

Test for Intransitive Verbs

You can recognize a sentence with an intransitive verb because it cannot be
rewritten into passive voice. (See our handout on the passive voice.) For example,
the sentence “Paul departed late last night” cannot be rewritten to say “Late last
night was departed Paul.”

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Special Cases
Verbs with Multiple Meanings

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive because they have multiple
meanings. When used in the context of physical movement, run is intransitive.

 I ran every day when I was an athlete.

 I run every morning to stay in shape.

In the context of guiding or overseeing a company or other group of individuals, run

is transitive.

 Joe runs his own restaurant.

 Martha ran her business efficiently.

Verbs in Different Contexts

Verbs can also be either transitive or intransitive depending on context.

The verb sing is normally intransitive.

 I sing rather poorly.

 She sings quite beautifully.

Sing is only transitive if the sentence answers the question, “What did the subject
sing?”

 I sang “Don’t Stop Believin’” rather poorly last night.

 She sang “I Will Always Love You’ quite beautifully last week.

Activity
Determine if the italicized verb in each sentence is transitive or intransitive.

1. Ron Burgundy has been gossiping since early this morning.

2. Jack White founded The White Stripes.
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 3. I lived in Las Vegas for a very brief period.
4. I make an excellent shrimp stir-fry.
5. Michael Simon gave an outrageous speech yesterday.
6. Stephen Curry slipped on his way to the basket.
7. The prosecution proved the defendant’s guilt.
8. George Lucas rejected the script under false pretenses.
9. I worked for ten hours yesterday.
10. The GOP nominated a questionable candidate.
Answer Key for Activity

1. intransitive
2. transitive
3. intransitive
4. transitive
5. transitive
6. intransitive
7. transitive
8. transitive
9. intransitive
10. transitive

CLAUSE AND ITS TYPES

Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example, he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence)
which has both subject and predicate.

Example
I will meet him in office.

The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a
predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence “in office” lacks both
subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore,
a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.

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Examples.
• He is sleeping. (one clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants to become a doctor.
(three
clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause (also called
dependent clauses).

Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or dependant) clause.

Main Clause and Subordinate Clause – Comparison

He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.
The above sentence has two clauses “He is buying a shirt” and “which looks very nice”. The clause “He is
buying a shirt” expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is called main
or independent clause.

While the clause “which looks very nice” does not express a complete thought and can’t stand as a
sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is
called subordinate or dependent clause.

Main or Independent Clause

“Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a sentence.

Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces.
In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though and can
stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a simple sentence.

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 Subordinate or dependent Clause
Subordinate (or independent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and depends on
another clause (main clause) to express complete thought. Subordinate clause does not express complete
idea and can’t stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause must have a main clause.
Example
He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.
The clause “which tastes good” in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not express
complete thought and can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes Chinese rise) to express
complete thought.
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
I bought a table that costs $ 100.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are further divided into three types,
1. Noun Phrase, 2. Adjective Phrase, 3. Adverb Phrase

Types of Subordinate Clause

Functions of Subordinate Clause.

A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the
basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following types.
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause.
3. Adverb Clause

Noun Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.

Example
What he did made a problem for his family.

In above sentence the clause “what he did” functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause
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works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with
words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever”.
Examples
Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject)
What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object)

Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.”
An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a
noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Example
He wears a shirt which looks nice.

The clause “which looks nice” in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun “shirt” in
the sentence.
An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.

Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.
The house where I live consists of four rooms.
The person who was shouting needed help.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is
also relative clause.
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. A restrictive clause
limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells us something about
preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.
Example

• The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (Restrictive clause)
•The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test. (Nonrestrictive
clause) 14 of
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In the first sentence the clause “who studied a lot” restrict information to preceding noun (student), it
means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause.

In the second sentence the clause “who had attended all the lectures” gives us information about preceding
noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be several other
students in the class who had attended all the lectures.

A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive clause if it is
within a main clause. “That” is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while “which” is used to
introduce a nonrestrictive clause.

Example
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (Restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (Nonrestrictive clause)

Adverb Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause”
An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It
modifies (describes) the situation in main clause in terms of “time, frequency (how often), cause and effect,
contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent).”
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case

Examples.
Don’t go before he comes.
He takes medicine because he is ill.
Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree.
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it.
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.

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 Phrases and its Types!
Definition of Phrase
Phrases and its Types! A phrase is a meaningful sequence of two or more words they
work as a unit in a sentence. It contains neither a subject nor a verb. It is not a
complete sentence in itself. phrases and its type
Examples:
 He is wearing a nice red shirt.
 The boy with brown hair is laughing.
 She is shouting in a loud voice.
 I like writing good essays.

Phrases and its Types

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words. It functions as a noun. As a
noun, it functions as a subject or an object or a compliment.
Examples:
 Pondering over puzzles is my hobby.
 He likes swimming in the sea.
 I like the birds twittering in trees.
 Do not eat fatty fast food.

Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions as an adjective. It describes/
modifies a noun or a pronoun. The adjective phrases in the following sentences have
been underlined.
Examples:
 She is wearing a soft silk scarf.
 A somewhat small swallow was soaring in the sky.
 A black big bug crept under the blanket.
 He is an extremely intelligent boy.

Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb. It modifies a verb,
or an adjective, or another adverb. An adverbial phrase explains why or how or where
or when an adjective or another adverb. The adverb phrases in the following sentences
have been underlined. Phrases and its type
Examples:
 She stepped out with slow steps.
 A big bad bear appeared in the distance.
 I will do it in a minute.
 She brought flowers for her mother.

Verb Phrase 16 of
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A verb phrase consists of the main verb plus any modal or/and auxiliary (helping) verb.
The main verb comes last in the verb phrase. The verb phrases in the following
sentences have been underlined.

Example:
 Flowers are fluttering in fresh air.
 Pretty plants could grow only in green garden.
 A wild wolf has leapt onto a fat fox.
 He must have drunk a delicious drink.

Infinitives Phrase
An infinitives phrase begins with the infinitives form of the verb (to + the simple form
of a verb) plus the related words (i.e. a complement or/and a modifier). It functions
either as a noun or an adjective ar an adverb. The infinitive phrases in the
following sentences have been underlined.
Examples:
 He liked to read books.
 To earn money is a desire of everyone.
 He shouted to inform people about fire.
 He made a plan to buy a car.

Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and includes
the object of the preposition. It may include the object’s modifiers also.
The prepositional phrases either function as an adverb or an adjective. Phrases and its
type
Examples:
 He is going to school.
 He lived in a big city.
 The boy on the roof is singing a song.
 I live in a town near Lahore.

Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing), its objects, and modifiers. It
functions like a noun and is used as a subject or an object or a compliment.

Examples:
 He like writing a comic book.
 Reading a comic book brings us joy.
 His favorite hobby is writing comic books.

Participle Phrase
A phrase consists of a participle (Present or past) plus a modifier. It functions as an
adjective and is separated by commas.

Examples: 17 of
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 The baby, weeping loudly, is hungry.
 The man, driving the car, is my friend.
 The table, made of steel, is very expensive.
 We saw a car, damaged in an accident.

Unit#4 TENSES
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1) Present Tense

(2) Past Tense
(3) Future Tense

They are further divided into:

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts,

universal truths and work done on daily basis.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object
Example – She writes a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – She does not write a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she write a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object
taking place at the time of speaking.
Example – she is writing a letter. 18 of
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 NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object
Example – She is not writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a

letter?

(1) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object
in the past and has just finished.
Example- She has written a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

Example – She has not written a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

Example- Has she written a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(1) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense

shows the action which started in the past and is still continuing.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object
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Example – She has been writing a letter.

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 NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object
Example– She has not been writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object
Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy
gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Past (before
now)

Past Past Perfect

Simple Past Past Perfect
Continuous Continuous

Simple Past
Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of
time. Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a child.

Rule: Subject + V2

Eg. She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + V2 + Object + (.)
She wrote a letter.
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 2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn’t write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-

Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)
Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

e.g. I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)
She was not writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
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Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past,
usually a long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is
used to show the action that took place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she written a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and
continued up to some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –

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Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)
She had been writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)
Had she not been writing a letter?

FUTURE TENSE
Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of
speaking or writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Tense

Past (before Future (After

Present (now)
now) now)

Future Future Perfect

Simple Future Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous

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Simple Future
This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will
occur after saying or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping
verb ‘Will’ is used with all others. When you are to make a commitment
or warn someone or emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed.
‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’ and 'shall' is used with others.

In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will'
and normally ‘Will’ is used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)
She will write a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)
She will not write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she write a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.
e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is
thought to be continued till sometime in future.

We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in

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 progress at or around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will be writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will not be writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)
Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will
be completed by a certain time in future.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a

particular time in the future.

e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday

morning. Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)
She will have written a letter.
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 2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)
She will not have written a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)
Will she have written a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)
Will she not have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future
and will continue for some time in future.

If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous

tense. Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future
Continuous Tense. Continued time reference only differentiates between
Future Continuous Tense and Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity

that will be in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the

stadium. It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions

expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week’s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be
in progress before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

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 She will have been writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)
She will not have been writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she have been writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she not have been writing a letter?

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Unit #5: POPULSTION GROWTH AND ITS EMPACT ON
ENVIRONMENT
GRAMMAR
13 Types of Adjectives and How to Use
Them
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. In general, adjectives usually
give us more information about a noun or pronoun by describing it or providing more
information about it. For example, the adjective funny is used to say something causes
fun or laughter.
We are going to look at types of adjectives that we commonly use in everyday writing and
speech. Before we do, though, there are a couple things we need to address first.

Cumulative and coordinate adjectives

These two terms for adjectives have more to do with good writing practices than
grammatical concepts. The terms cumulative adjectives and coordinate adjectives are
often used in guides or advice covering writing, proper adjective order, or punctuation. The
term coordinate adjectives is used to refer to adjectives that can be written in any order
and are usually separated by a comma or the word and. For example, the
words heavy and huge are the coordinate adjectives in the sentence He was carrying a
huge, heavy stone. The term cumulative adjectives is used to refer to adjectives that fall
under different categories, often don’t use commas, and follow adjective order as in the
adjectives used in the sentence He was a young French man.

Common types of adjectives

We are going to briefly examine 13 different types of adjectives. If you’d like to learn about
each type of adjective in more detail, you can check out all of our amazing guides to the
different kinds of adjectives!

1. Comparative adjectives
2. Superlative adjectives
3. Predicate adjectives
4. Compound adjectives
5. Possessive adjectives
6. Demonstrative adjectives
7. Proper adjectives
8. Participial adjectives
9. Limiting adjectives
10. Descriptive adjectives
11. Interrogative adjectives
12. Attributive adjectives
13. Distributive adjectives

1. Comparative adjectives

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Comparative adjectives are used to compare two different people or things to each
other. Some examples of comparative adjectives include words such
as smaller, faster, more expensive, and less reasonable.
Comparative adjective examples
 Whales are larger animals than dolphins.
 We moved to a cheaper apartment.
 The sequel was even more incredible than the first movie.

2. Superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives are used to compare more than two people or things by indicating
which one is the most supreme or extreme. Some examples of superlative adjectives
include words such as smartest, loudest, most impressive, and least valuable.
Superlative adjective examples
 Adrian is the fastest member of our team.
 Out of all of my books, this one is the oldest.
 We are trying to figure out the least confusing way to explain the lesson to the new
students.

3. Predicate adjectives
Predicate adjectives are adjectives that appear in the predicate of a sentence as a subject
complement rather than directly next to the nouns or pronouns that they modify. Predicate
adjectives follow linking verbs in sentences and clauses.
Predicate adjective examples
 Andrea is tall.
 Freddy became angry.
 The steak looks delicious.
Understand the difference between subjects and predicates here.

4. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are adjectives that are formed from multiple words, which are
usually connected by hyphens. Some examples of compound adjectives include never-
ending, cross-eyed, and run-of-the-mill.
Compound adjective examples
 She had enough of the double-dealing salesman.
 My happy-go-lucky daughter loved our trip to Disneyland.
 The better-off members of the city live by the river.

5. Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are often used to express possession or ownership. The most
commonly used possessive adjectives are my, your, its, her, his, our, their, and whose.
Possessive adjective examples
 My favorite food is pizza.
 Sydney spent the day with her parents.
 Canadians celebrated their team’s victory at the Olympics.

6. Demonstrative adjectives
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Demonstrative adjectives are used to express relative positions in space and time. The
most commonly used demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those.
Demonstrative adjective examples
 This watch is cheaper than that one.
 This weekend is going to be really fun.
 Watch out for those prickly rose bushes next to you.

7. Proper adjectives
Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. In general, proper adjectives
are commonly used to say that something is related to a specific person or place. Proper
adjectives include words such as African, Napoleonic, and Shakespearian.
Proper adjective examples
 He was reading a Russian newspaper.
 I think Haitian food is tasty.
 We studied the history of Victorian England in school today.

8. Participial adjectives
Participial adjectives are adjectives that are based on participles, which are words that
usually end in -ed or -ing and derive from verbs. Participial adjectives include words
like amazing, impressed, and fascinating.
Participial adjective examples
 Travis was late for his swimming lessons.
 Please hand me my reading glasses.
 The silly clown cheered up the bored children.

9. Limiting adjectives
Limiting adjectives are adjectives that restrict a noun or pronoun rather than describe any
of its characteristics or qualities. Limiting adjectives overlap with other types of adjectives
such as demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives. Limiting adjectives include
words such as these, your, and some.
Limiting adjective examples
 I bought some eggs at the store.
 She found three pennies under the couch cushions.
 Take a look at that house over there.

10. Descriptive adjectives

Descriptive adjectives are adjectives that describe the characteristics, traits, or qualities of
a noun or pronoun. Most adjectives are descriptive adjectives. Words such
as purple, friendly, and attractive are examples of descriptive adjectives.
Descriptive adjective examples
 A lot of interesting people visit this park.
 She told a scary story.
 The leaves turned orange and red.

11. Interrogative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives are adjectives that are used to ask questions. The interrogative
adjectives are what, which, and whose.
Interrogative adjective examples
 What color is your favorite?
 Which button turns off the lights?
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  Whose turn is it to wash the cat?

12. Attributive adjectives

Attributive adjectives are adjectives that are directly next to the noun and pronoun that
they modify. Usually, attributive adjectives come directly before nouns and pronouns but
they modify. But they can sometimes appear after them.
Attributive adjective examples
 She has beautiful handwriting.
 The hungry gorilla ate the fresh mangoes.
 Keith gave his dad something special for his birthday.

13. Distributive adjectives

Distributive adjectives are used to refer to members of a group individually. Examples of
distributive adjectives include each, every, either, and neither.
Distributive adjective examples
 Each puppy got their own little doghouse.
 Every member of the team scored a goal.
 I’ll be happy if either candidate wins the election.

Three Degrees of Adjectives

1. The Positive Degree
The positive degree of an adjective makes no comparison.
 A tall building.
 She runs fast.
 This is a beautiful car.
2. The Comparative Degree
The comparative degree compares two people, things, actives, or qualities.
 A taller building than this one.
 She runs faster than I do.
 This car is more beautiful than yours.
3. The Superlative Degree
The superlative degree compares a person, thing, activity, or quality with the group.
 The tallest building in the town.
 She is the fastest runner among the students.
 This is the most beautiful car I have ever seen.
Rules for making comparatives and superlatives
One syllable adjectives.
1. Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –er for the
comparative form and –est for the superlative.

Many words in English have four different forms; verb, noun, adjective and adverb.
A large number of words have the four forms; some do not.
For example some recently-coined words such as ‘avatar’, ‘captcha’ or ‘selfie’ only
exist as nouns.
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Others, such as the noun ‘fun’, have no verb or adverb form.
The verb ‘sing’ has a noun form ‘singer’ but no adjective or adverb.
Sometimes several adjectives can be formed from a verb by adding suffixes such as
'–able,' '-ed,’ and '–ing'.
Here are some words with all four forms:

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

act action active actively

beautify beauty beautiful beautifully

benefit benefit beneficial beneficially

care care careful carefully

clear clarity clear clearly

comfort comfort comfortable comfortably

consider consideration considerable considerably

craze craze crazy crazily

create creation creative creatively

decide decision decisive decisively

delight delight delightful delightfully

differ difference different diffently

distract distraction distracted/ing distractedly

hate hatred hateful hatefully

hope hope hopeful hopefully

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impress impression impressive impresively

include inclusion inclusive inclusively

indicate indication indicative indicatively

insult insult insulting insultingly

intend intention intentional intentionally

madden madness mad madly

protect protection protective protectively

quicken quickness quick quickly

rely reliability reliable reliably

sadden sadness sad sadly

secure security secured securely

speed speed speedy speedily

strengthen strength strong strongly

succeed success successful successfully

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 UNIT#6 IN SPITE OF WAR (Poem)
What Is an Adjective Phrase?
Introduction: Adjective phrases are one of the many kinds of phrases you use in
your speech and writing every day. With adjectives, you describe nouns. With
adjective phrases, you describe adjectives. Ultimately, adjective phrases
provide more vivid descriptions for nouns and create richer sentences.

What is an adjective phrase?

To really understand what an adjective phrase is, let’s break it down.

A phrase is a group of words that’s not quite a sentence but expresses a

coherent idea. They fit into sentences to provide context and clarity. Here are a
few quick examples of phrases:

Examples of Adjective Phrase

o Lisa is always full of life.
o Merry is slow and steady.
o This rule is now null and void.
o The class is so calm and quiet.
o The movie was really excellent.

How to identify adjective phrases

When you need to pick out an adjective phrase in a sentence, look for the noun
first. Identify who or what the sentence is about. Let’s use this sentence as an
example:

After shopping around for months, I finally found a reliable, yet affordable, used
truck.

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 There are two nouns in this sentence: the speaker and the truck. Next, look
for adjectives—the words that modify these nouns. In our example sentence,
only one noun, the truck, is described: It’s a used truck.

But if you look a little closer, you’ll see that it isn’t just a used truck—more
specifically, it’s a reliable, yet affordable, used truck. The phrase “reliable, yet
affordable, used” is an adjective phrase because it provides descriptive details
about the noun “truck.”

We could delete this adjective phrase, and the sentence’s meaning would stay
the same: After months of shopping, I finally found a used truck. But by
including the full phrase, we’re more deeply describing the exact kind of truck
the speaker wanted, giving context for why they shopped around for so long.

Look for phrases that could be cut from their sentences without changing their
meaning, but remain because they provide valuable context. Here are a few
more bolded adjective phrases that serve this purpose:

 The horse’s large, menacing eyes said a fight was imminent.

 Your cluttered ’90s-era living room badly needs an update.

 I didn’t enjoy the book because it was too long and convoluted for me to
follow.

By design, an adjective phrase contains multiple words. As you can see from
the examples above, more than one of them may be adjectives. When you’re
looking for an adjective phrase in a sentence, look for words that follow the
Royal Order of Adjectives, the standard order English adjectives follow in
sentences. Although you might not consciously think about the order adjectives
need to follow in a sentence, you’ll notice when they’re out of order because the
sentence will sound wrong.
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 Examples of adjective phrases

Adjective phrases come in many different forms. Some incorporate comparative

and superlative adjectives, such as these examples:

 We experienced the decade’s most destructive storm.

 They saw only the brightest stars through their telescope.

Compound adjectives are often part of adjective phrases, too:

 The movie, short and whitewashed, faced criticism from historians.

 The playlist was too slow-paced for the crowd that night.

Adjective phrases can contain adverbs:

 It was a deliciously sensational play.

 His hair, shockingly dyed pink, surprised his parents.

And they can incorporate prepositions:

 The kids, like popcorn, were bouncing all over their trampoline.

 My grandmother from New York makes a delicious egg cream.

Sometimes, an adjective phrase is just a series of adjectives:

 My old, slow, gas-guzzling minivan finally died.

 They took an intense, time-consuming physics course.

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 No matter what an adjective phrase contains or where it appears in a sentence,
it always makes the sentence more descriptive without changing the sentence’s
core meaning.

What’s the difference between adjective phrases

and adjective clauses?

A phrase is a group of words that can’t stand on its own as a sentence because
it doesn’t have a subject and a predicate. A clause, on the other
hand, does contain a subject and a predicate and in some cases can stand on
its own as a sentence.

Adjective clauses and adjective phrases largely play the same role: to describe
a noun. But while an adjective phrase is simply a few additional words that “bulk
up” an adjective, an adjective clause reiterates the noun. Often, an adjective
clause does this with a pronoun.

Here are a few examples of adjective clauses bolded within sentences:

 The school, which has a very selective admission policy, has a small student
body.

 It was completely dark, save for the cell phone flashlight that illuminated our
immediate surroundings.

 Niko P., who always wears a hat, won’t be joining us this year.

In contrast, here are these same sentences with adjective phrases swapped in
for the adjective clauses:

 The very selective school has a small student body.

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 It was completely dark, save for the bright, short-range cell phone flashlight.

 Perpetually hat-wearing Niko P. won’t be joining us this year.

What Is an Adjective Clause?

An adjective clause is a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a
verb. For example:
 The painting we bought last week is a fake.
When we think of an adjective, we usually think about a single word used
before a noun to modify its meanings
(e.g., tall building, smelly cat, argumentative assistant). However, an
adjective can also come in the form of an adjective clause. An adjective
clause usually comes after the noun it modifies and is made up of several
words, which, like all clauses, include a subject and a verb.

Interactive Examples of Adjective Clauses

Here are some interactive examples to help explain the difference
between single-word adjectives, adjective phrases, adjectival phrases, and
adjective clauses. In each adjective clause, the subject is blue, and the
verb is green. (Also, in each adjective phrase, the head adjective is
shown in bold.)

 We are expecting days that will melt the tarmac

.

 Dogs that have rolled in mud are not allowed upstairs.

 Stars that shone like car headlamps illuminated the field.

More Examples of Adjective Clauses

Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:
 The carpets that you bought last year have rotted.

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 The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he
didn't commit when he had the opportunity. (US journalist Helen
Rowland, 1876-1950)
(Even though this is a quotation by an American journalist,
nowadays, most writers in the US would use that instead of which.
There's more on this below.)
 Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.

The Components of an Adjective Clause

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) will have the following
three traits:
 Trait 1. It will start with a relative
pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative
adverb (when, where, or why).
(This links it to the noun it is modifying.)
(Note: Quite often, the relative pronoun can be omitted. However,
with an adjective clause, it is always possible to put one in. There is
more on this below.)
 Trait 2. It will have a subject and a verb.
(These are what make it a clause.)
 Trait 3. It will tell us something about the noun.
(This is why it is a kind of adjective.)

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 Unit # 7 THE AGED MOTHER
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs (modals) are verbs that add the meaning of logical possibility,
ability, necessity, and permission to verbs, which have a degree of strength from
stronger to weaker. Modals come before infinitive verbs and the “to” is removed.
Modals do not need to match their subject in plural agreement, so there is no need
to add an “-s” or “-es” ending to a modal. Modals will often be seen in sentences
that are predicting a future possibility, describing an ability, giving advice, making
requests, or asking for permission. The nine most common modals are can, could,
shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must.

Common Modals
Use Modals Examples

Logical Must (Most Certain) The dark clouds must mean rain today.
Possibility
Will Due to the news, the stock will go down.
Would The chemical would help the experiment.
Should The case should prevent cracking.
May This change may improve the results.

Can Being careless can have bad consequences.

Could The charm could protect you.
Might (Least Certain) I might be tired tomorrow.

Ability Can (Stronger Ability) He can type 34 words per minute.

Could (Weaker Ability) I could assist by interpreting the results.
Shall (Suggestion) Shall we dance?
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Necessity Must (Obligation) They must go to work today.
Should (Advice) You should floss every day.

Permission May (Most Formal) May I turn my paper in tomorrow?

Might Might he have some more soup?
Could Could I buy the new model?
Can (Least Formal) Can I go to my friend’s house?
(Note: This table does not include all types of modals.)

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Logical Possibility

Logical possibility modals add a degree of possibility to an action. “Must” is the

strongest modal that implies a possibility will occur while “could” and “might”
imply that the speaker is unsure of the action happening.
Examples: The weather report showed a 99% chance of rain, so it must
rain.

In the first example, the modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “rain” and
indicates that the writer believes there is a strong possibility of rain. In the second
example, the modal is “might.” It is placed before the verb “find” and indicates
that the writer believes there is a low chance the reader will “find an open store
after 12:00 AM.”
Ability

Ability modals add a degree to a subject's ability to do an action.

Examples: Pigeons have a special ability; they can recognize themselves in mirrors.
The editor could edit 70 pages in two days.

In the first example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the verb “recognize”
and indicates that the writer knows that pigeons recognize themselves in mirrors.
In the second example, the modal is “could.” It is placed before the verb “edit”
and indicates that the writer knows to a weaker degree that the editor has the
ability to edit “70 pages in two days.”
Necessity

Necessity modals add a degree of recommendation to an action.

Examples: The kids must drink water every day.
My students should do their homework every
night.

In the first example, the modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “drink” and
indicates a strong recommendation that kids drink water every day. In the second

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 example, the modal is “should.” It is placed before the verb “do” and indicates a
weaker recommendation that students do their homework every night.
Permission

Permission modals tend to be used in requests. The strength of the modal will
determine how formal a request is by adding a degree of formality to a
question.

Examples: May I go to the restroom?

Can you throw me the ball?

In the first example, the modal is “may.” It is placed before the subject “I” because
it is written in the question format (not as a statement as we’ve seen in previous
examples). “May” indicates a strong formality and makes a request to use the
restroom. In the second example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the subject
“you” and indicates a more casual request for you to throw the ball.

Activity
Part I

Identify whether the sentence is describing logical possibility, ability, necessity, or

permission. Some sentences can be identified as more than one or have multiple
uses.
1. You might win the lottery, but the chances are low.
2. Ali can start a fire in five minutes.
3. Alia should get braces.
4. Can I move out next week?
5. Nayab could run a mile in 11 minutes.
6. May I get my grade tonight?
7. It could rain tomorrow.
8. I can eat this cotton candy in three seconds.
9. Yang should catch his flight tomorrow if he arrives at the airport early.
10. They must complete their parts of the assignment, or we will fail.

Part II

Fill in the blank with a modal based on the use and degree of strength.
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 11. Logical Possibility, Most Certain

The restaurant have digital menus on the tables.

12. Logical Possibility, Least Certain

The bus be on time today.

13. Necessity, Advice

Everyone brush their teeth every day.

14. Permission, Most formal

Inessa and I go to the nurse’s office?

15. Ability, Stronger

We write so quickly.

16. Permission, Somewhat formal

Darius, I have another cookie after dinner?

17. Ability, Stronger or Somewhat Certain

I finish my finish my writing test in one hour.

18. Logical Possibility, Less Certain

It snow in Texas if the weather keeps changing.

19. Necessity, Obligation

You not text while you drive!

20. Logical Possibility, Somewhat Certain

The kids have cleaned the house before we get home.

Answer Key for Activity

1. Logical possibility
2. Ability
3. Necessity
4. Permission
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5. Logical possibility/ability
6. Permission
7. Logical possibility
8. Ability
9. Logical possibility
10. Necessity and possibility
11. Must/Will
12. Can/Could/Might
13. Should
14. May
15. Can
16. Could
17. Could
18. Can/Could/Might
19. Must
20. Should/May

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UNIT#8 WOMEN’S ROLE IN THE PAKISTAN

Adverb
Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb:
[1] Mary sings beautifully
[2] David is extremely clever
[3] This car goes incredibly fast
In [1], the adverb beautifully tells us how Mary sings. In [2], extremely tells us the degree to which
David is clever. Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the car goes.

Before discussing the meaning of adverbs, however, we will identify some of their formal
characteristics.

Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

From our examples above, you can see that many adverbs end in -ly. More precisely, they are formed
by adding -ly to an adjective:

Adjectiv
slow quick soft sudden gradual
e

slowl quickl softl suddenl graduall

Adverb
y y y y y

Because of their distinctive endings, these adverbs are known as -LY ADVERBS. However, by no
means all adverbs end in -ly. Note also that some adjectives also end in -ly, including costly, deadly,
friendly, kindly, likely, lively, manly, and timely.

Like adjectives, many adverbs are GRADABLE, that is, we can modify them using very or extremely:

softly very softly

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suddenly very suddenly

extremely slowl
slowly
y

The modifying words very and extremely are themselves adverbs. They are called DEGREE
ADVERBS because they specify the degree to which an adjective or another adverb applies. Degree
adverbs include almost, barely, entirely, highly, quite, slightly, totally, and utterly. Degree adverbs
are not gradable (*extremely very).

Like adjectives, too, some adverbs can take COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms, with -er and -
est:

John works hard -- Mary works harder -- I work hardest

However, the majority of adverbs do not take these endings. Instead, they form the comparative
using more and the superlative using most:

Adverb Comparative Superlative

recently more recently most recently

more
effectively most effectively
effectively

frequently more frequently most frequently

In the formation of comparatives and superlatives, some adverbs are irregular:

Adverb Comparative Superlative

well better best

badly worse worst

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little less least

much more most

Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs and adjectives have important characteristics in common -- in particular their gradability, and
the fact that they have comparative and superlative forms. However, an important distinguishing
feature is that adverbs do not modify nouns, either attributively or predicatively:

Adjective Adverb

David is a happy child *David is a happily child

David is happy *David is happily

The following words, together with their comparative and superlative forms, can be both adverbs and
adjectives:

early, far, fast, hard, late

The following sentences illustrate the two uses of early:

Adjective Adverb

I'll catch the early train I awoke early this morning

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The comparative better and the superlative best, as well as some words denoting time intervals
(daily, weekly, monthly), can also be adverbs or adjectives, depending on how they are used.

We have incorporated some of these words into the following exercise. See if you can distinguish
between the adverbs and the adjectives.

Here is a list of adjectives ending in LY with some example sentences to help you get to understand
how they are used.

bubbly elderly holy lonely silly

chilly friendly jolly lovely smelly

costly heavenly likely oily timely

curly hilly lively only ugly

 bubbly: I don’t really like bubbly drinks.

 chilly: It was a chilly day in October.
 costly: For Hank, quitting the company was a costly mistake.
 curly: That little girl with the curly red hair is so cute.
 elderly: Elderly people in our society deserve to be treated with respect.
 friendly: Kate lives in a place with very friendly neighbors.
 heavenly: The dessert is a heavenly chocolate cake.
 hilly: We are going to be hiking in a hilly area.
 holy: Mecca is known as the Holy City.
 jolly: My uncle Tony has a jolly laugh.
 likely: The police are looking for the most likely suspects.
 lively: Dennis always has lively parties in his backyard.
 lonely: It was a lonely town, with just one or two small shops and a restaurant.
 lovely: We sent her a lovely bouquet of flowers for her birthday.
 oily: You should reduce your consumption of oily food.
 only: This is the only pen I have. You can borrow it, but please return it.
 silly: The kids like to watch those silly cartoons.
 smelly: Some smelly cheese is actually quite delicious.
 timely: This website provides timely information about fashion trends.
 ugly: The Ugly Duckling is a famous Danish fairy tale.
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 Actually  Annually  Forcibly

 Probably  Secondly  Uniquely
 Directly  Actively  Brightly
 Normally  Publicly  Fiercely
 Properly  Socially  Casually
 Recently  Formally  Securely
 Entirely  Promptly  Visually
 Possibly  Mentally  Politely
 Slightly  Mutually  Arguably
 Suddenly  Silently  Urgently
 Terribly  Abruptly  Manually
 Strongly  Markedly  Suitably
 Commonly  Secretly  Tenderly
 Honestly  Bitterly  Intently
 Scarcely  Smoothly  Squarely
 Formerly  Speedily  Inwardly
 Strictly  Randomly  Linearly
 Severely  Solemnly
 Steadily  Heartily
 Narrowly

Adverbs and adverb phrases: position

We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause.
The front position of the clause is the first item in the clause:
Suddenly I felt afraid.
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Yesterday detectives arrested a man and a woman in connection with the murder.
The end position of the clause is the last item in the clause:
Why do you always have to eat so fast?
The mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
Apples always taste best when you pick them straight off the tree.
Where there is more than one verb, mid position means after the first auxiliary verb or after a modal
verb:
The government has occasionally been forced to change its mind. (after the first auxiliary verb)
You can definitely never predict what will happen. (after a modal verb)
We mightn’t ever have met. (after the modal verb and before the auxiliary verb)
In questions, mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
Do you ever think about living there?
Adverbs usually come after the main verb be, except in emphatic clauses:
She’s always late for everything.
When be is emphasised, the adverb comes before the verb:
Why should I have gone to see Madonna? I never was a fan of hers. (emphatic)
See also:
 Adverb phrases
 Be as a main verb

Types of adverbs and their positions

Different types of adverbs go in different places.

Type Position Example

They usually go in end position.

She ate quickly.
Manner They sometimes go in mid position if the
adverb is not the most important part of
She quickly ate her dinner and ran
out.
the clause or if the object is very long.

They usually go in end position. Can you come over here?

Place
They sometimes go in front position, We’ll be at that table there.
especially in writing.

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Type Position Example

Here she sat.

Outside, there was a small pond.

They usually go in end position.

I’m flying to Edinburgh tomorrow.
Time They sometimes go in front position
especially if we want to emphasize the Today, I’m going to clean the house.
adverb.

Duration They usually go in end position. I’m not staying long.

We often have friends to stay.

They usually go in mid position.
I usually get up late on weekends.
They sometimes go in front position.
I could never swim fast.
Frequency They can also go in end position.
Sometimes she wore a woollen hat.
Always, ever and never do not usually go
We don’t see them very often.
in front position.
Not: Never I could swim fast.

Really, very, quite usually go in mid I really like those pink flowers.

Degree position. We go to Ireland a lot.

A lot and a bit usually go in end position. I’d just like to change things a bit.

He simply walked out without

Focusing They usually go in mid position.
saying a word.

Some go in mid position: probably, It’ll probably rain.

Certainty or possibly, certainly.
Maybe Nick will know the answer.
Others go in front position: maybe,
Obligation perhaps or in end positions after a Can I get you a drink, or something
comma. to eat, perhaps?

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Type Position Example

They usually go outside the clause, often

Personally, I’d rather not go out.
at the beginning.
Viewpoint They can sometimes go in mid position,
This must, frankly, be the craziest
idea anyone has ever had.
especially in formal writing.

Unfortunately, I forgot my
They usually go outside the clause, often
swimming costume so I had to sit on
at the beginning.
the side and watch.
Evaluative They can sometimes go in mid position.
We have stupidly forgotten the
In informal speaking they can go in end tickets.
position.
They missed the bus, apparently.

Manner, place and time

Adverbs of manner, place and time usually come in end position:
He played brilliantly.
If the verb has an object, the adverb comes after the object:
We [verb] made [object] a decision [adverb] quickly then left.
When there is more than one of the three types of adverb together, they usually go in the order:
manner, place, time:
You start off [manner] slowly [time] in the beginning.
Not: You start off in the beginning slowly.
James played [manner] [place] brilliantly in the match on [time] Saturday. (preferred to James
played brilliantly on Saturday in the match.)
Warning:
We don’t put adverbs between the verb and the object:
She [verb]plays [object]the piano [adverb] really well. I’ve heard her.
Not: She plays really well the piano.
I don’t watch the TV very often

What Do Adverbs Do?

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Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They often end in -ly, but not always.
Examples of adverbs in sentences include:

 She smiled sweetly. (The adverb sweetly modifies the verb smiled)
 I’m incredibly happy with this news. (The adverb incredibly modifies the adjective happy)
 The dog ran out the door very quickly. (The adverb very modifies the adverb quickly)

You’ll find adverbs in almost every sentence you read (including that one — almost is an adverb, too). But each
type of adverb provides us with different information about another part of speech. Download and print a handy
reference sheet with each type of adverb as a helpful resource for your writing notebook or classroom.

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner answer the question “How did it happen?” Common adverbs of manner include:

 beautifully
 generously
 kindly
 neatly
 patiently
 softly
 quickly
 well

Adverbs of Manner Examples

Using an adverb of manner allows you to answer a question about how a verb happened in the sentence. Adverbs
of manner typically come before the verb or after the direct object in a sentence.

Example sentences with adverbs of manner include:

 He trimmed the white roses neatly. (How did he trim them?)

 I combed my dog’s fur carefully because it had lots of tangles. (How did you comb it?)
 Please discuss the topic calmly. (How should I discuss it?)
 An anonymous donor generously gave us enough money for the new stage. (How did they give the
money?)
 The little girl happily skipped down the road. (How did she skip?)

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity of an action, answering the question “How much?” They can also
describe the degree of an adjective or another adverb.

Popular adverbs of degree include:

 almost

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 enough
 hardly
 just
 nearly
 quite
 simply
 so
 too
 very

Adverbs of Degree Examples

Adverbs of degree are often placed before the word they modify, although in some cases, they follow the word
(such as the adverb enough). For example:

 This short essay is hardly sufficient. (How sufficient is it?)

 The dress looks simply gorgeous. (How gorgeous is it?)
 I’m so excited to move to Ireland. (How excited are you?)
 The book was interesting enough to keep my attention. (How interesting was it?)

Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency answer the question “How often?” These adverbs tend to appear right before the main verb
in the sentence or at the end of the clause.

Popular adverbs in this category include:

 again
 always
 every (hour, day, week, year, and so on)
 never
 normally
 rarely
 seldom
 sometimes
 usually

Adverbs of Frequency Examples

Like adverbs of manner, adverbs of frequency appear before a verb or after a direct object. For example:

 I always read a book before bed. (How often do you read a book before bed?)
 He normally walks his dog at this time. (How often does he walk his dog at this time?)
 She usually shops at the Korean market in town. (How often does she shop there?)
 We never stay up past ten o'clock. (How often do you stay up that late?)
 I travel by plane sometimes. (How often do you travel by plane?)
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Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of place clarify where the action took place. While some adverbs of place can function
as prepositions when modifying nouns, they are considered adverbs when they modify verbs.

Common adverbs of place include:

 above
 anywhere
 back
 everywhere
 here
 inside
 nowhere
 out
 outside
 there

Adverbs of Place Examples

Adverbs of place typically come after the verb or the direct object in a sentence. Unlike prepositions, adverbs of
place are not followed by objects.

 I looked everywhere for my lost necklace. (Where did you look?)

 There are more boxes over there. (Where are there more boxes?)
 It's time for lunch, so go inside. (Where should I go?)
 You can park anywhere. (Where can I park?)
 Let's go back before we get lost. (Where should we go?)

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time detail when the action took place. Although many prepositions can also indicate when something
happened, they are always followed by objects, so you can easily tell when a word is an adverb of time.

Adverbs of time include:

 already
 earlier

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 immediately
 lately
 later
 now
 recently
 soon
 tomorrow
 yesterday

Adverbs of Time Examples

We usually see these kinds of adverbs placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, although some (such
as recently or immediately) can come right before a verb. For example:

 You already went to the post office. (When did you go to the post office?)
 They recently relocated to Santa Fe. (When did they relocate?)
 The morning newspaper arrives earlier. (When does it arrive?)
 We'll take a trip to Yosemite later. (When will we take a trip?)
 I'll finish my project tomorrow. (When will you finish it?)

Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are often considered adverbs, even though they function as conjunctions. Conjunctive
adverbs connect two independent clauses or sentences, so they don’t answer a question like other adverbs.

Common conjunctive adverbs include:

 additionally
 anyway
 however
 incidentally
 likewise
 meanwhile
 otherwise
 still
 therefore

Conjunctive Adverbs Examples

Conjunctive adverbs are often used as transition words at the beginning of a sentence or clause. You may also
find them at the end of a sentence for emphasis. For example:

 I had a wonderful trip. Still, I missed my life back home.

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 John decided not to take the job. Likewise, Sue began to think about different opportunities.
 The cowboys disappeared into the night. Meanwhile, the villain counted his money.
 You haven’t saved enough money; therefore, you can’t afford a new car.
 Just because I got sick didn’t mean I didn’t enjoy the meal, however.

What Is an Adverbial Phrase?

An adverbial phrase is a group of words that together behave as an adverb. Adverbial phrases, also
known as adverb phrases, modify other parts of speech—such as verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
—and other phrases.

In English grammar, adverbial phrases describe why, how, where, or when an event occurred without
using a subject or a verb. Instead, adverbial phrases often combine multiple adverbs, as in the
sentence “She cooks very well.” Adverbial phrases can also use prepositional phrases, as in “I’ll leave
in two hours.”

Adverbial Phrase vs. Adverbial Clause: What’s the

Difference?
Adverbial clauses contain a subject and a predicate, as in the example sentence “We go
to the shore because we own a home there.” The “because” is the start of the adverbial
clause, “we” is the subject, and “own a home there” is the predicate.

On the other hand, adverbial phrases contain neither a subject nor a predicate, as in “We
left the shore the week before.” In that sentence, “the week before” operates as an
adverb phrase, modifying when the subjects left the shore, but no subject or predicate is
used.

4 Types of Adverbial Phrases

In the English language, adverbial phrases can serve as different kinds of modifiers:

1. Intention (why): These adverbial phrases highlight the purpose of an event

or action, as in the example sentence “To ensure they had a table, they made a
reservation.” Here, “they made a reservation” is a complete sentence unto itself,
and everything else before the comma—“to ensure they had a table”—acts as an
adverbial phrase describing the intention behind the independent or main clause.
2. Manner (how): Adverb phrases describing the manner of an event or action
are often similes, as in the sentence “He ran like a cheetah,” or prepositional
phrases, as in “I sleep in total darkness.” In the first example, the simile “like a
cheetah” modifies how the subject runs. In the second sentence, the prepositional
phrase “in total darkness” modifies how the subject sleeps.
3. Time (when): A group of words illustrating time modify when an event occurs,
as in the sentence “Grandma eats at six o’clock.” The adverbial phrase “at six
o’clock” modifies when the subject eats a meal.
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4. Location (where): Multi-word phrases can show the location of an event or
action. In the example sentence “He rents an apartment in New York,” the
prepositional phrase “in New York” modifies where the subject rents his apartment.

3 Examples of Adverbial Phrases

Adverbial phrases can be intensifiers, prepositional phrases, similes, and more. In the
following sentences, various adverbial phrases show how, why, when, and where an
action occurred:

1. “He left his grammar book in the study.” In this example, “in the study” is a
prepositional phrase acting as an adverbial phrase that shares where the subject
left his book.
2. “She plays piano well, but her brother plays quite well.” The first “well” is a
single adverb modifying how the woman plays; the second phrase contains two
adverbs, “quite” and “well,” making it an adverbial phrase. Intensifiers like “quite,”
“very,” “rather,” and “really” show the degree to which an adverb modifies a verb.
3. “During the performance, they crawled on the floor like babies.” The simile
“like babies” modifies how the subjects crawled on the floor.

Unit # 9 EQUIPMENT
English Grammar
Prepositions

In today’s lesson, we will discuss prepositions. We will begin with

understanding the definition of prepositions. Then we will see examples of these
prepositions. Moving ahead we will learn about different types of prepositions.
Practice questions and solved examples are given throughout the article for
better understanding and concept clarity.

Image: English Grammar

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Let’s begin the journey on this amazing topic.

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Image: Introduction to Prepositions

What is a Preposition?
Prepositions are words that are normally used before nouns or pronouns to show
time, place, location, direction, relationship, etc.
Some examples are:
1. He fell off a ladder.
2. I have read the chapter on modals.
3. Give the book to me.

Types of Prepositions
1. Preposition of Time:
Prepositional phrases are words that occur before a noun or pronoun and
explain the relationship between two nouns. Events that happen all at once or
over a long period of time might be described by a preposition of time. Simple
examples of prepositions include at, on, in, before, since, till, during, by, from,
and after. They are used to help signal events that have already happened, are
going to happen, or will happen.
Examples:
 This has been the tradition since time immemorial.
 I will send the mail after this meeting.
 The bloodshed during the Mahabharata was brutal.
 I will need your approval by today.

2. Preposition of Place:
Prepositions of place describe the relationship between two objects or people.
Utilizing prepositions of place allows you to point someone in the right
direction. Prepositions like above, on, on top of, beneath, underneath, below,
under, in front of, behind, next to, between, alongside, near, far close to, within,
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outside, out of, out, on, at, in, etc. are frequently used to express position.
Examples:
 There is a great hangout cafe just outside the building.
 The waterfall park is very far.
 The baby was seated in between her parents.

3. Preposition of Direction:
Prepositions of direction tell us how something moves or is pointed toward in
relation to other things or persons. To refer to the act of moving from one
location to another Examples include "to," "through," "toward," "into," "across,"
and "over," among others.
Examples:
 We will have to move across the city to reach there.
 Is he coming over?
 There is no point forcing him to head towards the North.

Prepositions used in different sentences:

 Prepositions can be used at the end of a sentence if the sentence is
a question. For example,
1. What film are you interested in?
2. Which book are you pointing to?
 The preposition can also be placed before the conjunction whom or
which. For example,
1. He is the person to whom I can turn in need.
2. The book from which I have taken this poem is Madhushala.

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Use of prepositions
Prepositions are uncommon, yet they are important because they act as sentence

Prepositions are uncommon, yet they are important because they act as sentence
structure markers, expressing certain links between subjects, objects, and
locations. To show where the subject or object of a noun or pronoun sits in
relation to other nouns or pronouns, a preposition is a word that comes before
the noun or pronoun.
A word like "in" or "after" is mostly meaningless and challenging to explain in
words on its own. However, because prepositions are so crucial to English,
choosing the wrong one can change the meaning of a sentence. Someone who
has a solid command of the English language uses prepositions correctly.

Prepositions can be used for various purposes:

 Prepositions for time: Prepositions of time indicate how the nouns in a
sentence relate to one another in terms of time.
Prepositions used to express time are at, on, in, by, during, before, after, etc.
For example,

1. We are leaving for Delhi on the morning of the tenth of July.

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2. I’ll complete the work by 2 p.m.
3. We stay in our village during the summer holidays.
4. I don’t want to hold any meetings before lunch.

 Prepositions for place: Prepositions of place describe how one thing or

person is situated with respect to another.
Prepositions used for the place are on, at, under, over, among, between,
etc. For example,

1. The hotel is on your right.

2. The river flows under the bridge.
3. He lives among the hills.
4. The school is opposite of my house.
5. Ram is standing between Mohan and Vijaya.
6. They had a discussion over a cup of tea.

 Use of prepositions after adjectives: The preposition is always placed

immediately after the adjective.
Prepositions used after adjectives are to, of, for, etc.
For example,
1. He is qualified for the post.
2. She is fond of cooking.
3. He is not interested in the job.
4. He is angry with me.
5. I am not partial to anyone.
6. My father is very liberal with money.
7. She is fond of cooking.

 Use of prepositions for tools, agency, description, etc: Prepositions of

agency or description are frequently used to describe anything that is
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the cause or origin of another object that appears in the phrase.
For example,

1. I have no money with me.

2. Cut the apple into two with a knife.
3. Call the boy in blue.
4. The hills are covered with snow.
5. Can you see the girl with brown hair?

 Use of prepositions after verbs: Prepositions are necessary to connect

some verbs to the objects of their phrases.
Prepositions used after verbs are up, to, of, on, etc.
For example,
1. She climbed up the stairs.
2. His eyes blazed with anger.
3. The dog is walking down the stairs.
4. He objected to my proposal.
5. He dreams of teaching at IIT.
6. They were freed from prison last month.
7. We have resolved on teaching slum kids.

 Use of prepositions after nouns: When used with a noun, a preposition can
specify the location or method of an object.
For example,
1. Have you got the details about the game?
2. He is an honour to the profession.
3. He covered his face with a mask.
4. Everyone admires her strength of character.
5. He is an honour to the profession.
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Difficult Word Meaning

Word Meaning

Adjectives Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or specifications

of the noun.

Verbs In a sentence, verbs serve as the action words that describe what
the subject is doing.

Summary
In this chapter, we started with the basic definition of prepositions. Prepositions
are important because they act as vital markers to the structure of a sentence,
they mark special relationships between persons, objects, and locations We then
learned the places where prepositions can be used, then after we saw different
kinds of prepositions used in respective situations such as preposition for time,
place, direction, etc. Practice Questions along with the answers and the
vocabulary of difficult words used in the chapter are discussed in the end.

Practice questions:
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions.

1. Your article is full errors,(in, of, on, for)

2. Sugar dissolves water,(on, in, for)
3. I will return a month, (in, of, on, for)
4. The Ramayana is lying the table, (in, of, on, for)
5. We shall finish this work 11 a.m. today, (in, by, on, at)
6. Send me letters this address, (by, in, to, on)
7. You should listen your parents . (among, in, to,
between)
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 Class X English Grammar
8. Sita writes on the paper, (with, on, in, at)

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 Class X English Grammar

Answers:
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions.
1. Your article is full of errors.
2. Sugar dissolves in water.
3. I will return in a month.
4. The Ramayana is lying on the table.
5. We shall finish this work by 11 a.m. today.
6. Send me a letter on this address.
7. You should listen to your parents.
8. Ali writes on the paper.

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 Class X English Grammar
Unit # 10
WATER SCARCITY
INPAKISTAN
Infinitives and Infinitive
phrases
During this English grammar lesson we will learn what infinitives are and how to use them
with the word ‘it’.

What is an infinitive?
An infinitive is a verb that is used with the word to, they can are used a lot with the subject
‘it’. An infinitive acts like a noun, an adverb or an adjective in a sentence. We often use
infinitives a lot to indicate a purpose or the intention of an action. Examples are:
 It was lovely to go and see the sunset.
 It is preferable to wear a suit and tie when going to a wedding.
 It was good to see you again.

For most grammarians, an infinitive is the name of a two-word unit (to + simple verb), which
serves a single function in a sentence pattern.

Please note that although an infinitive is made from a verb form and does have certain verbal
qualities, it can never be the main verb of a sentence.

What is an infinitive phrase?

It means simply an infinitive together with its subject and/or complement. Such phrases also
function as units in a sentence pattern.

Infinitives and infinitive phrases as

subjects:
a. Although it is not a frequent pattern, the normal subject position, before the main verb, may be filled by an
infinitive. When used in this way, it is almost always as a statement, not as a question. Note that an infinitive subject
is followed by an s-form verb. The subject of an infinitive phrase so used is introduced by for. Examples are shown
below:
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 Class X English Grammar
 To study isn’t easy.
 For anyone to study in a foreign language isn’t easy.

b. Displaced subject is the name sometimes given to an infinitive or an infinitive phrase which occurs after
the verb in a sentence which begins with anticipatory it. Note that when the subject of an infinitive is a
pronoun, it is an object form preceded by for. Examples are :

 It is not easy for me to study mathematics.

 Why is it hard for you to teach physics?

Infinitives and infinitive phrases as direct

objects
a. When the subject of the infinitive object is the same as the subject of the sentence, it is not repeated.
Examples are shown below:

 Most parents want their sons and daughters to succeed in sentence writing.
 1st year students fail to know their handicap
.
b. When the subject of an infinitive is different from the subject of the sentence, it appears before the
infinitive. If it is a pronoun, it is an object form. For example:

 Most fathers want their daughters o succeed in their science studies.

 They encourage them to study science.

Verbs which take infinitive objects.

Not all verbs may have infinitives as objects. Of those that do, some pattern as in 1a below,
some as in 2a below; a few, such as want, occur in both patterns.

Pattern 1a Pattern 2a Both Patterns

Students try to succeed Their fathers encourage them to study
agree, attempt, begin, neglect, care, offer, advise, permit, allow, persuade, remind, expect, like, need, want,
convince, request, need, learn, mean, teach, convince, cause, tell, hire, invite, ask, prepare, etc.
cause, plan, prefer, decide, fail, instruct, order, urge, request, forbid, oblige,
hope, try, etc. order, etc.

Infinitive and infinitive-phrase objects in

compound sentences.
When a compound sentence has an infinitive or an infinitive phrase in the object position of
the first independent clause, the sentence frequently ends in to. The ‘to’ indicates that the
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 second independent
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X English Grammar

Simple sentences
 Their teachers urge them to attend language classes.
 Their teachers can't force them to attend language classes.

Compound sentence pattern

 Their teachers urge them to attend language classes, but they can't force them to.
 Their parents urge them to eat their food, but they can’t force them to.

Infinitives as modifiers
a. Of nouns. Infinitives often modify nouns. Observe the following pattern:

 Betty has a term paper to write. She has a lab report to finish, too.

b. Of adjectives or adverbs. Examples are:

 Don't be afraid to ask questions.

 Some students don't work hard enough to pass.

c. Of verbs. Infinitives which express purpose may be considered modifiers of the verb phrases of the sentences in
which they occur. They may optionally be preceded by the words in order.

 Many young people go abroad to study.

 They study (in order) to learn.

d. Of the compound indefinites

 I don't have anything to do this afternoon.

 I’d like something interesting to do.

e. Of question words and phrases. Objects consisting of question words or question phrases are often modified by
infinitives.

 Some students don't know how to plan their time.

 They can't decide which subject to study first or how long to spend on each assignment.
Infinitives in reported speech
An imperative in direct quotation becomes an infinitive in reported speech. For example:

George’s adviser said, “Work

hard.” George's adviser told
him to work hard.

The clerk said to Miss Liu,

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 “Don't beX late”
Class The
English clerk said not
Grammar
to be late.

Kindly note:
Verbs that can precede only gerunds (Verb + ing) are:
consider, suggest, enjoy, deny, avoid, miss, mind, practice, postpone, resist, finish, quit, give
up, put off, etc.

Verbs that can precede only infinitives are:

offer, decide, hope, attempt, promise, agree, afford, deserve, refuse, undertake, learn,
fail, seem, appear, tend, pretend, choose, demand, desire, guarantee, claim, manage,
determine, expect, want, wish, etc.

Verbs that can precede either gerunds or infinitives without

changing meanings are:
continue, like, love, begin, start, propose, neglect, stand, hate

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 Class X English Grammar

Unit #11 Genetically Modified Organism

GMOs

Introduction:
Most everyone is familiar with the basic structure of a sentence. A sentence must have a subject
and a verb, and it must express a complete thought. There are 4 types of sentence structures in
English: simple, complex, compound, and compound-complex sentences. Each type of sentence
structure has its own rules. Let’s take a closer look at each one.

Understanding the 4 Types of Sentence Structure

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is one with a subject and predicate in the same order. In other words, the subject
comes before its verb and vice versa. Examples of simple sentences include:

 I like chocolate ice cream.

 My dog likes to eat grass.
 I am eating breakfast.
 He likes to play soccer.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. An independent
clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause cannot.
Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions; these include:

 however
 whether
 because

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 although
 when Class X English Grammar
 while
 that
Examples of complex sentences include: “The city was built on a river and therefore it was flooded.”
(independent clause) + “therefore” = “The city was built on a river, which makes it easy for floods to
occur there.” (dependent clause) +” which”

 She returned the computer after she noticed it was damaged.

 Wherever you go, you can always find beauty.
 The museum was very interesting, as I expected.

Compound Sentences
Compound sentences have two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a semicolon.

A compound sentence is an example of a well-formed sentence. It has a subject and predicate, and it
contains at least one independent clause (or main clause). The other elements that can be found in
compound sentences are called phrases, clauses, or words. For example, The flowers need water; I
will water them. In this sentence, the two independent clauses are “The flowers need water” and “I
will water them.” The coordinating conjunction “;” joins them.

 I wanted to go outside, but it was raining.

 He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
 I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
Compound-Complex Sentences

Compound-complex sentences are those that have two or more independent clauses joined together
by a coordinating conjunction, such as and. They can also be joined by a comma or semicolon:

 The independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and
the dependent clause(s) are inserted into the sentence with a subordinating conjunction.
 When I went to the store, my parents wanted me to pick up some milk, but I didn’t have enough
money.
 The dog needed a new leash, and he couldn’t go for a walk until he had one.
 Even if the child is hungry, he will never eat oatmeal, but he will always eat ice cream.

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 Class X English Grammar

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point).

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an independent
clause.
o He obtained his degree.

The 4 English Sentence Types

There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose:

 declarative sentence (statement)

 interrogative sentence (question)

 imperative sentence (command)

 exclamative sentence (exclamation)

1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

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Declarative sentences make a statement. They tell us something. They give us information, and they
normally endX with
Class a full-stop/period.
English Grammar

The usual word order for the declarative sentence is:

 subject + verb...

Declarative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

I like coffee. I do not like coffee.

We watched TV last We did not watch TV last night.

night.

Declarative sentences are the most common type of sentence.

2. Interrogative Sentence (question)

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They ask us something. They want information, and they
always end with a question mark.

The usual word order for the interrogative sentence is:

 (wh-word +) auxiliary + subject + verb...

Interrogative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

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 Class
Do you likeX English Grammar
Don't you like coffee?
coffee?

Why did you go? Why didn't you go?

3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They tell us to do something, and they end with a
full-stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).

The usual word order for the imperative sentence is:

 base verb...

Note that there is usually no subject—because the subject is understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

Stop! Do not stop!

Give her coffee. Don't give her coffee.

4. Exclamative Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamative sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an exclamation—and they always end

with an exclamation mark/point (!).

The usual word order for the exclamative sentence is:

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  What (+ adjective) + noun + subject + verb
Class X English Grammar
 How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb

Look at these examples:

 What a liar he is!

 What an exciting movie it was!

 How he lied!

 How exciting the movie was!

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 Class X English Grammar

Unit# 12 THEY HAVE CUT DOWN THE PINES (Poem)

What is a Conditional Sentence?

A conditional sentence is based on the word ‘if’. There are always two parts to a
conditional sentence – one part beginning with ‘if’ to describe a possible situation, and the
second part which describes the consequence.

For example:

If it rains, we’ll get wet.

We can also invert the two parts of a conditional sentence so that the ‘if’ part comes
second, and this is especially common in questions. For example:

What will you do if you miss the train?

How can you finish the project if you don’t have a computer?
What happens if the stude nts don’t pass an exam?
There are four types of conditional sentences:

0 – The zero conditional

1 – The first conditional

2 – The second conditional

3 – The third conditional

It is also possible to mix the second and third conditional. Let’s look at each conditional to
see how we use them.32

The Zero Conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about permanent truths, such as scientific facts, and
general habits. The structure is simple:

Here are some examples:

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If you heat water to 100°, it boils.
If you eat a lot, you put on weight.
If it doesn’t rain for a long time, the earth gets very dry.
If we go out with friends, we normally go to a restaurant.
If I’m tired, I go to bed early.
The First Conditional
We use the first conditional to talk about a realistic situation in the present or future. The
structure of the first conditional is as follows:

Here are some examples:

If you’re free later, we can go for a walk.

If they’re hungry, I’ll make some sandwiches.
If you’re not back by 5pm, give me a ring.
If he studies hard, he’ll do well in the exam.
If we arrive late, we must get a taxi.
He’ll call if he needs help.
Take a break if you’re tired.
Another way to make first conditional sentences is to use ‘unless’ which means ‘only if’ or
‘except’. As with ‘if’, the word ‘unless’ can never be followed by ‘will’ but only by the
present simple. For example:

Unless you hurry up, you won’t catch the bus.

I’ll carry on doing this work, unless my boss tells me to do something else.
We’ll stay at home unless the weather improves.
The Second Conditional
We use the second conditional to talk about improbable or impossible situations in the
present or future. Here is the structure:

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 Class X English Grammar

For example:

If I had more time, I’d exercise more. (But I don’t have more time so I don’t.)
If I were rich, I’d spend all my time travelling. (But I’m not rich so I can’t.)
If she saw a snake, she’d be terrified.
If he didn’t have to work late, he could go out with his girlfriend.
What would you do if you were offered a job in Canada?
You wouldn’t have to walk everywhere if you bought a bike.
A common expression used to give advice has the second conditional structure. The
expression is ‘If I were you, I’d..’, meaning ‘in your situation, this is what I would do’. For
example:
A: I’ve got a headache.
B: If I were you, I’d take an aspirin.
A: I don’t understand this.
B: If I were you, I’d ask your teacher for help.
A: This order won’t be delivered on time.
B: If I were you, I’d phone the customer to let them know.
The Third Conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about impossible situations, as in the second
conditional, in the past. We often use the third conditional to describe regrets. The
structure is:

Here are some examples:

If we had left earlier, we would have arrived on time.

If you hadn’t forgotten her birthday, she wouldn’t have been upset.
If they had booked earlier, they could have found better seats.
If I hadn’t learnt English, I wouldn’t have got this job.
What would you have studied if you hadn’t done engineering?

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 Class X English Grammar
They wouldn’t have hired you if you hadn’t had some experience abroad.
You could have helped me if you’d stayed later.
Mixed Conditionals
It’s possible to combine the second and third conditional in one sentence when we want to
make a hypothesis about the past that has a consequence in the present. In this case, the
structure is:

Here are some examples:

If you’d studied harder, you’d be at a higher level now.

We’d be lying on a beach now if we hadn’t missed the plane.
They’d have much more confidence if they hadn’t lost so many matches.
What would you be doing now if you hadn’t decided to study?

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 Class X English Grammar

UNIT # 13 HAZRAT UMAR R.A

Active and Passive Voice Rules, Example, Exercise for

Competitive Exam
To get triumph in Competitive Exams candidates need to score well in every section of the
exam paper. There are certain topics which are common in every Competitive Exam. A
candidate must be having a good command on such topics to get a good rank.

English has now been an essential part of every competitive exam and grammar is its
core. In this blog, we will talk about Active and Passive Voice.

In Active Voice, a sentence emphasizes subject performing an action while in Passive

Voice sentence emphasizes the action or the object of the sentence.

To know how a sentence is converted in Passive voice from Active voice, we need to go
through certain rules with examples based on it.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE RULES FOR ALL

TENSES
Here, we are listing out the Active and Passive Voice Rules for all tenses. You will come to
know how an auxiliary verb is used to change a sentence from Active to Passive voice.

Active and Passive Voice Rules for Present

Simple Tense
Here in this table, we are elaborating Rules of Active and Passive Voice with examples for
Present Simple.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb – is/am/are)

Subject + V1+s/es+ object Object+ is/am/are+ V3+ by + subject

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Subject + Do/does+ not + V1 + Object Object + is/am/are+ not + V3+ by Subject

Does+ Subject+ V1+Object+? Is/am/are + Object+ V3+ by subject +?

Active and Passive Voice Example with Answers of Present

Simple Tense
Active: He reads a novel.
Passive: A novel is read.
Active: He does not cook food.
Passive: Food is not cooked by him.
Active: Does he purchase books?
Passive: Are books purchased by him?
Active: They grow plants.
Passive: Plants are grown by them.
Active: She teaches me.
Passive: I am taught by her.

Active and Passive Voice Rules for Present

Continuous Tense
Below we will explain the Rules of Active and Passive Voice with examples for Present
Continuous tense.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- is/am/are + being)

Object+ is/am/are+ being+ V3+ by +

Subject + is/am/are+ v1+ ing + object
subject

Object + is/am/are+ not + being+V3+ by

Subject + is/am/are+ not+ v1+ ing+ object
Subject

Is/am/are+ subject+v1+ing + object+? Is/am/are + Object+ V3+ by subject +?

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Active and Passive Voice Exercises of Present
Continuous Tense
Active: Ali is singing a song.
Passive: A song is being sung by Ali.
Active: Saud is not chopping vegetables.
Passive: Vegetables are not being chopped by Saud.
Active: Is Ali buying a table?
Passive: Is a table being bought by Ali?
Active: They are serving poor people.
Passive: Poor people are being served by them.
Active: She is disturbing Dinesh.
Passive: Dinesh is being disturbed by her.

Active and Passive Voice Rules for Present Perfect

Tense
You can understand passive voice for present perfect tense from the list which are given
below.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- has/have +been)

Subject + has/have+ v3+ object Object+ has/have+ been+ V3+ by + subject

Object + has/have+ not + been+V3+ by

Subject + has/have+ not+ v3+ object
Subject

Has/Have + Object+ been+V3+ by subject

Has/have+ subject+ v3 + object+?
+?

Active and Passive Voice Example with Answers of Present Perfect

Tense
Active: Ali has challenged her.
Passive: She has been challenged by Ali.
Active: Ali has not written an article.
Passive: An article has not been written by Ali.
Active: Have they left the apartment?

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 Class X English Grammar
Passive: Has apartment been left by them?
Active: She has created this masterpiece.
Passive: This masterpiece has been created by her.
Active: I have read the newspaper.
Passive: The newspaper has been read by me.
Active and Passive Voice Rules for Past Simple Tense
Here in the below table, you can check Active and Passive Voice Rules for past simple
tense.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- was/were)

Subject + V2+ object Object+ was/were V3+ by + subject

Subject +did+ not+v1+ object Object + was/were+ not +V3+ by Subject

Did+ subject+V1+ object+? Was/were + Object+ V3+ by subject +?

Active and Passive Voice Exercises of Past Simple

Tense
Active: Ali ma cleaned the floor.
Passive: The floor was cleaned by Ali.
Active: Aisha bought a bicycle.
Passive: A bicycle was bought by Aisha.
Active: Ali called my friends.
Passive: My friends were called by Ali.
Active: I saved him.
Passive: He was saved by me.
Active: Ali paid the bills.
Passive: The bills were paid by Ali.

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Active and Passive Voice Rules for Past Continuous
Tense
We can easily convert sentences from Active to Passive Voice according to given rules
below.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- was/were + being)

Object+ was/were +being+V3+ by +

Subject + was/were + v1+ing+ object.
subject

Object + was/were+ not +being+V3+ by

Subject +was/were+ not+v1+ing + object
Subject

Was/were + Object+ being+v3+ by+

Was/were+ Subject + V1+ing + object+?
subject+?

Active and Passive Voice Examples with Answers of Past Continuous

Tense
Active: Ali was painting the wall.
Passive: The wall was being painted by Ali.
Active: Ali was repairing the car.
Passive: The car was being repaired by Ali.
Active: Were you reciting the poem?
Passive: Was the poem being recited?
Active: She was backing the cake.
Passive: The cake was being backed by her.
Active: She was watching me.
Passive: I was being watched by her.

Active and Passive Voice Rules for Past Perfect Tense

There are certain Active and Passive Voice Rules for Past perfect tense, with these only
you can convert any sentence in Passive Voice.
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 Class X English Grammar

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- had +been)

Subject + had + v3+ object. Object+ had+been +V3+ by + subject

Subject +had+ not+v3+ object Object + had+ not +been+V3+ by Subject

Had+ Subject + V3+ object+? Had + Object+ been+v3+ by+ subject+?

Active and Passive Voice Exercises of Past Perfect

Tense
Active: Ali had cleaned the floor.
Passive: The floor had been cleaned by Ali.
Active: Ali had not received the parcel.
Passive: The parcel had not been received by Ali.
Active: Ali had solved the doubt.
Passive: The doubt had been solved.
Active: Had they caught the thief?
Passive: Had the thief been caught by them?
Active: I had paid fifty thousand.
Passive: Fifty thousand had been paid by me.
Active and Passive Voice Rules for Future
Simple Tense

You can check Active Voice and Passive Voice Rules chart for future simple tense.

Passive Voice
Active Voice
(Auxiliary Verb- will+ be)

Subject + will+ v1+ object. Object+ will+ be +V3+ by + subject

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 Class X English Grammar

Subject +will + not+ V1+object Object + will+ not +be+V3+ by Subject

Will+ Subject + V1+ object+? Will + Object+ be +v3+ by+ subject+?

We can better understand Rules of Active and Passive Voice with

examples for future simple tense.

Active and Passive Voice Examples with Answers of Future

Simple Tense
Active: Ali will sew the bag.
Passive: The bag will be sewed by Ali.
Active: Ali will not arrange the things.
Passive: The things will not be arranged by Ali.
Active: Will you mop the floor?
Passive: Will the floor be mopped by you?
Active: They will post the letter.
Passive: The letter will be posted.
Active: Ali will save money.
Passive: Money will be saved by Ali.
Active and Passive Voice Rules for Future Perfect Tense
Here, we are sharing the Active Voice and Passive Voice Rules chart for future perfect
tense.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Object+ will+ have+ been +V3+ by +

Subject + will+ have +v3+ object.
subject

Object + will+ have +not+been+v3+

Subject + will+ have +not+v3+ object.
subject

Will + object+have+been+v3+by
Will+ Subject+have+v3+ object+?
+subject+?

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Active and Passive Voice Exercises of Future Perfect
Tense

Active: They will have brought the toy.

Passive: The toy will have been brought by them.
Active: Nimra will not have changed the table cover.
Passive: The table cover will not have been changed by Nimra.
Active: Will she have written the notes.
Passive: Will the notes have been written by her?
Active: They will have won the match.
Passive: The match will have been won by them.

Active: Ali will have washed a shirt.

Passive: A shirt will have been washed by Ali.

There is no Passive Voice formation for these tenses-

1.) Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2.) Past Perfect Continuous Tense

3.) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

4.) Future Continuous Tense

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Class X English Grammar

Unit#14 THE MODEL

MILLIONAIRE
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH RULES WITH
EXAMPLES FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMS

Direct and Indirect Speech Rules

Below, we are sharing the rules to make changes from Direct to Indirect
speech. The changes of Direct and Indirect speech depend on some factors like
modals, reporting verb, place, time, tense, pronoun etc. You can check the
complete information of changes in Direct and Indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Can Could

May Might

Must Had to/ Would have to

Should Should

Might Might

Could Could

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 Class X English Grammar

Would Would

Ought to Ought to

Direct and Indirect Speech Exercises for

Modals:

Look to the Direct and Indirect Speech examples with answers using
modals.

1. He said, “I can cook food.”

He said that he could cook food.

2. They said, “We may go to Canada.”

They said that they might go to Canada.

3. She said, “I must finish the work on time.”

She said that she had to finish the work on time.

Modals that remain unchanged are: Should, might, could, would,

ought to.

4. Kainat said, “I ought to avoid junk food.”

Kianat said that she ought to avoid junk food.

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Changes as per Reporting Verb
According to the reporting verb, changes are made in the direct sentence or
the sentence in inverted commas.

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then the direct sentence is changed in
its past tense.
The tense of direct speech remains unchanged when the reporting verb is in
the present or future tense.
If the direct sentence contains the universal truth, then it remains unchanged
in the Indirect Speech.

Direct and Indirect Speech Exercises for

Reporting Verb

Below, we are providing Direct and Indirect Speech examples using reporting
verb changes.

1. Ali said, “He is young.”

Ali said that he was young.

2. Alia says, “I am pretty.”

Alia says that she is pretty.

3. Rohan will say, “I am tall.”

Rohan will say that he is tall.

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4. They said, “The sun rises in the east.”

They said that the sun rises in the east.

Changes as per Tense

In the below table, we are sharing how tense changes into
Indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Present simple Past simple

(Subject +V1st + Object) (Subject +V2 + Object)

Present continuous Past Continuous

(Subject +is/am/are+V1 +ing+ Object) (Subject +was/were+V1 +ing+ Object)

Present perfect Past perfect

(Subject + has/have+V3+Object) (Subject+had+V3+Object)

Past simple Past perfect

(Subject+V2+Object) (Subject+had+V3+Object)

Past Continuous Past perfect continuous

(Subject +was/were+V1 +ing+ Object) (Subject +had been+V1 +ing+ Object)

Future simple Present Conditional

(Subject+ will/shall+V1+object) (Subject+ would+V1+object)

Future Continuous
Conditional Continuous
(Subject +will/shall+be+V1 +ing+
(Subject +would+be+V1 +ing+ Object)
Object)

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Direct and Indirect speech exercises for
Tense
Check the Direct and Indirect speech examples for tense using the above
table. Changes will always be made according to the given table only.
1. Hena said, “I walk.”

Hena said that she walked.

2. Dilawar said, “I am having tea.”

Dilawar said that he was having tea.

3. Ayesha said, “Honey has left for school.”

Ayesha said that Honey had left for school.

4. Ali said, “Aisha took pasta.”

Ali said that Aisha had taken pasta.

5. They told, “We were living in Paris.”

They told that they had been living in Paris.

6. Ahmad said, “I will go to Sri Lanka.”

Ahmad said that he would go to Sri Lanka.

7. Aisha Said, “They will be watering plants.”

Aisha said that they would be watering plants.

Changes in Place and Time

Words are changed in an Indirect Speech to replace nearness from distance.
In the table, we are sharing some words which are changed in Indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

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Now Then

Here There

Today That day

Tomorrow The next day

Last week The previous week

This That

Tonight That night

Ago Before

Thus So

Hither Thither

Come Go

Hence Thence

Next Following

Changes of Interrogative Sentences

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Here, we are sharing certain rules of Direct and Indirect speech for
interrogative sentences conversions.

The reporting verb said/said to is changed in asked, demanded, ordered,

enquired as per the nature of the sentence.
While a sentence starts with reporting verb then at the conversion time if
/whether is used as the joining clause.
In case the sentence starts from “Wh” question word, then no extra
conjunction is used.

Direct and Indirect Speech Exercises for

Interrogative Sentences

We are applying the above rules in the given exercise below to make
changes in Direct and Indirect speech.

1. Ali said, “What is Hena doing?”

Ali asked me what Hena was doing.

2. Esha said, “Will she come for lunch?”

Esha asked if she would come for lunch.

3. The boy asked, “Where do you stay?”

The boy inquired where I stayed

Changes of Pronouns
While making the changes from Direct and Indirect speech, one should be
having knowledge of rules of changes in pronouns.

The first person in reported speech changes according to the subject of

reporting speech.
In Reported Speech change of the second person depends on the object of
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reporting speech.
The third person remains unchanged.

You can check the table for the changes in pronoun.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

I He/she

You He/she/they

We They

They They

He He

She She

It It

Us Them

Our Their

His His

Her Her

Its Its

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Direct and Indirect Speech Exercises for

Changes in Pronoun
1. He said, “I am a good girl.”

He said that she was a good girl.

2. I told them, “You have finished your work.”

I told them that they had finished their work.

3. He said, “She is in Delhi.”

He said that she was in Pakistan.

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Unit#15 OPPORTUNITY
(Poem)
Punctuation Marks: Names, Rules, and Useful
Examples
Punctuation Marks
The English language has many punctuation marks, and you will usually learn
to use many of them as you master the language. Still, there are some
punctuation mark uses you might still not know about despite using and seeing
them on a regular basis.

Here are 14 common punctuation marks in English.

1. The Full Stop (.)

2. The Question Mark (?)
3. Quotation Marks/Speech Marks (” “)
4. The Apostrophe (‘)
5. The Comma (,)
6. The Hyphen (-)
7. The dash (en dash (–) em dash (—))
8. The Exclamation Mark (!)
9. The Colon (:)
10. The Semicolon (;)
11. Parentheses ()
12. Brackets []
13. Ellipsis (…)
14. The Slash (/)

Punctuation Marks with Rules & Examples

Full Stop (.)

A full stop, also known as a period (.) in American English, is one of the most
commonly used punctuation marks in the English language. Analysis of texts
indicates that approximately half of all punctuation marks used are full stops.
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The punctuation rules:

 Mostly used at the end of a declarative sentence, or a statement that is

considered to be complete.
 This punctuation mark is also used following an abbreviation.
 A full stop can also show the end of a group of words that don’t form a
typical sentence.
The full stop examples:

 My name’s Beth and I was 18 in July.

 Mr. White was talking with Mr. Smith.
Question Mark (?)
We use a question mark (?) after an interrogative sentence in English.

Examples:

 “Have you a pen I can borrow?” she asked.

 Where are you from?
Quotation Marks/Speech Marks (” “)
We use quotation marks (” “) for direct quotations in English.

Examples:

 “I feel I’ve really earned this, ” she said, taking up her mug of tea.
 ” I told a fib about my age, ” little Tom said.
 “It is a historic moment,” he told journalists.
 “Fine, thanks,” he replied in a cheerful manner.
Apostrophe (‘)
An apostrophe (‘) is used to show that certain letters have been omitted from
a word. The punctuation symbol can also be used to show the possessive form
of a noun, in addition to indicating the plural form of lowercase letters.

The apostrophe rules:

(1) Use an apostrophe in contractions

 He is = He’s
 I am = I’m
 Do not = Don’t
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 They have = They’ve
 It is = It’s
 I would = I’d
 Let us = Let’s
 She has = She’s
 Who is = Who’s

(2) Use an apostrophe to indicate possession

The apostrophe examples:

 He joined Charles’s army in 1642.

 Sally’s hair was blond and curly.
 We have put together an anthology of children’s poetry.
 The boy’s sister traveled by bus to meet us.
Comma (,)
A comma (,) is used to show the difference between two separate ideas or
elements within a sentence. Commas have other uses as well, as they can be
used to separate numbers, and write dates.

The comma rules and examples:

(1) Add a comma when two separate sentences are combined

Example: We purchased some cheese, and we purchased some

fruit.

(2) Use commas between words in a series. Notice that a comma does not
follow the last word in the series

Example: He was tall, dark, and handsome.

(3) Use a comma to separate an introductory element from the rest of the
sentence

Example: As the day came to an end, the firefighters put out the last
spark.

(4) Use the comma to set off the words “yes” and “no”.
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Example: No, thank you.

(5) Use a comma to set off a tag question from the rest of the sentence.

Example: She is your sister, isn’t she?

(6) Use a comma to indicate a direct address.

Example: Is that you, Mary?

(7) Add a comma when a participle phrase clause is used.

Example: Walking slowly, I could see the beautiful flowers.

(8) Use a comma to separate parts of the date.

Example: Tuesday, May 2, 2016, was when I graduated.

Hyphen (-)
A hyphen (–) is a punctuation mark with three main uses. Many people
confuse this punctuation mark with the dash, but the two are quite different.
The hyphen can be used in compound words, to link words to prefixes, and
also as a way to show word breaks.

The hyphen rules and examples:

(1) Use a hyphen to join two or more words together into a compound term.
Do not separate the words with spaces.

Examples:
 My eight-year-old boy loves reading.
 I work part-time.
 Self-expression
 Self-confidence
 Self-consciousness
 Nineteenth-century history
 Old-furniture salesman
 Off-the-peg suits
 Self-paced learning exercises
(2) To link prefixes to words.
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For example: These things happened before the pre-enlightenment
era.

(3) To indicate word breaks

For example: Unlike what some people might think, the twentieth-
century was very different from other preceding time periods.

Dash
The dash is used to separate words into statements.

There are two kinds of dashes, the en dash, and the em dash. The en dash
shows range or connections. On the other hand, the em dash is used in places
where a comma could also be used. The dash can also be used to mark off
words or statements that are not important to the meaning of the statement.
The dash can also be used in places where a comma would be typically used.

En dash (–)
Slightly wider than a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in
writing or printing to indicate a range or connections.

Examples:

 1880 –1945
 Princeton–New York trains
Em dash (—)
Twice as long as the en dash, the em dash (—) can be used in place of a
comma, parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the
conclusion of a sentence.

Example: She gave him her answer—No!

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Exclamation Mark (!)
An exclamation mark is used to show emphasis. It can be used in the middle
of a sentence or at the end of a sentence. When used at the end of a sentence,
it also takes on the role of a full stop or a period.

We often use an exclamation mark (!) to show strong emotion or give a

command.

Examples:
 Stop!
 Yeah!
 Sit down!
 What a lovely view you have here!
 That’s fantastic!
 Johnny, don’t touch that!
 Help!
 Good heavens!
 Aaarrgh!

Colon (:)
A colon (:) is a fairly common punctuation mark with a varied number of uses.
It can be used to introduce a quotation, an example, a series, or even an
explanation. Secondly, it can be used to separate two independent clauses.
Finally, a colon can be used to show emphasis.

Examples:

 You have two choices: finish the work today or lose the contract.
 That’s because we have one goal: for you to consider your website a
success.
 John has all the ingredients: minced clams, milk, potatoes, and onions.

Semicolon (;)
A semicolon (;) is used to separate two independent clauses while still
demonstrating that a close relationship exists between them. The semicolon
does a better job of showing the connection between two statements than a
full stop would.

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Examples:
 My daughter is a teacher; my son is a doctor.
 There are eight members in the team: two from China, Japan; three from
France, Spain; two from Brazil; and one from India.
 Richard always slept with the light on; he was afraid of the dark.
Parentheses ( )
Parenthesis, ( () ) are quotation marks that show additional thoughts about a
statement. In many scenarios, they can be replaced by commas without any
changes to the meaning of the sentence.

We also often use parentheses to set off less important details.

Example: The two brothers (Richard and Sean) were learning how to
play guitar.

Brackets [ ]

Brackets are squared off quotations ([]) that are used to show information of
a technical nature. Even if this information is omitted entirely, the sentence
would still make sense.

For example: Was he [the defendant] there when you arrived?

Ellipsis (…)
An ellipsis is usually represented by three dots (…), although it can also be
represented by three asterisks (***). This punctuation symbol is used to show
that there has been an omission of some letters or words. In many cases,
ellipses are used to cut statement short to avoid unnecessary or irrelevant
words that have no impact on the meaning of the statement being made.

We often use an ellipsis to show that parts of sentences are left out.

Examples:

 To be continued…
 You’ll never believe what I saw…

Slash (/)
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A slash, which is also known as a forward slash, a virgule, or even an oblique
dash, has a number of uses. The slash can be used to separate lines in a song
or poem when they are written in a continuous line. The slash (/) is also used in
place of the word or. The slash can also be used to show two contradictory
notions.

The slash punctuation rules and examples:

(1) Use slashes to separate parts of the internet (web) addresses and
file names for some computer programs.

Example: http://www.example.com/

(2) Use slashes for fractions

Example: 1/3 = one-third

(3) Use a slash to separate the day, month, and year in date.

Examples:

 w/o = without
 n/a or N/A = not applicable or not available
 R/C = radio control
(4) Use a slash to show the word “per” in
measurements.
Example: 80 miles/hour = 80 miles per hour

(5) Use a slash to separate lines of poetry or

rhymes in regular text.
Example: Twinkle, twinkle, little star, / How I wonder what you are. /
Up above the world so high, / Like a diamond in the sky.

(6) Use a slash to show alternatives in a

sentence.
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Example: Please press your browser’s Refresh/Reload button.

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