PGDEOH, MEV-001

Environment and
Ecology, Block-1
Unit 2: Ecosystems
(Biogeochemical Cycles-II)
2.12.2021 [email protected]
 Outline
 Recall of the previous session
Ecosystem
Hydrologic cycle
Carbon cycle
 Oxygen cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Phosphorous cycle
 Sulphur cycle
 Components
Recall
of Environment
 Ecosystem: interaction of the biotic and nonbiotic
factors with the environment

 Ecosystem aspects: Energy flow/nutrient cycles

 Biogeochemical cycles: movement of nutrients

etc. between biotic and abiotic factors

 Hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration,

interception, precipitation, run off, infiltration

 Carbon cycle: movement through the reservoirs

Oxygen Cycle
 Components
OxygenofCycle
Environment

Movement and maintenance of oxygen through the

four main regions or spheres of Earth:

 Atmosphere: region above Earth’s surface

 Biosphere: all ecosystems on Earth

 Lithosphere: Earth’s crust, largest reservoir

 Hydrosphere: in water
Movement and maintenance of oxygen through
the four main regions or spheres of Earth
 Components of Environment
Stages of Oxygen Cycle
Stage-1: Photosynthesis by green plants releases
oxygen into the atmosphere as a by-product

Stage-2: Aerobic organisms use free oxygen for

respiration

Stage-3: Animals and human beings exhale carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere: used by plants during
photosynthesis again to release oxygen
 Oxygen Cycle

oxygen in air mixes with water, into different

water bodies and makes aquatic life alive
Nitrogen Cycle
 Components
Nitrogen:
of Environment
Facts
 Free nitrogen makes up around 80% of the
Earth’s atmosphere
 It is very essential to all the living organisms
(proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll)
 But can not be used in the free inert form due
to stability
 Should be converted to a usable form: to be
done by the transformation of the free nitrogen
to NH3
 Components
Nitrogen: of Environment
Existance
 N exists in many different forms, including
both inorganic e.g., ammonia, nitrate and
organic e.g., amino and nucleic acids
 It undergoes many transformations in the
ecosystem, changing from one form to other
 This is achieved by a number of cyclic
processes
 Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification,
anammox, assimilation and ammonification
 Components
Nitrogen
of Environment
Cycle
The stages involved in the nitrogen cycle are:

 Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrification
 Denitrification
 Anammox
 Assimilation
 Ammonification
 Components
Nitrogen
ofFixation
Environment
First step in the nitrogen cycle
The process of conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen into biologically usable forms
There are four types of nitrogen fixation
 Atmospheric
 Biological
 Industrial
 Combustion
 Atmospheric Fixation
 Heat generated due to lightening makes
the atmospheric nitrogen react with oxygen
and moisture to form nitrogen oxides

 Oxides return to the earth as rain and form

nitrates reaching the ground

 Nitrates are used by the plants to form

compounds in these
Lightening breaks
the N molecules

Atmospheric
Fixation
 Components of Environment
Biological Fixation
 Discovered by Beijerinck in 1901, carried by
special group of prokaryotes

 By symbiotic bacteria known as

Diazotrophs, Azotobacter and Rhizobium

 The cyanobacteria fix significant amounts of

nitrogen in the oceans, lakes and soils.
Nitrogenase enzyme catalyses
Components the reaction of
of Environment
gaseous Nitrogen with Hydrogen to form NH3
 Components
Industrial of Haber-Bosch
Fixation: Environment process

 N combines with H at very high temp. and

press. to form ammonia: make fertilizers

 The process is used for world’s hybrid crops

 But it uses fossil fuels for energy

 Resulting carbon dioxide emissions and

pollution has adverse affects on human health
 Components of Environment
Combustion
 During combustion of fossil fuels, N from
coal is oxidized to nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere

 Gets converted to nitric acid and reaches

the earth as acid precipitation

 increase levels of N-containing compounds

in the atmosphere and contribute to the
greenhouse effect
 Components
Nitrogen of
Nitrification
Environment

 The process that converts ammonia to

nitrite and then to nitrate

 Occurs aerobically and is carried out

exclusively by prokaryotes

 Involves two distinct steps carried out by

distinct types of microorganisms
 Nitrogen
Components
Nitrification:
of Environment
First Step
 Oxidation of Ammonia to Nitrite: carried out
by microbes known as ammonia-oxidisers

 via the intermediate hydroxylamine, in

presence of ammonia monooxygenase &
hydroxylamine oxidoreductase
 Components
Nitrogen of Environment
Nitrification: Second Step

 Oxidation of nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-)

 This step is carried out by a separate group

of prokaryotes: nitrite-oxidizing bacteria

 Both the steps give out very low energy, so

the plant growth is also low
 Components
Nitrogen of Environment
Anammox

 Anammox: anaerobic ammonium oxidation

 Occurs anerobically: carried out

exclusively by a type of prokaryotes:
Planctomycetes phylum of bacteria
 Bacteria oxidize ammonia using nitrite as
electron acceptor to gaseous nitrogen
 Components
Nitrogen Denitrification
of Environment
 Conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas

 Thus, removes bioavailable nitrogen and

return it to the atmosphere

 Dinitrogen gas (N2) is the ultimate end

product of denitrification
 Other intermediate gaseous forms of nitrogen
also formed in the process
 Some of the gases as nitrous oxide (N2O) are
considered greenhouse gases
 These react with ozone and cause air
pollution
 Denitrification
Components VsofOther
Environment
Processes
 Nitrification is aerobic and denitrification is
anaerobic process occurring mostly in
soils and sediments and anoxic zones in
lakes and oceans.

 Similar to nitrogen fixation, denitrification

is carried out by prokaryotes

 Some eukaryotes are also capable of

carrying denitrification
 Components
Denitrification:
of Environment
Impact
 It removes fixed nitrogen (i.e., nitrate) from
the ecosystem and returns it to the
atmosphere in the inert form (N2)

 The loss of nitrates in fertilizer is detrimental

and costly in agriculture

 In wastewater treatment, removes unwanted

nitrates save from algal blooms
 Components
Ammonification
of Environment
 It is the conversion of organic nitrogen into
ammonia by some fungi and prokaryotes

 The source of organic nitrogen (amino acids

and nucleic acids) is the excreta of the
organisms or their dead body

 The ammonia becomes available for uptake

by plants & other microorganisms for growth
 Components
Nitrogen Assimilation
of Environment

 Nitrates, nitrites and ammonia in the soil are

absorbed by the plants and converted into
nitrogenous organic compounds.

 Nitrates are converted to nitrites then NH3

 Ammonia reacts with organic acids to form

amino acids
 Components
Nitrogen Assimilation
of Environment
 The amino acids are used in the synthesis
of proteins, enzyme, chlorophylls, nucleic
acids, etc.
 Animals derive their nitrogen requirement
from the plant proteins.
 Thus, it enters the consumers through the
food chain.
 In this process energy is transferred in the
form of protein and return to the soil when
they die.
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorous Cycle
 Phosphorous: Facts
 Phosphorous is an important element for all
living beings
 It is key part of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) and
the cell membranes (phospholipids)
 Humans contain 80% of P in teeth and bones
 Unlike other compounds phosphorus cannot
exist in the gaseous state because
phosphorus is liquid at normal temperature
and pressures.
 Phosphorous: Occurrence
 Phosphorus is present in different forms like
soil, rock and sediments on the earth as
phosphate ion PO43-
 This phosphate reaches the earth by the
process of weathering of rocks
 Phosphorous and Phosphorous-containing
compounds are present only on land

 Atmosphere plays no significant role in the

phosphorus cycle
 Phosphorous Cycle
 It is the movement of phosphorus through the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
 Also called the mineral cycle
 Involves the following steps:
 Weathering
 Absorption by plants
 Absorption by animals
 Return to the environment through
decomposition
 Weathering

 Phosphorus is found in the rocks

in abundance.
 That is why the phosphorus cycle
starts in the earth’s crust
 The phosphate salts are broken
down from the rocks.

 These salts are washed away into the ground

where they mix in the soil.
 Absorption by Plants

 The phosphate salts dissolved in water are

absorbed by the plants

 However, the amount of phosphorus

present in the soil is very less

 That is why the farmers apply phosphate

fertilizers on agricultural land
 Absorption by Aquatic Plants
 The aquatic plants absorb inorganic
phosphorus from lower layers of water
bodies

 The phosphate salts do not dissolve in

water properly

 Therefore, these affect plant growth in

aquatic ecosystems.
 Absorption by Animals

 The animals absorb phosphorus from the

plants or

 By consuming plant-eating animals

 The rate of the phosphorus cycle is faster in

plants and animals as compared to rocks
 Decomposition

 The animals absorb phosphorus from the

plants or by consuming plant-eating animals

 Return of Phosphorus Back to the

Ecosystem

 Thus, phosphorous recycles through water,

soil and sediments
Phosphorous Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle: Human Impact
 During the shipping of food from farms to
cities, phosphorous gets washed away in
water
 This leads to the growth of algae and
ultimately eutrophication
 This causes toxicity in the aquatic
ecosystem
 The phosphorus fertilizers increase the
level of phosphorus in the soil
 Overuse of the P fertilizers reduces the
fertility of the soil and is also harmful to the
microorganisms present in the soil
 Phosphorus Cycle

 A no. of human activities, use of fertilizers,

eutrophication has a great impact on the P cycle
Sulphur Cycle
 Sulphur: Occurrence
 Occurs in a gaseous form as H2S and SO2
and solid form as sulfate, sulfide and
organic sulfur in soil and in the body of living
organisms.
 The residence time in the atmosphere is
very small, main reserve pool is soil.
 Present in proteins, amino acids, vitamins,
and enzymes, necessary for plants and
animals
 Sulphur Cycle
 Sulfur is transferred into biosphere then back
into ground, or from ground to atmosphere

 The sulfur cycle

consists of two
processes:
 Atmospheric
 Terrestrial or
Sedimentary
Sulphur Cycle: Atmospheric Process
Sulfur enters the atmosphere from several
sources:
 the combustion of fossil fuels
 volcanic eruption
 exchange at the surface of the
oceans
 gases released by decomposition
 Sulphur Cycle: Terrestrial Process
In the terrestrial process, the cycle begins with
the weathering of rocks that releases stored
sulfur :
 Sulfur then is converted into sulfate
(SO4) through oxidation.
 Sulfate is taken up by green plants
and microorganisms and is
converted into organic forms
 Heterotrophs consume organic
forms through their food
 Sulphur Cycle: Oceans
 Sulfur enters the ocean through fallout from
the Earth’s atmosphere and terrestrial
processes
 In the ocean, some marine communities use
sulphur in their metabolism
 A part of this sulfur is emitted back into the
atmosphere through sea spray
 The remaining sulfur is lost to ocean depths
forming ferrous sulfide that is responsible for
the black color of most marine sediments
Sulphur Cycle
 Summary
 The oxygen cycle is the movement of O2
through the four main regions of Earth
 Nitrogen cycle involves the fixing of
atmospheric N to nitrites and nitrates, then
back to atmosphere as inert N
 Phosphorous occurs only in the rocks and soil
and utilized as phosphate by plants and
animals which finally decompose back to
sediments
 Sulphur is transferred to biosphere, back to
ground and from ground to atmosphere
Components of Environment