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 Fig. 100.—Huyghenian Eye-piece.

Fig. 101.—Ramsden’s Eye-piece.

The later form of the Huyghenian eye-piece is that of the late Sir George
Airy, the field-glass of which is a meniscus with the convex side turned
towards the objective, and the eye-lens a crossed convex with its flatter
side towards the eye. Another negative eye-piece is that known as the
Kellner, or orthoscopic eye-piece. It consists of a bi-convex field-glass and
an achromatic doublet eye-lens. This magnifies ten times, but it in no way
compares with the Huyghenian in value. Neither does it afford the same
flatness of field.

The Ramsden, or positive eye-piece, is chiefly employed as a micrometer

eye-piece for the measurement of the values of magnified images. The
construction of this eye-piece is shown in Fig. 101, a divided scale being
cut on a strip of glass in 1⁄100ths of an inch, every fifth of which is cut
longer than the rest to facilitate the reading of the markings, and at the
same time that of the image of the object, both being distinctly seen
together, as in the accompanying reduced micro-photograph of blood
corpuscles, Fig. 102.

The value of such measurements in reference to the real object, when

once obtained; is constant for the same objective. It becomes apparent,
then, that the value of the divisions seen in the eye-piece micrometer must
be found with all the objectives used, and carefully tabulated.

It was Mr. Lister who first proposed to place on the stage of the
microscope a divided scale of a certain value. Viewing the scale as a
microscopic object, he observed how many of the divisions on the scale
attached to the eye-piece corresponded with one or more of a magnified
image. If, for instance, ten of those in the eye-piece correspond with one
of those in the image, and if the divisions are known to be equal, then the
image is ten times larger than the object, and the dimensions of the object
ten times less than that indicated by the micrometer. If the divisions on the
micrometer and on the magnified scale are not equal, it becomes a mere
rule-of-three sum; but in general this trouble is taken by the maker of the
instrument, who furnishes a table showing the value of each division of the
micrometer for every object-glass with which it will be employed.

Mr. Jackson’s simple and cheap

micrometer is represented in Fig.
103. It consists of a slip of glass
placed in the focus of the eye-glass,
with the divisions sufficiently fine to
have the value of the ten-
thousandth part of an inch with the
quarter-inch object-glass, and the
twenty-thousandth with the eighth;
at the same time the half, or even Fig. 102.—Blood Corpuscles and Micrometer,
the quarter of a division may be magnified 1·3500.
estimated, thus affording the means
of attaining considerable accuracy, and may be used to supersede the more
complicated and expensive screw-micrometer, being handier to use, and
not liable to derangement in inexperienced hands.

The positive eye-piece affords the best view of the micrometer, the
negative of the object. The former is quite free from distortion, even to the
edges of the field; but the object is slightly coloured. The latter is free from
colour, and is slightly distorted at the edges. In the centre of the field,
however, to the extent of half its diameter, there is no perceptible
distortion, and the clearness of the definition gives a precision to the
measurement which is very satisfactory.

Short bold lines are ruled on a piece of

glass, a, Fig. 103, to facilitate
counting, the fifth is drawn longer, and
the tenth still longer, as in the common
rule. Very fine levigated plumbago is
rubbed into the lines to render them
visible; they are then covered with a
piece of thin glass, cemented by
Canada balsam, to prevent the
plumbago from being wiped out. The
slip of glass thus prepared is secured
in a thin brass frame, so that it may
slide freely into its place.
Fig. 103.—Jackson’s Eye-piece Micrometer.
Slips are cut in the negative eye-piece
on each side, so that the brass frame
may be pressed across the field in the focus of the eye-glass, as at m; the
cell of which should have a longer screw than usual, to admit of
adjustment for different eyes. The brass frame is retained in its place by a
spring within the tube of the eye-piece; and in using it the object is
brought to the centre of the field by the stage movements; the coincidence
between one side of it and one of the long lines is made with great
accuracy by means of the small screw acting upon the slip of glass. The
divisions are then read off as easily as the inches and tenths on a common
rule. The operation, indeed, is nothing more than the laying of a rule
across the body to be measured; and it matters not whether the object be
transparent or opaque, mounted or unmounted, if its edges can be
distinctly seen, its diameter can be taken.

Previously, however, to using the micrometer, the value of its divisions

should be ascertained with each object-glass; the method of doing this is
as follows:—

Place a slip of ruled glass on the stage; and having turned the eye-piece so
that the lines on the two glasses are parallel, read off the number of
divisions in the eye-piece which cover one on the stage. Repeat this
process with different portions of the stage-micrometer, and if there be a
difference, take the mean. Suppose the hundredth of an inch on the stage
requires eighteen divisions in the eye-piece to cover it; it is plain that an
inch would require eighteen hundred, and an object which occupied nine of
these divisions would measure the two-hundredth of an inch. Take the
instance supposed, and let the microscope be furnished with a draw-tube,
marked on the side with inches and tenths. By drawing this out a short
distance, the image of the stage micrometer will be expanded until one
division is covered by twenty in the eye-piece. These will then have the
value of two-thousandths of an inch, and the object which before
measured nine will then measure ten; which, divided by 2,000, gives the
decimal fraction ·005.

Enter in a table the length to which the tube is drawn out, and the number
of divisions on the eye-piece micrometer equivalent to an inch on the
stage; and any measurements afterwards taken with the same micrometer
and object-glass may, by a short process of mental arithmetic, be reduced
to the decimal parts of an inch, if not actually observed in them.

In ascertaining the value of the micrometer with a deep objective, if the

hundredth of an inch on the stage occupies too much of the field, then the
two-hundredth or five-hundredth should be used and the number of the
divisions corresponding to that quantity be multiplied by two hundred or
five hundred, as the case may be.

The micrometer should not be fitted into too deep an eye-piece, as it is

essential to preserve good definition. A middle-power Kellner or
Huyghenian is frequently employed; at all events, use the eye-piece of
lower power rather than impair the image.

The eye-lens above the micrometer should not be of shorter focus than
three-quarters of an inch, even with high-power objectives.

The Ramsden Eye-piece.—The cobweb micrometer is the most efficient

piece of apparatus yet brought into use for measuring the magnified
image. It is made by stretching across the field of the eye-piece two
extremely fine parallel wires or cobwebs, one or both of which can be
separated by the action of a micrometer screw, the trap head of which is
divided into a hundred or more equal parts, which successively pass by an
index as the milled head is turned, shown in Fig. 104. A portion of the field
of view is cut off at right angles to the filaments by a scale formed of a thin
plate of brass having notches at its edges, the distances between which
correspond to the threads of the screw, every fifth notch (as in the
previous case) being made deeper than the rest, to make the work of
enumeration easier. The number of entire divisions on the scale shows then
how many complete turns of the screw have been made in the separation
of the wires, while the number of index points on the milled head shows
the value to the fraction of a turn, that may have been made in addition. A
screw with one hundred threads to the inch is that usually employed; this
gives to each division in the scale in the eye-piece the value of 1⁄100th of an
inch. The edge of the milled head is also divided into the same number of
parts.

Micrometer
scale to drop
into Eye-
piece.

Fig. 104.—Ramsden Screw Micrometer Eye-piece.

In Watson’s Ramsden screw micrometer, Fig. 104, the micrometer scale
(seen detached) is ruled on a circular piece of glass, and this, by
unscrewing the top, is dropped into its place, and one of the wires, both
being fixed, is set a little to the side of the field, the teeth of the screw
being cut to 1⁄100ths, and the drum giving the fractional space between the
teeth to 1⁄100ths, so that the 1⁄10000th of an inch can be read off. This
micrometer eye-piece is constructed entirely of aluminium, a decided
advantage, being so much lighter than brass to handle.

In the screw micrometer of other makers, other modifications are found.

An iris diaphragm being placed below the web to suit the power of the eye-
piece employed, a guiding line at right angles to the web is sometimes
added. Care should be taken to see that when the movable web coincides
exactly with the fixed web, the indicator on the graduated head stands at
zero.

The Compensating Eye-piece.—The very important improvements effected

in the construction of the objective naturally led up to an equally useful
change for the better in the eye-piece.

All objectives of wide aperture, from the curvature of their hemispherical

front lenses, show a certain amount of colour defect in the extra-axial
portion of the field, even if perfectly achromatic in the centre. Whether an
image be directly projected by the objective, or whether it be examined
with an aplanatic eye-piece, colour fringes may be detected, possibly in an
increasing degree towards the periphery. This residual chromatic aberration
has at length been very nearly eliminated by the aid of the compensating
eye-piece.

The construction of compensating eye-pieces is somewhat remarkable,

since they have an equivalent error in an opposite direction—that is, the
image formed by the red rays is greater than that corresponding to the
blue rays; consequently, eye-pieces so constructed serve to compensate for
the unequal magnification produced by different coloured rays, and images
appear free from colour up to the margin of the field.

Zeiss’s compensating eye-pieces are so arranged that the lower focal points
of each series lie in the same plane when inserted in the body-tube of the
microscope; no alteration of focus is therefore required on changing one
eye-piece for another. This of itself is not only an advantage but also a
saving of time, while the distance between the upper focal point of the
objective and the lower one of the eye-piece, which is the determining
element of magnification, remains constant.

Fig. 105.—A sectional view of Zeiss’s Compensating series of Eye-

pieces, ½ the full size.

A.—Plane of the upper edge of the tube.

B.—Lower focal plane of eye-pieces, with their lenses in situ.

The ordinary working eye-pieces, Huyghenian and others, commencing

with a magnification of four diameters, are so constructed that they can be
conveniently used, as we are accustomed to use them in England, with
high powers, Zeiss’s Nos. 12 and 18 compensating eye-pieces being
adapted for use with his lower power apochromatic lenses of 16 and 8 mm.
The numbering of the eye-pieces is carried out on the plan originally
proposed by Professor Abbe—that is, the number denotes how many times
an eye-piece, when employed with a given tube-length, increases the initial
magnifying power of the objective, and at the same time furnishes figures
for their rational enumeration. It is on this basis that the German
compensating eye-pieces have been arranged in series, and in agreement
with their magnifying power and distinctive numberings of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12,
18. Of these several eye-pieces, 12 is found to be the most useful. The
magnification obtained by combining a compensating eye-piece with any
apochromatic objective is found by multiplying its number by the initial
magnification of the objective, as given in the following proof:—An
objective of 3·0 mm. focus, for example, gives in itself a magnification of
83·3 (calculated, for the conventional distance of vision, 250 mm.); eye-
piece 12 therefore gives with this objective a magnification of 12 × 83·3 =
1000 diameters. The classification, however, of these eye-pieces, as
furnished by Abbe, is dependent upon increase in the total magnifying
power of the microscope obtained by means of the eye-piece as compared
with that given by the objective alone. The numbering, then, denotes how
many times an eye-piece increases the magnifying power of the objective
when used with a given body-tube; the proper measure of the eye-piece
magnification; and, at the same time, the figures for rational enumeration.

Fig. 106.—B and C Achromatic Eye-pieces.

Compensating eye-pieces have been introduced for the correction of

certain errors in high-power objectives—those made with hemispherical
fronts. All such lenses, whether apochromatic or not, are greatly improved
by the compensating eye-piece, but the dry objective and the lower powers
are certainly deteriorated. The lower power compensating eye-pieces are
Huyghenian, the higher are combinations, with no field-lens, and therefore
in working act as a single or positive eye-piece. This is of importance to
those who work with low powers—the older forms of objectives.

Messrs. Watson and Swift have adopted a new formula for their series of
achromatic eye-pieces, whereby their magnification and flatness of field
are improved. These also bear a constant ratio to the initial power of their
objectives.

The compensating eye-pieces of these makers are constructed on the

same principle as those of Zeiss’s for the correction of errors of colour in
the marginal portion of the field, and consequently are in every way as
effective as those of Continental manufacture. Figs. 106, 107, and 108
show in dotted outline the form and position of the several lenses
combined in these eye-pieces.

Projection Eye-pieces are chiefly used in micro-photography, and for screen

demonstrations. The cap of this eye-piece is provided with a spiral
adjustment for focussing, the diaphragm being placed in front of the eye-
lens, an essential arrangement for obtaining an accurate focus. The ring
seen below the cap, Fig. 108, is graduated so that the rotation for distance
of screen may be carefully recorded.
 Fig. 107.—The Compensating Eye-piece. Fig. 108.—Projection Eye-piece.

Schmidt’s goniometer positive eye-piece, for measuring the angles of

crystals, is so arranged as to be easily rotated within a large and accurately
graduated circle. In the focus of the eye-piece a single cobweb is drawn
across, and to the upper part is attached a vernier. The crystals being
placed in the field of the microscope, care being taken that they lie
perfectly flat, the vernier is brought to zero, and then the whole apparatus
turned until the line is parallel with one face of the crystal; the frame-work
bearing the cobweb, with the vernier, is now rotated until the cobweb
becomes parallel with the next face of the crystal, and the number of
degrees which it has traversed may then be accurately read off.

Goniometer.—If a higher degree of precision is required, then, the double-

refracting goniometer invented by the late Dr. Leeson must be substituted.
With this goniometer (Fig. 109) the angles of crystals, whether microscopic
or otherwise, can be measured. It has removed the earlier difficulties
incident to similar instruments formerly in use. Among other advantages, it
is capable of measuring opaque and even imperfect crystals, beside
microscopic crystals and those in the interior of other transparent media. It
is equally applicable to the largest crystals, and will measure angles
without removing the crystal from a specimen, provided only the whole is
placed on a suitable adjusting stage. The value of the goniometer depends
on the application of a doubly refracting prism, either of Iceland spar or of
quartz, cut of such a thickness as will partially separate the two images of
the angle it is proposed to measure.

Dr. Leeson strongly insisted on the importance of the microscope in the

examination of the planes of crystals subjected to measurement, as
obliquity in many cases arises from not only conchoidal fractures, but also
from imperfect laminæ elevating one portion of a plane, and yet allowing a
very tolerable reflection when measured by the double refracting
goniometer.

Microscopes for crystallographic and

petrological research are now specially
constructed for measuring the angles of
crystals.

Erector eye-pieces and erecting prisms

are employed for the purpose of
causing the image presented to the eye
to correspond with that of the object. Fig. 109.—Leeson’s Goniometer.
They are also helpful in making minute
dissections of structure; the loss of light, however, by sending it through
two additional surfaces is a drawback, and impairs the sharpness of the
image. Nachet designed an extremely ingenious arrangement whereby the
inverted image became erect; he adapted a simple rectangular prism to the
eye-piece. The obliquity which a prism gives to the visual rays when the
microscope is used in the erect position, as for dissecting, is an advantage,
as it brings the image to the eye at an angle very nearly corresponding to
that of the inclined position in which the microscope is ordinarily used.

The Achromatic Objective.

 Fig. 110.—Pan-aplanatic Achromatic Objectives.

The Achromatic Objective, of all the optical and mechanical adjuncts to the
microscope, is in every way the most necessary, as well as the most
important. The ideal of perfection aimed at by the optician is a combination
of lenses that shall produce a perfect image—that is, one absolutely perfect
in definition and almost free from colour. The method resorted to for the
elimination of spherical and chromatic aberration in the lens has been fully
explained in a former chapter. It will now be my endeavour to show the
progressive stages of achromatism and evolution of the microscope
throughout the present century.

It is almost as difficult to assign the date of the earliest application of

achromatism to the microscope as to that of the inception and many
modifications of the instrument in past ages; indeed, the question of
priority in every step taken in its improvement has been the subject of
controversy.

Among the earlier workers in the first decade of this century will be found
the name of Bernardo Marzoni, who was curator of the Physical Laboratory
of the Lyceum of Brescia. He, an amateur optician, it has come to light, in
1808 constructed an achromatic objective, and exhibited it at Milan in
1811, when he obtained the award of a silver medal for its merits, under
the authority of the “Institute Reale delli Scienzo.” Through the good
offices of the late Mr. John Mayall one of Marzoni’s objectives, which had
been carefully preserved, was presented to the Royal Microscopical Society
of London in 1890.20 This objective is a cemented combination, with the
plane side of the flint-lens presented to the object. This was an
improvement of a practical kind, and of which Chevalier subsequently
availed himself. In 1823 Selligue, a French optician, is credited with having
first suggested the plan of combining two, three, or four plano-convex
achromatic doublets of similar foci, one above the other, to increase the
power and the aperture of the microscope. Fresnel, who reported upon this
invention, preferred on the whole Adam’s arrangement, because it gave a
larger field. Selligue subsequently improved his objective by placing a small
diaphragm between the mirror and the object.

In this country, Tully was induced by Dr. Goring to work at the achromatic
objective, and his first efforts were attended with a success quite equal to
that of Chevalier’s. Lister on examining these lenses said:—“The French
optician knows nothing of the value of aperture, but he has shown us that
fine performance is not confined to triple objectives.” Amici, the amateur
optician of Modena, visited this country in 1827 and brought his achromatic
microscope and objectives, which were seen to give increase of aperture
by combining doublets with triplets. The most lasting improvement in the
achromatic objective was that of Joseph Jackson Lister, F.R.S., the father of
Lord Lister, and one of the founders of the Royal Microscopical Society of
London.

Lister’s discoveries at this period (1829) in the history of the optics of the
microscope were of greater importance than they have been represented
to be. That he was an enthusiast is manifest, for, being unable to find an
optician to carry out his formula for grinding lenses, he at once set to work
to grind his own, and in a short time was able to make a lens which was
said to be the best of the day.

Lister, in a paper contributed to the proceedings of the Royal Society the

same year, pointed out how the aberrations of one doublet could be
neutralised by a second. He further demonstrated that the flint lens should
be a plano-concave joined by a permanent cement to the convex crown-
glass. The first condition, he states, “obviates the risk of error in centring
the two curves, and the second diminishes by one half the loss of light
from reflection, which is very great at the numerous surfaces of every
combination.” These two conditions then—that the flint lens shall be plano-
concave, and that it shall be joined by some cement (Canada balsam) to
the convex—may be taken as the basis for the microscopic objective,
provided they can be reconciled with the correction of spherical and
chromatic aberration of a large pencil.

Andrew Ross was not slow to perceive the value of Lister’s suggestions and
in 1831 he had constructed an object-glass on the lines laid down by Lister,
Fig. 112; a a′ representing the anterior pair, m the middle, and p the
posterior, the three sets combined forming the achromatic objective,
consisting of three pairs of lenses, a double-convex crown-glass, and a
plano-concave of flint.

Fig. 111.—Lister’s double-convex crown and plano- Fig. 112.—Andrew Ross’s

concave flint cemented combination. ¼-inch Objective.

Lister proposed other combinations, and himself made an object-glass

consisting of a meniscus pair with a triple middle, and a back plano-convex
doublet. This had a working distance of ·11 and proved to be so great a
success that other opticians—Hugh Powell, 1834; James Smith, 1839—
made objectives after the same formula.

The publication of Lister’s data proved of value in another direction: it

stimulated opticians to apply themselves to the further improvement of the
achromatic objective. Andrew Ross was one of the more earnest workers in
giving effect to Lister’s principles and a short time afterwards found that a
triple combination, with the lenses separated by short intervals, gave better
results. In the accompanying diagram the changes made in the
combination of the objective from 1831, and extending over a period of
about twenty years from this date, are shown.
Each objective, from the ½-inch to the 1⁄12-inch, is seen to be built up of at
least six or eight different fronts, the back combinations being a triplet
formed of two double-convex lenses of crown glass with an intermediary
double concave lens of flint-glass.

Fig. 113.—Combinations of Early Dry Objectives.

A, Double-convex lens; B, Plano-concave; C, Bi-convex and plano-

concave united; shown in their various combinations, as at D, form
the 3-in., 2-in. or 1½-in.; at E, 1-in. and 2⁄3-in.; and at F, the ½-
in., 4⁄10-in., ¼-in. and 1⁄25-in. objectives.

Combination D was for many years known as the Norfolk Objective.

No sooner had Ross constructed ¼-

inch achromatic objectives on
Lister’s formula than he discovered
an error which had hitherto escaped
attention, viz., that the thinnest
cover-glass of an object produced a
considerable amount of refractive
disturbance. A marked difference
was observed in the image when
viewed with or without a cover-
glass. This difficulty was first met by
the addition of a draw-tube to the Fig. 114.—Lister’s CorrectionCollar, (in
microscope body. But as this also section).
impaired the image, Lister overcame
the difficulty by mounting the front lens of the objective in a separate tube
made to fit over a second tube carrying the two pairs of lenses. This
arrangement led up to his invention of the screw-collar adjustment, the
mechanism for applying which is shown in Fig. 114. The anterior lens a at
the end of the tube is enclosed in a brass-piece b containing the
combination; the tube a, holding the lens nearest the object, is then made
to move up or down the cylinder b, thus varying the distance, according to
the thickness of the glass covering the object, by turning the screw ring c,
thus causing the one tube to slide over the other, and clamping them
together when properly adjusted. An aperture is made in the tube a, within
which is seen a mark engraved on the cylinder, on the edge of which are
two marks, a longer and a shorter, engraved upon the tube. When the
mark on the cylinder coincides with the longer mark on the tube, the
adjustment is made for an uncovered object; and when the coincidence is
with the shorter mark, the proper distance is obtained to balance the
aberrations produced by a cover-glass the hundredth of an inch thick; such
glass covers are now supplied. The adjustment should be tested
experimentally by moving the milled edge which separates or closes the
combinations, and at the same time using the fine adjusting screw of the
microscope. The difficulty associated with the cover-glass of old has, by the
introduction of the homogeneous immersion system, been very nearly
eliminated. There still remains, however, a disturbing amount of residual
colour aberration in the achromatic dry objective, and for the correction of
which Zeiss proposed mounting the several lenses on a method somewhat
different to that so long in use in this country. Fig. 115 shows an objective
in which the screw-collar ring b b is made to adjust the exact distance
between the two back lenses placed at a a. The value of the screw-collar is
not questioned. It is difficult to obtain at all times cover-glasses of a
perfectly uniform thickness; they will vary, and therefore perfect definition
must be obtained, as heretofore, by adjusting for each separate
preparation while the object is under examination.

As early as 1842 the excellence of Andrew Ross’s achromatic objectives

were acknowledged, and his formula for their construction was generally
followed. No doubt many of these early objectives of his manufacture are
still regarded as treasures. I possess a ½-inch and a ¼-inch, which I
 believe to be comparable with any
achromatic objectives of the same
apertures of the present day. These I
have always found most serviceable
for histological work.

In 1850 Mr. Wenham produced an

achromatic objective of considerable
achromatic value. This consisted of a
single hemispherical front
combination, shown in the
accompanying enlarged diagram, Fig.
116. Wenham’s formula seems to
Fig. 115.—The Continental Screw-collar have been generally adopted by
Adjustment. Continental opticians, who sold these
lenses at a reduction of price. In Paris,
Prazmowski and Hartnack—I have had one of Hartnack’s earliest
immersions in use for many years—brought this form of objective to
greater perfection, and in 1867 Powell and Lealand adopted the single
front combination system in their early water-immersion objective,
whereby the focal distance was said to be “practically a constant quantity,
while reduction of aperture by making the front lens thinner ensures a
much greater working distance without affecting the aberrations, since the
first refraction takes place at the posterior or curved surface of the front
lens, the removal of any portion of thickness at the anterior or plane
surface simply cuts off zones of peripheral rays without altering the
distance—any space being filled by the homogeneous immersion fluid, or
by an extra thickness of cover-glass.”21

Great improvements were brought about by R. B. Tolles, of Boston, 1874,

in the objective, as well as in the optical and mechanical parts of the
microscope, most of which, however, must be ascribed to the criticisms and
suggestions of amateur workers skilled in the exhibition of test-objects—
the late Dr. Woodward of Washington, for example, whose series of
photographs of the more difficult frustules of diatoms have rarely been
surpassed. Such results were due to improvements made in the optical part
of the microscope at his suggestion. He came to the conclusion, arrived at
about the same time by mathematical scientists, that increase of power in
the microscope was only possible in
two directions, the qualitative and
the quantitative.

It was now that microscopists

turned to the late Professor Abbe for
assistance in perfecting the
objective in the dioptric direction.
This, he pointed out, must be
looked for in further improvements
in the art of glass-making.

A series of experiments ultimately

brought to light a mineral Fig. 116.—A Single Front Combination
substance, Fluorite, which, when formulated by Wenham for Messrs. Ross
combined in the proper proportion, (enlarged).
one part to two of German crown
and flint glass, was found to have the qualities looked for, and to possess
different relations of a dispersive and refractive power. From Professor
Abbe’s researches, begun in 1876, we have had the aperture of the
objective greatly enlarged, and the homogeneous system brought into
general use.

Previous to this date the best made objective merely approximated to

colour correction. Undoubtedly the chief object to be obtained was the
removal or diminution of the secondary colour aberration. This, together
with other residual errors Abbe pointed out in 1880, led to the
improvement of the optical quality of the glass used in the manufacture of
all optical instruments, the chief difficulties being surmounted in the Jena
glass factory, whereby a complete revolution was effected in the
microscopic objective. The apochromatic glasses of Zeiss, Powell, Beck,
Ross, Watson, Swift, and other makers, in which the secondary spectrum
has been totally eliminated, or only a negligible tertiary spectrum remains
—that is to say, the objectives of these makers—are now corrected for
three spectrum rays, and not two, as in the older objectives; and only
those who look forward for making further discoveries in the intimate
structure of bacilli or for resolving the finest diatom markings can be said
to fully appreciate the importance and value of the investigations of the
late Professor Abbe, and which have, so to speak, entirely changed old
empirical views as to the value of high aperture, and demonstrated that
high amplification, unless associated by proportionally high aperture,
necessarily produces untrue images of minute structures. It was he also
who introduced a practically perfect system of estimating apertures, known
as the “numerical aperture notation,” by which not only can an accurate
comparison be made of the relative apertures of any series of objectives,
whether dry or immersion, but their resolving power under the various
conditions of the kind of light employed. Their penetrating power and their
illuminating power can now be estimated with mathematical exactness.

The practical advantages, then,

secured by the adoption of the
homogeneous system were, on the
whole, greater than any before
made or believed to be possible,
and when taken into account in
connection with the improvement of
the eye-piece (also due to Abbe),
almost perfect achromatism and
homogeneity between objective,
object, and eye-piece is secured,
together with a sharp definition of
the image over the whole visual Fig. 117.—Diagram of an Apochromatic
field. These, with an increase of Combination.
working distance between the
object and the objective, and other important results, have been placed
within the reach of the microscopist by men of science, and the outcome is
the general adoption of the homogeneous system, termed by Carl Zeiss, a
fellow-worker with Abbe, the22 apochromatic system of constructing
objectives.

Relative Merits of the English and German Objectives.

As to the relative merits of German-made objectives, no superiority can be
claimed for them over those made by English opticians.

The Continental form of the 1⁄12-inch oil-immersion objective, shown in Fig.

118, on the scale of 6 to 1, consists of four systems of lenses, namely, the
front, a deep hemispherical crown lens of high refractive index; the second
front of the system, an achromatic lens of such a form that it gathers the
light from the hemispherical front; the middle lens, a single meniscus; and
the back an achromatised lens, the second front of the back being
connected in such a way as to compensate for the spherical and chromatic
aberrations of the front lens.

The first homogeneous immersion objective which came under my

observation was manufactured in the well-known Jena workshop of Carl
Zeiss, December, 1877. This had a very considerable increase of numerical
aperture, upwards of 50 per cent.; a clear gain, as an oil angle of even
110° proved to be of greater value than an angle of 180° in air, while the
resolving power of the objective was increased in like proportion. There
does not at present appear to be a bar to the construction of objectives of
yet higher power, with increase of aperture. The available course open in
this direction is the further discovery of another vitreous material and a
suitable immersion fluid with an index of 1·8 or 1·9, and glass with a
corresponding index, so as to ensure homogeneity of the combination.
Zeiss asserts that in the more difficult departments of microscopical
research the apochromatic lenses will supplant the older objectives, yet
there are many problems in microscopy awaiting solution which do not
demand the highest attainable degree of perfection in the objective, and in
the majority of cases the older achromatic objective is all that is needful,
provided it is good of its kind. The achromatic objectives and eye-pieces of
the older type have still an advantage, as, owing to their simpler
construction, really good lenses of the class required can be purchased at
considerably lower prices than the objectives of the new series. These,
from being more complicated in construction, involve a greater amount of
skilled manual labour.

The German glasses of to-day afford satisfactory evidence both of skill and
workmanship displayed in their production. Their cost is greater, then, for
the reason given, as will be seen on reference to Continental catalogues.
The dry series of objectives cost somewhat less, a ½-inch (numerical
aperture 0·30) can be had for £1 10s., and a 1⁄6-inch (numerical aperture
0·65) for £2. On the other hand, the apochromatic series rapidly increase
in price as the numerical aperture approaches the limit of numerical
aperture 0·40. The best of Zeiss’s series are the 12 mm. (½-inch) and the
3 mm. (1⁄8-inch), numerical aperture 1·4, both of which possess the optical
 capacity assigned to them.
These objectives are
undoubtedly the finest to be met
with in the workshop of any
optician. Achromatic objectives
of Continental manufacture have
been as much improved as
those of English make by the
introduction of the newer
varieties of glass, as already
explained, while a new
nomenclature has sprung up in
consequence. We now have
semi-apochromatic and
Fig. 118.—The Continental 1⁄12-in. Oil-immersion parachromatic. The German
Combination (enlarged diagram). opticians have followed Zeiss’s
lead, since almost the same
series of objectives are given in the catalogues of Leitz, Reichert, and
Seibert, while the quality of both dry and immersion objectives is found to
be much the same. The low price of Reichert’s immersion objectives should
be noted, as their performance is quite perfect. A 1⁄12-inch (numerical
aperture 1·30) of Leitz’s, with which I have worked at bacteria, has given
me much satisfaction; supplied by Watson and Baker at £5. A 1⁄12-inch dry
objective by the same maker (numerical aperture 0·87) costs £3, and a
water immersion 1⁄12-inch (numerical aperture 1·10) £3 5s. Leitz reminds
me that it requires a good lens of from six to seven hundred magnifying
power for the examination of bacteria. For this reason he has constructed a
new form of lens, a 1⁄10-inch oil-immersion of 2·5 mm. focus, for the
purpose of adding to the resources of bacteriology. This lens necessarily
has a lower magnification than his former 1⁄12-inch oil-lens, but as it is less
costly to manufacture it is sold at a smaller price. The before-mentioned
1⁄12-inch, with a No. 3 compensating eye-piece, gives a magnification of
over seven hundred or eight hundred diameters. To secure the best results
in using the higher powers of Leitz’s, from No. 5 upwards, a cover-glass of
0·17 mm. in thickness should be used, and care taken to make the length
of the draw-tube equal to 170 mm. This length of tube should be adhered
to in the use of this optician’s oil-immersion lenses. If the microscope be
provided with a nose-piece, the draw-tube should be drawn out to 160
mm.; in its absence it should be set at 170 mm., a deviation of 10 mm. or
more from the correct tube-length deteriorates from the value of Leitz’s oil-
immersion objectives as of other opticians. It is suggested that the German
apochromatic combination of three cemented lenses is that adopted by
Steinheil long before, in the construction of his well-known hand-magnifier
(see page 77, Fig. 51). Zeiss’s 3 mm. objective has a triple front, balanced
by two triple backs—in all nine lenses—a somewhat amplified diagram of
which is represented in Fig. 118. The formula for this combination was
furnished by Tolles, of Boston, America, and it at once secured increase of
aperture (the value of this optician’s many contributions to microscopy has
since his death been generally acknowledged). The metrical equivalent
focus assigned by Zeiss to his series of dry achromatic objectives is given
in somewhat ambiguous terms, which tend to confuse rather than classify
them; for instance, two lenses of the same aperture—24 mm. and 16 mm.
—corresponding to the English 1-inch and 2⁄3-inch, each have assigned to
them an aperture of 0·30; a 12 mm. and 8 mm., corresponding to the
English ½-inch and 1⁄3-inch, have an aperture of 0·65; while a 6 mm. =
¼-inch, and a 4 mm. = ¼-inch and 1⁄6-inch, have each an aperture of
0·95.

Nachet exhibited at the Antwerp Exhibition a fine 1⁄10-inch oil-immersion,

which was highly praised by the jurors.

It is necessary, to make the fact perfectly clear, that dry and immersion
lenses having the same angular aperture have also a similar defining
power. The pencil of rays, however, differs in intensity and density as the
rays emerging from the cover-glass of the object into air are very
considerably deflected, and the cone suffers a corresponding loss of
brightness. On this important point, then, I believe it will prove of value to
interpolate a clear and full exposition of the change brought about by the
cover-glass.

It is not difficult, then, to perceive the importance of Amici’s discovery as to

the value of a drop of water inserted between the object and the objective,
and it now seems somewhat surprising it should have been so long
neglected by opticians, since it is at once seen to diminish the reflection
which takes place in the incidence of oblique light. The film of water not
only gives increased aperture, but also greater cleanness and sharpness to
the image. The film, then, as already shown, collects the straying away of
peripheral rays of light, and sends them on to the eye-piece, and greatly
assists in rendering the image more perfect, and materially aids in the
removal of residuary secondary aberrations; while with air, or dry
objectives, a certain amount of aberration takes place, sufficient to affect
the pencils on their passage from the radiant to the medium of the front
lens, adding a considerable ratio to the total spherical aberration with the
objective, which, in the case of wide angles, increases disproportionately
from the axis outwards. This can only be corrected by a rough method of
balancing; that is, by introducing an excess of opposite aberration in the
posterior lens. An uncorrected residuum, rapidly increasing with larger
apertures, is then left, and this appears in the image amplified by the total
power of the objective, so that with a non-homogeneous medium there is
a maximum angular aperture which cannot be surpassed without
undergoing a perceptible loss of definition, provided working distance is
required. If we abolish the anterior aberration for all colours, by an
immersion fluid which is equal to cover-glass in refractive and dispersive
power, the difficulty is at once overcome. If, for instance, we have an
objective of 140° in glass (= 1·25 N.A.) and water as the immersion fluid,
the aberration in front would affect a pencil of 140°. Substituting a
homogeneous medium, the same pencil, contracted to the equivalent angle
in that medium of 112°, will be admitted to the front lens without any
aberration, and may be made to emerge from the curved surface also
without any disturbing aberration, but contracted to an angle varying from
70° to 90°. The first considerable spherical aberration of the pencil then
occurs at the anterior surface of the second lens, where the maximum
obliquity of the rays is already considerably diminished.

Fig. 119. Fig. 119a.

Figs. 119 and 119a will doubtless make this clearer. If the objective of 140°
works with water (Fig. 119), there would be a cone of rays extending up to
70° on both sides of the axis, and this large cone would be submitted to
spherical aberration at the front surface a. But with homogeneous
immersion Fig. 119a) the whole cone of 112° is admitted to the front lens
without any aberration, there being no refraction at the plane surface; and
as the spherical surface of the front lens is without notable spherical
aberration, the incident pencil is brought from the focus F to the conjugate
focus F′, and contracted to an angle of divergence of 70°-90° without
having undergone any spherical aberration at all.

The problem of correcting a very wide-angled objective has thus been

reduced by the homogeneous oil-immersion system, both in theory and
practice.23

Abbe’s Test-plate.
Abbe designed the test-plate (Fig. 120) for testing the spherical and
chromatic aberrations of objectives, and estimating the thickness of cover-
glasses corresponding to the most perfect correction: six glasses, having
the exact thickness marked on each, 0·09 to 0·24 mm., cemented in
succession on a slip, their lower surface silvered and engraved with parallel
lines, the contours of which form the test. These being coarsely ruled are
easily resolved by the lowest powers; yet, from the extreme thinness of the
silver, they form also a delicate test for objectives of the highest power and
widest aperture. The test-plate in its original size is seen in Fig. 120, with
one of the circles enlarged.

Fig. 120.—Abbe’s Test-plate for estimating thickness of glass-

covers.
To examine an objective of large aperture, the discs must be focussed in
succession, observing in each case the quality of the image in the centre of
the field, and the variation produced by using, alternately, central and very
oblique illumination.

When the objective is perfectly corrected for spherical aberration, the

outlines of the lines in the centre of the field will be perfectly sharp by
oblique illumination, and without any nebulous doubling or indistinctness of
the edges. If, after exactly adjusting the objective for oblique light, central
illumination is used, no alteration of the focus should be necessary to show
the outlines with equal sharpness.

If an objective fulfils these conditions with any one of the discs, it is free
from spherical aberration when used with cover-glasses of that thickness.
On the other hand, if every disc shows nebulous doubling, or an indistinct
appearance of the edges of the line with oblique illumination, or, if the
objective requires a different focal adjustment to get equal sharpness with
central as with oblique light, the spherical correction of the objective is
more or less imperfect.

Nebulous doubling with oblique illumination indicates over-correction of the

marginal zone; indistinctness of the edges without marked nebulosity
indicates under-correction of the zone; an alteration of the focus for
oblique and central illumination points to an absence of concurrent action
of the separate zones, which may be due to either an average under or
over correction, or to irregularity in the convergence of the rays.
 Fig. 121.—Zeiss’s Cover-glass Gauge.

COVER-GLASS GAUGE.
Zeiss has gone a step further to lay the microscopist’s ghost of the cover-
glass. He invented a measurer (Fig. 121) whereby the precise
determination of thickness of glass-covers can be obtained. This
measurement is effected by a clip projecting from a circular box; the
reading is given by an indicator moving over a divided circle on the lid of
the box. The divisions seen cut round the circumference show 1⁄100ths of a
millimeter. This ingenious gauge measures upwards of 5 mm.

This necessary and important digression has led me away from the
consideration of the achromatic objective, and to which I shall now return.

English Immersion and Dry Objectives.

The homogeneous immersion system met with its earliest as well as its
staunchest advocates among English opticians. Among its more energetic
supporters were Messrs. Powell and Lealand, who were the first to
construct a 1⁄8-inch immersion objective on a formula of their own, and
which was found to resolve test-objects not before capable of resolution by
their dry objectives. This encouraged them to make a 1⁄16-inch, acquired by
Dr. Woodward for the Army Medical Department, Washington, and
subsequently a 1⁄25-inch; neither of which surpassed their 1⁄8-inch in
aperture, and a new formula was tried in the construction of their first oil-
immersion objective. This had a duplex front, and two double backs; but
even this did not quite accomplish what was expected of it, and another
change was subsequently made; the anterior front combination became
greater than a hemisphere—a balloon-lens. This at once gave an increase
of aperture to a 1⁄12-inch objective of 1·43 numerical aperture. After some
few more trials a more important change of the formula took place. The
front lens was made of flint-glass, and the combination took the form
represented in diagram (Fig. 122). This, on an enlarged scale, represents
Powell’s 1⁄12-inch numerical aperture 1·50. It is a homogeneous
apochromatic immersion of high quality and very flat field. It will be
noticed that in this combination the four curves of the lenses are very deep
compared with those of other opticians.

Messrs. Ross have made many

important improvements and
changes in the construction of their
several series of achromatic
objectives; the calculations and
formulæ for which were made
exclusively for them by Dr.
Schrœder. The list is too long to
quote, but most of these lenses are
of a high-class character, and work
with admirable precision. Among the
best of their objectives, I can
commend a 1-inch of 30° and two
oil-immersions, a 1⁄8-inch of 1·20
Fig. 122.—Powell and Lealand’s 1⁄12-in. Oil-
immersion Objective, drawn on a scale of 6-
and a 1⁄12-inch of 1·25 numerical
1. aperture, each of which bear the
highest oculars equally well; a good
test, as I have always maintained, of excellence. Their 1⁄10-inch has a
somewhat larger aperture, and therefore shows a fine image of the podura
scale. The finish of Ross’s several series of objectives fully maintains the
high character and reputation of this old-established firm of opticians.

Messrs. R. and J. Beck have bestowed great attention upon the

improvement of their dry-objective series, much in demand for histological
work, especially among the students of city hospitals, who usually
commence their pathological work with the cheaper forms of objectives. In
that case an inch objective of about 25° air angle, a ½-inch of not less
than 40°, and a ¼-inch or 1⁄5-inch magnifying from 50 to 250 diameters, is
quite sufficient for most of their work. For bacteriological research, Messrs.
Beck supply a 1⁄6-inch immersion taken from a series, having a high
aperture and a better finish at a moderate price. Their 1⁄10-inch immersion
has in my hands proved a serviceable power for bacteriological research; it
requires a good sub-stage illuminating achromatic condenser to obtain the
best results.
Messrs. Watson and Sons have
much enhanced their reputation by
the marked improvement lately
brought about in the manufacture of
their whole series of objectives. This
probably is chiefly due to the
introduction of the Jena glass into
their manufacture, and which has
enabled them to give increase of
aperture to one series in particular,
that of the para-chromatic, all of
which in consequence are of very
high quality. It is difficult to
particularise their several objectives,
Fig. 123.—1⁄6-in. English Combination,
the whole having special features in largely used.
proportion to their magnifying
powers, while much care seems to
have been bestowed on them for the elimination of residual colour. A 1⁄8-
inch with correction collar is comprised of a single deep and rather thick
front lens, plano-concave flint, and double convex-crown for the middle
and triple combination for the back, the latter consisting of two crown
lenses cemented to a dense flint (Fig. 124) drawn to scale of 5-1, with
lined portions intended to represent the flint, and white the crown glass
lenses of the combination. The initial magnification of this objective is 83
diameters, and the numerical aperture ·94. This superior objective can be
had for the small sum of £2. Another remarkably useful and cheap
objective, their 1-inch numerical aperture 0·21, consists of two achromatic
systems forming the front and back with the separation between them of
about half an inch, and may also be especially recommended for students’
work.

In the accompanying diagram the lenses are drawn on too large a scale,
and therefore the distance between the two combinations should be much
greater.

Among the more useful of Watson’s series, the 1-inch, the ½-inch, and the
1⁄6-inch, together with the 1⁄8-inch dry-objective, and a 1⁄9-inch, will be
found the most serviceable.
 Messrs. Baker have their own series of
objectives, most of which are so very
nearly allied to those of the
continental opticians; and what has
been said of Zeiss’s and Leitz’s
objectives may be taken to apply also
to Baker’s, who have an established
reputation for their histological series,
all of which are well suited for
students’ and class-room work.

Messrs. Swift and Son have a new

series of objectives, semi-
apochromatic and pan-aplanatic, most
Fig. 124.—Watson’s 1⁄8-in. Objective Para- of which are excellent in quality and
chromatic Combination, scale 5-1. show increased flatness of field
together with that of achromatism;
the index of refraction in each series
having been correctly determined
together with exact radial focal
distance, thus affording more
available aperture. I may select for
special commendation their 1⁄12-inch
£5 5s. homogeneous immersion
objective, which is in every way
suitable for bacteriological work; its
definition is very good, as is seen in a
micro-photograph of podura scale,
given further on. Their dry 1⁄6-inch
can be had for £1 16s.—a marvel of
Fig. 125.—Watson’s 1-in. Achromatic cheapness. Of their general series the
Combination. most useful for histological work are
the ½-inch, the 1⁄3-inch at £1 12s.,
and their 1⁄5-inch of numerical aperture 0·87 at £3.

Mr. Pillischer, of Bond Street, has manufactured many excellent objectives.

A fine homogeneous oil-immersion 1⁄12-inch numerical aperture 1·25 is
worthy of special notice; it will be found suitable for bacteriological work; it
has fine definition with a considerable amount of penetration.
A more intelligent idea of the magnifying power of the objective combined
with the eye-piece will be gained by consulting the table given below;
precision in this respect has long been a desideratum with microscopists.

Magnifying Powers of Eye-Pieces and Objectives.

A TYPICAL AND INITIAL SELECTION OF POWERS OF EYE-PIECES

CALCULATED FOR THE 10-INCH TUBE-LENGTH.

Huyghenian Eye-pieces.
Name A B C D E F
of Maker. 0 or No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Baker 6 8 12 15 — — Diameters.
Beck, R. & J. 4 8 15 20 25 not made. "
Leitz 5 6 7 8 10 12 "
Powell & Lealand 5 7·5 10 20 40 " "
24
Reichert 2·5 3·5 4 5 6·5 " "
25
Ross 3 8 12½ 20 25 40 "
Swift & Son 6 9 12 15 18 21 "
Watson & Sons 4 6 8 10 12 15 "
Zeiss 3 4 5·5 7 9 not made. "

Compensating Eye-pieces for use with Apochromatic Objectives.

Zeiss 2 4 8 12 18 27 Diameters.

This may be taken as a typical set, further treated of among Eye-pieces.

Initial Powers of Objectives calculated for the 10-inch Tube-

length.
This is ascertained by dividing the distance of distinct vision 10 inches by
the focus of the objective, thus—

Focus-
4 3 2 1½ 1 2⁄3 ½ 4⁄10 ¼ 1⁄5 1⁄6 1⁄8 1⁄12
inches
Initial
magnifying 2·5 3·3 5 7·5 10 15 20 25 40 50 60 80 120 diameters.
power

A reference to the above table will at once show that the nomenclature of
objectives expresses at once the initial magnifying powers, but as makers
have great difficulty in so calculating their formulæ so as to obtain the
exact power, these figures must be taken as approximate. Thus a ¼-inch,
which should magnify 40 diameters if true to its description, might actually
magnify a little more or less.

The magnifying powers of Zeiss’s and other apochromatic objectives can be

ascertained by dividing the focal length of the objective in millimeters into
250 mm. (the distance of distinct vision), thus

Focus millimetres 24 16 12 4 3 2 1·5

Initial magnifying power 10·5 15·5 21 63 83 125 167 diameters.

The total magnification, when any eye-piece is working in conjunction with

an objective, is ascertained by multiplying the initial power of the objective
by that of the eye-piece.

The above calculations are all for a 10-inch tube-length. Should, however, a
shorter or longer length of body be employed, the magnification can at
once be ascertained by a proportion sum. If the magnification be 180 with
10-inch tube-length, what would it be with a 6-inch body—10 : 6 :: 180 =
108 diameters.

Abbe designed three different forms of eye-pieces: 1, the searcher eye-

piece; 2, the working eye-piece; and 3, the projecting eye-piece. The
Searcher is a negative form of low power. The working is both negative and
positive, the positive form of which is constructed on a newer principle;
while the projection is chiefly intended for microphotography, its field being
small and its definition superlatively sharp. These are severally explained
among eye-pieces.
 High-Power Objectives.
Points of Importance for securing the best results with High-power
Objectives.—Always give to the body-tube of the microscope the length for
which the objective is corrected, 0·160 mm. for the short continental tube,
and 0·250 mm. for the English tube (10-inch). Employ both dry and
immersion objectives mounted for correction, commencing with a
numerical aperture of 0·75 (that is about 100° in air). If the graduation is
not given in thickness of cover-glass apply to the maker to correct this
omission.

With the homogeneous oil-immersion objective it is highly necessary to

utilise all marginal pencils of light, to optically unite the upper lens of the
condenser with the preparation as well as the front lens of the objective by
means of a liquid having the same index of refraction or at least equal to
that of the immersion. Cedar Oil has been generally adopted for the
purpose mentioned, the better way of using which is as follows: place a
drop on the centre of the front objective, or on the top of the cover-glass,
and then lower the objective by means of the coarse adjustment until it
comes in contact with the oil, and carefully bring into focus by the fine
adjustment. If the slide is held between the finger and thumb of one hand
and moved from side to side, while the other hand is working the fine
adjustment, there can be no danger of injuring either the objective or the
specimen. Before putting the microscope away, take a fine camel-hair
brush dipped in ether, alcohol, or methylated spirit, and carefully remove
the oil from the objective and the glass cover of the object; a soft chamois
leather or cambric pocket handkerchief will dry it off, or a piece of fine
white blotting paper answers equally well. Should the lens come
accidentally into contact with the Canada balsam, it must be very carefully
removed either by ether or alcohol. The former is by far the safest, as
alcohol, if not very carefully used, quickly dissolves out the balsam and
loosens the cover-glass of the object.

Achromatic Condensers.
The Achromatic Condenser can no longer be classed among the
accessories of the microscope, since it is an absolutely indispensable part
of its optical arrangements. Its value, then, cannot be overrated, and the
corrections of the lenses which enter into the construction of the
condenser should be made as perfect as they can be made—in fact, as
nearly approaching that of the objective as it is possible to make them. It
may therefore be of interest to know something of the rise and progress of
the achromatic condenser. In my first chapter I have noticed the earlier
attempts made by Dr. Wollaston, whose experiments led him to fit to the
underside of the stage of his microscope a short tube, in which a plano-
convex lens of about three-quarters of an inch focal length was made to
slide up and down (afterwards moved up and down by two knobs); to
improve definition he placed a stop between the mirror and the lens. The
stop was found to act better when placed between the lens and the object.
From this improvement Dr. Wollaston enunciated that “the intensity of
illumination will depend upon the diameter of the illuminating lens and the
proportion of the image to the perforation, and may be regulated according
to the wish of the observer.” Dujardin in France and Tully in England were
at work in the same direction. The former a year or two later on contrived
an instrument, which he termed an eclairage, to remedy the defects of
Wollaston’s, and for illuminating objects with achromatic light. This was
submitted for approval to Sir David Brewster, who, when the use of the
achromatic condenser was first broached, used these encouraging words:
—“I have no hesitation in saying that the apparatus for illumination
requires to be as perfect as the apparatus for vision, and on this account I
would recommend that the illuminating lens should be perfectly free from
chromatic and spherical aberration, and that the greatest care be taken to
exclude all extraneous light both from the object and eye of the observer.”
This far-seeing observer in optical science has borne good fruit, and the
outcome of his views is seen in the great development and improvement of
the achromatic condenser. In 1839 Andrew Ross made his first useful form
of condenser, and gave rules for the illumination of objects in an article
written for the “Penny Cyclopædia.” These, epitomised, read as follows: 1.
That the illuminating cone should equal the aperture of the objective, and
no more. 2. With daylight, a white cloud being in focus, the object has to
be placed nearly at the apex of the cone. The object is seen better
sometimes above and sometimes below the apex of the cone. 3. With
lamplight a bull’s-eye lens is to be used, to parallelise the rays, so that they
may be similar to those coming from the white cloud. It has been seen that
Mr. Lister foreshadowed the sub-stage condenser.
The early form of Ross’s condenser consists of two small brass tubes made
to slide one in the other. To the outer one is attached a flat brass plate
which slides underneath the stage of the microscope, and by means of a
screw the adjustment of the axis of the illuminator is effected. The upper
portion of the apparatus carries the achromatic combination, which by a
rack and pinion movement is brought nearer to, or removed further from
the object on the stage. The several parts of the illuminator unscrew, so
that the lenses may be used either combined for high powers, or separated
for low powers.

Messrs. Smith & Beck greatly

improved upon Ross’s condenser by
adding another achromatic lens to
the combination, three being
employed when used with high-
power objectives and two or even
one with the lower, the adjustment
and focussing being made by rack
and pinion arrangement beneath the
stage. Some further changes for the
better were made in the condenser
by Powell, and in 1850 an amateur
microscopist, Mr. Gillett, fully
grasping the value of controlling the Fig. 126.—Original form of Gillett’s
cone of rays passing into the Achromatic Condenser.
microscope, devised a new form of
condenser, in connection with which a revolving series of diaphragms of
different values were made to pass between the achromatic lenses and the
source of light.

Andrew Ross constructed the first condenser on Gillett’s principle, and this
proved to be one of the most successful pieces of apparatus contrived.
Gillett’s Condenser consists of an achromatic lens c, about equal to an
object-glass of one quarter of an inch focal length, with an aperture of 80°.
This lens is screwed into the top of a brass tube, and intersecting which, at
an angle of about 25°, is a circular rotating brass plate a b, provided with a
conical diaphragm, having a series of circular apertures of different sizes h
g, each of which in succession, as the diaphragm is rotated, proportionally
limits the light transmitted through the illuminating lens. The circular plate
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