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Process Modelling and Model Analysis Process Systems
Engineering 1st Edition Ian T. Cameron Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Ian T. Cameron, Katalin Hangos
ISBN(s): 9780121569310, 0121569314
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 21.75 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 PROCESS MODELLING
AND MODEL ANALYSIS
This is Volume 4 of
PROCESS SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
A Series edited by George Stephanopoulos and John Perkins
 PROCESS
MODELLING AND
MODEL ANALYSIS

K. M. Hangos
Systems and Control Laboratory
Computer and Automation Research Institute of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Budapest, Hungary
L T. Cameron
Cape Centre Department of Chemical Engineering
The University of Queensland
Brisbane, Queensland

r^ ACADEMIC PRESS
\,,__^^ A Harcourt Science and Technology Company

San Diego San Francisco New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo
This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2001 by ACADEMIC PRESS

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing from the
publisher.
Academic Press
A Harcourt Science and Technology Company
Harcourt Place, 32 Jamestown Road, London NWl 7BY, UK
http://www.academicpress.com

Academic Press
A Harcourt Science and Technology Company
525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA
http ://w w w. academ icpress. com

ISBN 0-12-156931-4

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 00-112073

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India

01 02 03 04 05 06 BC 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Transferred to digital printing in 2007.

 Dedicated to

Misi, Akos, Veronika

and
Lucille, James, Peter, Andrew
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION xiii

I F U N D A M E N T A L PRINCIPLES A N D PROCESS
MODEL DEVELOPMENT

I The Role of Models in Process

Systems Engineering
1.1. The Idea of a Model 4
1.2. Model Application Areas in PSE 7
1.3. Model Classification 10
1.4. Model Characteristics 12
1.5. A Brief Historical Review of Modelling in PSE 13
1.6. Summary 17
1.7. Review Questions 17
1.8. Application Exercises 17

VII
VIII CONTENTS

2 A Systematic Approach to Model Building

2.1. The Process System and the Modelling Goal 20
2.2. Mathematical Models 22
2.3. A Systematic Modelling Procedure 24
2.4. Ingredients of Process Models 32
2.5. Summary 36
2.6. Review Questions 36
2.7. Application Exercises 37

3 Conservation Principles

3.1. Thermodynamic Principles of Process Systems 42

3.2. Principle of Conservation 51
3.3. Balance Volumes in Process System Applications 58
3.4. Summary 61
3.5. Review Questions 62
3.6. Application Exercises 62

4 Constitutive Relations
4.1. Transfer Rate Equations 65
4.2. Reaction Kinetics 70
4.3. Thermodynamical Relations 72
4.4. Balance Volume Relations 75
4.5. Equipment and Control Relations 75
4.6. Summary 79
4.7. Review Questions 79
4.8. Application Exercises 80

5 Dynamic Models—Lumped Parameter Systems

5.1. Characterizing Models and Model Equation Sets 83
5.2. Lumped Parameter Models—Initial Value
Problems (IVPs) 84
5.3. Conservation Balances for Mass 86
5.4. Conservation Balances for Energy 89
5.5. Conservation Balances for Momentum 95
5.6. The Set of Conservation Balances for Lumped Systems 98
5.7. Conservation Balances in Intensive Variable Form 99
5.8. Dimensionless Variables 101
5.9. Normalization of Balance Equations 102
5.10. Steady-State Lumped Parameter Systems 103
CONTENTS IX

5.11. Analysis of Lumped Parameter Models 104

5.12. Stability of the Mathematical Problem 114
5.13. Summary 117
5.14. Review Questions 118
5.15. Application Exercises 118

6 Solution Strategies for

Lumped Parameter Models
6.1. Process Engineering Example Problems 124
6.2. Ordinary Differential Equations 125
6.3. Basic Concepts in Numerical Methods 126
6.4. Local Truncation Error and Stability 129
6.5. Stability of the Numerical Method 133
6.6. Key Numerical Methods 137
6.7. Differential-Algebraic Equation Solution Techniques 149
6.8. Summary 155
6.9. Review Questions 156
6.10. Application Exercises 156

7 Dynamic Models^—Distributed
Parameter Systems

7.1. Development of DPS Models 163

7.2. Examples of Distributed Parameter Modelling 174
7.3. Classification of DPS Models 182
7.4. Lumped Parameter Models for Representing DPSs 185
7.5. Summary 186
7.6. Review Questions 187
7.7. Application Exercises 187

8 Solution Strategies for Distributed

Parameter Models
8.1. Areas of Interest 191
8.2. Finite Difference Methods 192
8.3. Method of Lines 201
8.4. Method of Weighted Residuals 203
8.5. Orthogonal Collocation 206
8.6. Orthogonal Collocation for Partial Differential Equations 216
8.7. Summary 218
8.8. Review Questions 218
8.9. Application Exercises 219
 CONTENTS

9 Process Model Hierarchies

9.1. Hierarchy Driven by the Level of Detail 225
9.2. Hierarchy Driven by Characteristic Sizes 233
9.3. Hierarchy Driven by Characteristic Times 239
9.4. Summary 245
9.5. Further Reading 246
9.6. Review Questions 246
9.7. Application Exercises 246

II ADVANCED PROCESS MODELLING A N D

MODEL ANALYSIS

10 Basic Tools for Process Model Analysis

10.1. Problem Statements and Solutions 251
10.2. Basic Notions in Systems and Control Theory 253
10.3. Lumped Dynamic Models as Dynamic System Models 264
10.4. State Space Models and Model Linearization 269
10.5. Structural Graphs of Lumped Dynamic Models 277
10.6. Summary 281
10.7. Review Questions 281
10.8. Application Exercises 282

11 Data Acquisition and Analysis

11.1. Sampling of Continuous Time Dynamic Models 286
11.2. Data Screening 289
11.3. Experiment Design for Parameter Estimation of
Static Models 294
11.4. Experiment Design for Parameter Estimation of
Dynamic Models 295
11.5. Summary 296
11.6. Further Reading 296
11.7. Review Questions 296
11.8. Application Exercises 297

12 Statistical Model Calibration and Validation

12.1. Grey-Box Models and Model Calibration 300
12.2. Model Parameter and Structure Estimation 302
12.3. Model Parameter Estimation for Static Models 314
12.4. Identification: Model Parameter and Structure Estimation of
Dynamic Models 318
12.5. CSTR: A Case Study of Model Parameter Estimation 323
12.6. Statistical Model Validation via Parameter Estimation 330
CONTENTS XI

12.7. Summary 331

12.8. Further Reading 331
12.9. Review Questions 331
12.10. Application Exercises 332

13 Analysis of Dynamic Process Models

13.1. Analysis of Basic Dynamical Properties 336
13.2. Analysis of Structural Dynamical Properties 341
13.3. Model Simplification and Reduction 350
13.4. Summary 359
13.5. Further Reading 359
13.6. Review Questions 360
13.7. Application Exercises 361

14 Process Modelling for Control and

Diagnostic Purposes
14.1. Model-Based Process Control 364
14.2. Model-Based Process Diagnosis 370
14.3. Qualitative, Logical and AI Models 372
14.4. Summary 384
14.5. Further Reading 384
14.6. Review Questions 385
14.7. Application Exercises 385

15 Modelling Discrete Event Systems

15.1. Characteristics and Issues 388
15.2. Approaches to Model Representation 388
15.3. Solution of Discrete Event Dynamic System Models 404
15.4. Analysis of Discrete Event Systems 408
15.5. Summary 410
15.6. Further Reading 411
15.7. Review Questions 412
15.8. Application Exercises 412

16 Modelling Hybrid Systems

16.1. Hybrid Systems Basics 415
16.2. Approaches to Model Representation 420
16.3. Analysis of Hybrid Systems 430
16.4. Solution of Hybrid System Models 431
16.5. Summary 434
16.6. Further Reading 434
XII CONTENTS

16.7. Review Questions 435

16.8. Application Exercises 436

17 Modelling Applications in Process Systems

17.1. Copper Converter Dynamics 438
17.2. Destruction of Phenol in Wastewater by
Photochemical Reaction 445
17.3. Prefermenter System for Wastewater Treatment 451
17.4. Granulation Circuit Modelling 456
17.5. Industrial Depropanizer using Structural Packing 462
17.6. Summary 469

18 Computer Aided Process Modelling

18.1. Introduction 472
18.2. Industrial Demands on Computer Aided Modelling Tools 472
18.3. Basic Issues in CAPM Tools 474
18.4. Approaches to CAPM Tool Development 483
18.5. Summary 492

19 Empirical Model Building

19.1. Introduction 493
19.2. The Modelling Procedure Revisited 494
19.3. Black-Box Modelling 497
19.4. Traps and Pitfalls in Empirical Model Building 511
19.5. Summary 515
19.6. Further Reading 515
19.7. Review Questions 516
19.8. Application Exercises 516

Appendix: Basic Mathematic Tools 517

A. 1. Random Variables and Their Properties 517
A.2. Hypothesis Testing 521
A.3. Vector and Signal Norms 522
A.4. Matrix and Operator Norms 523
A.5. Graphs 524

BIBLIOGRAPHY 527

INDEX 535
INTRODUCTION

Process modelling is one of the key activities in process systems engineering. Its
importance is reflected in various ways. It is a significant activity in most major com-
panies around the world, driven by such application areas as process optimization,
design and control. It is a vital part of risk management, particularly consequence
analysis of hazardous events such as loss of containment of process fluids. It is a
permanent subject of conferences and symposia in fields related to process systems
engineering. It is often the topic of various specialized courses offered at graduate,
postgraduate and continuing professional education levels. There are various text-
books available for courses in process modelling and model solution amongst which
are Himmelblau [1], Davis [2], Riggs [3] and Rice and Do [4]. These however are
mainly devoted to the solution techniques related to process models and not to the
problem on how to define, setup, analyse and test models. Several short monographs
or mathematical notes with deeper insights on modelling are available, most notably
by Aris [5] and Denn [6].
In most books on this subject there is a lack of a consistent modelling approach
applicable to process systems engineering as well as a recognition that modelling is
not just about producing a set of equations. There is far more to process modelling
than writing equations. This is the reason why we decided to write the current book in
order to give a more comprehensive treatment of process modelling useful to student,
researcher and industrial practitioner.
There is another important aspect which limits the scope of the present material
in the area of process modelling. It originates from the well-known fact that a par-
ticular process model depends not only on the process to be described but also on the
modelling goal. It involves the intended use of the model and the user of that model.
Moreover, the actual form of the model is also determined by the education, skills
and taste of the modeller and that of the user. Due to the above reasons, the main
emphasis has been on process models for dynamic simulation and process control
purposes. These are principally lumped dynamic process models in the form of sets
of differential—algebraic equations. Other approaches such as distributed parameter
modelling and the description of discrete event and hybrid systems are also treated.
Finally the use of empirical modelling is also covered, recognizing that our knowledge

XIII
XIV INTRODUCTION

of many systems is extremely shallow and that input-output descriptions generated

by analysing plant data are needed to complement a mechanistic approach.
Process modelling is an engineering activity with a relatively mature technol-
ogy. The basic principles in model building are based on other disciplines in process
engineering such as mathematics, chemistry and physics. Therefore, a good back-
ground in these areas is essential for a modeller. Thermodynamics, unit operations,
reaction kinetics, catalysis, process flowsheeting and process control are the helpful
prerequisites for a course in process modelling. A mathematical background is also
helpful for the understanding and application of analysis and numerical methods in
the area of linear algebra, algebraic and differential equations.

Structure of the book

The book consists of two parts. The first part is devoted to the building of process
models whilst the second part is directed towards analysing models from the view-
point of their intended use. The methodology is presented in a top-down systematic
way following the steps of a modelling procedure. This often starts from the most
general case. Emphasis is given in this book to identifying the key ingredients, devel-
oping conservation and constitutive equations then analysing and solving the resultant
model. These concepts are introduced and discussed in separate chapters. Static and
dynamic process models and their solution methods are treated in an integrated man-
ner and then followed by a discussion on hierarchical process models which are related
by scales of time or degree of detail. This is the field of multi-scale modelling.
The second part of the book is devoted to the problem of how to analyse process
models for a given modelling goal. Three dominant application areas are discussed:
• control and diagnosis where mostly lumped dynamic process models are used,
• static flowsheeting with lumped static process models,
• dynamic flowsheeting where again mostly lumped dynamic process models
are in use.
Special emphasis is given to the different but related process models and their
properties which are important for the above application areas.
Various supplementary material is available in the appendices. This includes:
• Background material from mathematics covering linear algebra and math-
ematical statistics.
• Computer science concepts such as graphs and algorithms.
Each chapter has sections on review questions and application examples which
help reinforce the content of each chapter. Many of the application exercises are
suitable for group work by students.
The methods and procedures presented are illustrated by examples throughout
the book augmented with MATLAB subroutines where appropriate. The examples
are drawn from as wide a range of process engineering disciplines as possible. They
include chemical processing, minerals process engineering, environmental engineer-
ing and food engineering in order to give a true process system's appeal. The model
analysis methods in part two are applied to many of the same process systems used
in part one. This method of presentation makes the book easy to use for both higher
year undergraduate, postgraduate courses or for self study.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Harper's Young People,
October 17, 1882
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other
parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may
copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in
the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are
located before using this eBook.

Title: Harper's Young People, October 17, 1882

Author: Various

Release date: June 1, 2019 [eBook #59649]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Annie R. McGuire

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPER'S YOUNG PEOPLE, OCTOBER
17, 1882 ***
 "THEIR GIRL."
"JUST LIKE A COMET!"
THE IGUANA.
THE CRUISE OF THE CANOE CLUB.
HANDICRAFT.
THE BATTLE OF LAKE BORGNE.
WHO WON THE BICYCLE?
AUTUMN LEAVES.
THE DARING MICE.
OUR POST-OFFICE BOX.

Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New

vol. iii.—no. 155. price four cents.
York.
Tuesday, October 17, $1.50 per Year, in
Copyright, 1882, by Harper & Brothers.
1882. Advance.
UNDER WAY FOR CONEY ISLAND.
 "THEIR GIRL."
A STORY IN THREE CHAPTERS.

BY JAMES OTIS,
Author of "Toby Tyler," "Tim and Tip," "Mr. Stubbs's Brother," etc.

III.
The morning on which the famous excursion was to be made dawned as bright and clear
as the most exacting boy could have wished, and Johnny and Jimmy were in the best
possible spirits.
The boat on which they were to start was to leave the pier at ten o'clock, and as early as
six they had concluded the most elaborate of toilets. They were dressed so much that the
effort to move about in such a manner as not to destroy their general elegance really
cost them no little pain.
Johnny had been up some time before it was light, making such a racket as he moved
about the house, bent on getting this thing or that which would add to his general
appearance, that Mother Brown had jumped out of bed twice in the greatest alarm,
believing burglars were in the house. He had not only made his own toilet, but he had
aided Jimmy in his, until both were in such a state of gorgeousness that they almost
feared to walk through the streets because of the excitement they might cause.
The night previous Johnny had invested five cents in butter, greatly to the mystification of
Jimmy, and when the work of dressing began, he brought it forward triumphantly,
bestowing such liberal quantities upon his own head and Jimmy's that each particular hair
lay down so flat that the most furious gust of wind could not have disturbed it. It was
fully half an hour before Johnny, with the aid of an old shoe-brush, could arrange this
portion of the toilet to please him; but it was accomplished at last, and the remainder of
the work begun.
During the first week of the summer Jimmy had taken the place, for one day, of a friend
who sold papers on the Harlem Railroad, and in order that he might improve his personal
appearance somewhat had purchased a paper collar. Of course he had worn it until it was
so thoroughly soiled that it would have been difficult to have said what its original color
was.
This Johnny used for a pattern, and from a piece of white paper had made two collars,
which had the merit of being clean, even if they did not fit as well as they might have
done. They were rather high in the back and low in front, with a decided tendency to
wrinkle; but those little defects Johnny was certain would not be noticed in the general
beauty of the whole.
Jimmy's coat, which he had borrowed from Tom Dowling for this special occasion, had
originally been brown, trimmed with fur, and many sizes too large for him. In the years
that had passed since it was new it had not grown smaller, but the color had departed
from it, and what had once been fur now looked like strips of very poor leather. But
Jimmy was perfectly satisfied with it, since it was large enough to enable him to conceal
the lack of vest, and short enough to leave fully three inches of his linen trousers
exposed to view.
He wore a felt hat with an abundance of brim and a sad deficiency of crown, while his
neck-tie was a modest and unassuming one, with alternate red and yellow stripes about
an inch wide. With the exception, perhaps, of his coat, it was in his shoes that he took
the greatest pride. It is true that there were several holes in them, but he had blackened
them and his feet so skillfully that an ordinarily careless glance would have failed to show
that they were other than whole.
While Jimmy believed that he looked thoroughly genteel, he freely admitted that Johnny
would have carried away the prize for fashionable attire had any been offered. Not
because his clothes were any more expensive than were his partner's, but because it
might be said they were more seasonable.
Johnny was clothed entirely in brown linen. Mother Brown had on hand a suit belonging
to her son, who had inadvertently left it at home when he ran away to sea, and this she
sold to Johnny for thirty cents, to be paid in ten weekly installments.
Young Brown must have been very tall, or else his clothes had been made in expectation
of his growing very rapidly, for the coat, in its original condition, nearly dragged on the
ground when Johnny tried it on. Mrs. Brown had remedied this defect, however, by
making a fold about five inches wide across the entire garment, which both the boys
thought a great improvement. The trousers had simply been cut off at the bottom, so
that they were a good fit so far as length was concerned, and it was very little trouble to
fold them in around the waist.
Mrs. Brown, without extra charge, had starched the garments very stiff, so that they
would stand out boldly without betraying the fact that the wearer did not occupy all the
space in them he might have done had he been about twice as large as he was. When
Johnny had the clothes on, with a brilliant green neck-tie to enhance the effect, it must
have been a prejudiced party who would not have admitted that it was a striking
costume. His shoes were not blackened quite as brilliantly as were his partner's, but the
reason for this apparent neglect was that, not having as many holes in them as Jimmy's
had, there was no reason for quite so high a polish.
As they had anticipated, they did attract considerable attention as they walked into the
City Hall Park, with so much time at their disposal that they were not obliged to hurry in
order to keep their engagement. Even the men looked at them with no slight degree of
interest, while the boys proved their admiration by greeting them with all kinds of
criticism, some less complimentary than others. Some of the boys Johnny spoke with
kindly, as if to show that even if he was magnificent, he was not proud; but others he
paid no attention to whatever, giving as a reason to Jimmy that when they were dressed
as they were he thought that some distinction should be made by them between the
reputable newspaper merchants and those whose credit had been impaired by their own
misdeeds.
Very many of their acquaintances in business knew about "their girl," and also knew of
the accident she had met with, therefore they readily understood by the display of
costumes that Katy was to be released from the hospital. Nearly all of them sent some
message of congratulation to the black-pin girl that her recovery was complete, and one
even offered to loan the boys ten cents, without other security than their word, if they
were going to take "their girl" out for a good time.
Jimmy would have accepted this offer eagerly, for their funds were so limited that even
the slightest addition would have been welcome; but Johnny prevented him at once by
saying to the would-be lender:
"We're much obliged to yer, Jack, and we'll do the same for you some time; but yer see
we couldn't think of takin' Katy out on borrowed money, for she wouldn't have as good a
time if she knew it."
Then the boys walked directly to the hospital, arriving there some time before eight
o'clock, and for more than an hour were they obliged to wait in the street, suffering
greatly from the heat and their fear lest they should disarrange their carefully made
toilets.
It seemed as if Katy must have been as impatient for the meeting as they were, for just
at nine o'clock she came out of the hospital gates, looking pale and worn, but as happy
as she ever was in her life. She had on the new dress, and even though it was not made
in the latest fashion, nor of the richest materials, the boys were very much surprised by
the improvement in her appearance.
"You look like a reg'lar swell!" exclaimed Johnny, approvingly, and then he turned slowly
around in front of her, that she might see and admire him.
"I hain't sure but the dress looks jest as well as if it was red," said Jimmy, too much
"dressed up" even to rub his chin, and then he too began to revolve for Katy's benefit.
For some moments it was truly a mutual admiration society of three members.
Then after they had sufficiently complimented each other, and after Katy had vainly tried
to thank the boys for their kindness, Johnny announced the programme for the day,
explaining that the excursion was necessary as a means of showing their thankfulness for
the recovery of "their girl."
"We're goin' to be reg'lar folks, ain't we?" cried Katy, when, to her great pleasure, the
boys led the way to the nearest elevated railroad station, thus giving her the opportunity
of having such a ride as she had long desired.
"I guess you'll think so before we get back," replied Johnny, decidedly; and when he paid
thirty cents for the ride, thereby diminishing their funds sadly, he looked at Katy in a
satisfied way, happy at being able to give her so much pleasure.
At the steamboat pier they mingled with the crowd that would probably spend more
money than they, but yet have less enjoyment, and it was as much as Katy could do to
see everything around her, so many times did she look at her dress—new and whole.
During the sail Ikey Moses had no reason to complain that the boys did not keep their
word in regard to patronizing him, for hardly five minutes went by without their making a
purchase of some kind. Katy had pea-nuts, apples, candy, and cakes piled up on the seat
in front of her until it seemed certain that if she ate them all she would be obliged to
return to the hospital.
When the boys were not gladdening Ikey Moses' heart by buying his wares, they were
busily engaged in pointing out to Katy the different points of interest in the harbor, or in
telling her of the wonderful things she was to see; and in this way the time passed so
rapidly that before it seemed possible they could have been away from the pier ten
minutes they were at Coney Island.
Having spent so much of their wealth on the steamer, it was necessary for them to be
careful of their money if they expected to get any dinner, and in order that the purchases
might be made more judiciously, Jimmy gave his portion of the funds to Johnny, thereby
making him responsible for the manner in which the forty remaining cents were spent.
If they did not have quite as much money, they felt of just as much importance as any
one on the beach, and they walked along in all the glory of good clothes and a contented
mind. They would have enjoyed a swim—at least the boys would—but bathing suits were
necessary; and after Johnny had vainly tried to persuade the man at the bath-house that
ten cents ought to be enough for the hire of three suits, they concluded that perhaps
they ought not waste so much time in the water, when they could be sight-seeing.
Never before had the three been on an excursion "dressed up," and they enjoyed their
own condition quite as much as they did that which they saw. Even the dinner was a
success, for Johnny bought one plate of chowder, with crackers for three, and on the
clean though rather warm sand they sat around the one plate, quite as contented as if
they had had all that money could buy.
It was not until the last trip of the boat on which Ikey Moses was employed that they
started for home, and then they gave their friend no extra work in waiting upon them, for
they had such a trifling sum in the treasury—that is to say, in Johnny's pockets—that they
would be able to buy only a small stock of papers the next morning.
But they insisted on introducing Ikey to Katy, and obliged him to hear a detailed account
of the manner in which they celebrated the release of "their girl" from the hospital. Katy
very obligingly stood up that Master Moses could see her dress from every point of view,
and long and loud was the discussion the boys entered into as to what color would have
been the most beautiful, for they all condemned Mrs. Spratt's taste in the matter.
It was well that they had not arranged to spend more than one day at the sea-shore, for
the costume of the boys was not well calculated to stand much service. As it was, the
starch had departed so entirely from Johnny's clothes that they hung limp and in folds
around him, while the improvised paper collars were such a wreck that they were
discarded before the party reached home.
By some means the secret of where they were going had been discovered by their
friends, and when they landed they found as many as twenty waiting to greet Katy, as
well as to learn all the particulars of this excursion which had been made in such a
fashionable manner, so far as clothes were concerned.
It was not until a late hour that night that Mother Brown's boarders retired, and just
before they did go to bed they startled the old lady out of her first sleep and a portion of
her senses by giving three rousing cheers for Johnny, Jimmy, and "their girl."

the end.
"JUST LIKE A COMET!"
BY JOSEPHINE POLLARD.
A little maid, so wondrous wise
In speech, and with observing eyes,
Was wakened at the early morn,
And to an eastern window borne,
That she might see the comet bright,
And nevermore forget the sight.

The shining star was pointed out,

Its head with splendor rayed about,
And then, outspreading like a dress,
Its train of dazzling loveliness,
And all the points that made it far
More beautiful than any star.

The little maiden gazed, and gazed;

At such a wonder much amazed;
And never had she seen before
The morning sky so spangled o'er,
Or fancied that the silver moon
Staid out so late, or rose so soon.

The stars kept winking overhead,

As if they longed to be in bed,
And two bright orbs in mamma's lap
Were closed to finish out their nap,
While still the comet swept the skies,
The marvel of admiring eyes.

Next day within the nursery

The little maiden chanced to be,
When baby was on dress parade,
Its pretty finery well displayed,
As high in nurse's arms 'twas held
With all its frowns and fears dispelled.

Its flaxen head, with aureole bright,

Its lengthy train of dazzling white,
Were noted by the maid so wise,
 Who stood, with widely opened eyes,
And said, "It looks"—her speech was slow
—
"Just like a comet!" And 'twas so.

"I DO LOVE DOLLY SO MUCH!"

 THE IGUANA.
BY HELEN S. CONANT.
The iguana is a very large and very ugly-looking lizard, which is found all through the
American tropics. It measures fully five feet in length, its body being over two feet, and
its long tapering tail nearly three. It is covered with scales, and its usual color is green
shaded with brown. Iguanas possess, however, to an extent exceeded only by the
chameleon, the power of changing their colors, the brilliant green becoming transformed
in an instant, through the influence of fear or anger, into darker hues, or even into black.
The eyes of the iguana are large, as is also its head, while a pouch, serrated in front,
depends from the lower jaw. It also has a serrated tuft, like a comb, extending along its
back and half the length of its tail. Its legs are long, and its feet are armed with strong
claws, which enable it to climb about among the branches of the trees with the greatest
rapidity.
One would think that so large a creature would be slow and clumsy in its movements, but
no squirrel or small lizard could be lighter and more active than the iguana. It is as much
at home in the water as on the land, and can remain under the surface a long time
without coming up to breathe. When swimming, it propels itself ahead with marvellous
quickness by waving its long tail from side to side, and using its paws very much in the
manner that a boy would use his arms.
A singular instance of the power and velocity of the iguana is related by an English
traveller. On the bank of a river he came suddenly upon one of these huge lizards lying
concealed in the tall grass. Alarmed by the appearance of a man, whom the iguana
recognizes as its deadly enemy, the creature sprang into the water; but in place of
swimming, so great was the force of its spring that it skimmed across the broad river,
scarcely touching the surface with its feet. In two minutes it reached the sand-banks of
the opposite shore, and vanished among the bushes.
Although of such immense size, the weight of the iguana is scarcely ten pounds, which
fact probably accounts for its extreme lightness of motion.
It is not very pleasant for a person of civilized taste to think of eating a lizard, but the
flesh of the iguana is considered a great delicacy. Indians hunt it with bows and arrows,
and when brought to market it is sold for a high price. Another method of catching it is to
slip a noose around its neck as it sits in fancied security upon the branch of a tree. The
country people roast it in hot ashes, and the meat is said to be tender and juicy, and very
delicate in flavor. The eggs, too, which are rich and oily, are favorite eating. They are
about as large as a dove's eggs, and of a glistening white. The iguana buries them,
eighteen or twenty together, in a hole in the sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the
sun.
The little ones are left to take care of themselves as best they can. Humboldt, the great
traveller and naturalist, found nests of young iguanas which were apparently just
hatched. They were not over four inches long, and were very spry little things, and much
prettier than later on in their lizard life.
The iguana will never attack an enemy, but when cornered, is a valiant fighter. It will hiss
and spit like a cat, and erecting the comb on its back, it will spring at its enemy, dealing
powerful blows with its tail, and biting with its sharp teeth. The following story is told by
an Australian settler of an encounter between an iguana and a snake: "I saw a heavy
fight the other day between a large iguana and a tree-snake about five feet long. They
were both going to pay a visit to a ''possum' which lived in a big hole in a tree. Each went
up a different side of the tree, and met at the entrance to the hole, and then the row
began. The great lizard squealed in a most defiant manner, and the snake was in no way
behindhand in hissing. In fact, strong reptile language filled the air for fully ten minutes
before the fight commenced; then they went at it. But the iguana was too much for the
snake, and killed him in a few minutes, seeming to take no notice of a good many bites,
for the snake fought pluckily. The ''possum' profited by this chance to escape to a top
limb of the tree, where he sat blinking in the sunlight, till presently a great eagle-hawk
came swooping down on him, and was carrying him off, when I put in a word, or rather a
charge of shot, and so earned 2s. 6d., that is, head-money."
Iguanas which have been captured have at first acted in a most violent manner, hissing
and snapping at everything which approached the cage; but they soon grow accustomed
to captivity, and will become so tame as to take lettuce leaves and other food from the
hands of the keeper. But confinement is not healthy for these large creatures, and they
lie sluggishly in their cages, taking no notice of their surroundings, and doing nothing but
eat, until by degrees they shrivel up and die.

THE IGUANA.
 THE CRUISE OF THE CANOE CLUB.[1]
BY W. L. ALDEN,
Author of "The Moral Pirates," "The Cruise of the 'Ghost,'" etc., etc.

Chapter X.
Charley and Harry took in their sails, keeping the canoes head to sea with an occasional
stroke of the paddle. When all was made snug, and the moment for turning the canoes
had arrived, they realized that they were about to attempt the most hazardous feat of the
whole cruise.
"Can we do it?" asked Harry, doubtfully.
"We've got to do it," replied Charley.
"Why can't we unship our rudders and back water till we get to the reeds?"
"It might be possible, but the chances are that we would be swamped. The seas would
overtake us, and we couldn't keep out of the way of them. No, we've got to turn around
and sail back in the regular way."
"You know best, of course," said Harry; "but what's the use of taking in our sails before
we turn around? We'll have trouble in setting them again with the wind astern."
"We can turn the canoes quicker without sails than we could with the sails set, and every
second that we can gain is worth something. Besides, if we are capsized, it will be an
advantage to have the sails furled. But we're wasting time. Let your canoe get right
astern of mine, so that mine will keep a little of the sea off of you; then watch for two or
three big seas, and turn your canoe when they have passed."
Harry followed his friend's instructions, and succeeded in turning his canoe without
accident. Then Charley, getting into the lee of the Sunshine, did his best to imitate
Harry's successful feat. He managed to turn the canoe, but while in the act a heavy sea
rolled into the cockpit and filled the Midnight absolutely full. The beef bladders, however,
kept the canoe afloat, but she lay like a log on the water, and every successive wave
swept over her.
Charley did not lose his presence of mind. He shouted to Harry to run up his sail and
keep his canoe out of the way of the seas, and then he busied himself shaking out the
reef of his mainsail, so that he could set the whole sail. The moment the canoe felt the
strain of her canvas she began to rush through the water in spite of her great weight,
and no more seas came aboard her. Steering with one hand, Charley bailed with his hat
with such energy that he soon freed the canoe of water. Meanwhile he rapidly overtook
Harry, and reached the reeds, while the Sunshine was a quarter of a mile behind him.
Tom and Joe were found sitting in their canoes and suffering the pangs of hunger.
Charley put on dry clothes, while Harry prepared a lunch of dried beef and crackers, after
which the canoeists resigned themselves as cheerfully as they could to spending the rest
of the afternoon and the night in the reeds. It was not a pleasant place, but the wind
kept the mosquitoes away, and the boys managed to fall asleep soon after sunset. The
wind died out during the night, and the boys found, the next morning, that only a few
rods below the place where they had spent the night there was an open channel by
which they could easily have reached the shore. This was rather aggravating, and it
increased the disgust with which they remembered Lake St. Peter and its reed-lined
shores.
The voyage down the St. Lawrence seemed monotonous after the excitement of running
the Magog rapids, and the various adventures of the sail down the Richelieu. The St.
Lawrence has very little shade along its banks, for, owing to the direction in which it runs,
the sun shines on the water all day long. The weather was exceedingly hot while the
boys were on the river, and on the third day after leaving Lake St. Peter they suffered so
greatly that they were afraid to stay on the water lest they should be sunstruck. Going
ashore on the low sandy bank, they were unable to find a single tree, or even a hillock
large enough to afford any shade. They thought of drawing the canoes ashore, and
sitting in the shade of them, but there was not a breath of air stirring, and the very
ground was so hot that it almost scorched their feet. Half a mile away on a meadow they
saw a tree, but it was far too hot to think of walking that distance. They decided at last
to get into their canoes and to paddle a few rods farther, to a place where a small stream
joined the river, and where they hoped to find the water somewhat cooler for bathing.
On reaching the mouth of the little stream the bows of the canoes were run ashore, so
that they would not float away, and the boys, hastily undressing, sprang into the water.
They had a delightful bath, and it was not until they began to feel chilly that they thought
of coming out and dressing. Tom was the first to go ashore, and as he was wading out of
the water, he suddenly felt himself sinking in the sand. Harry and Joe attempted to land a
few yards from the place where Tom was trying to drag his feet out of the clinging sand,
and they too found themselves in the same difficulty. Harry at once perceived what was
the matter, and, making frantic efforts to get to the shore, cried out to his comrades that
they were caught in a quicksand.
The struggles made by the three boys were all in vain. When they tried to lift one foot
out of the sand, the other foot would sink still deeper. It was impossible for them to
throw themselves at full length on the quicksand, for there were nearly two feet of water
over it, and they were not close enough together to give one another any assistance. By
the time Charley fully understood the peril they were in, Tom had sunk above his knees in
the sand, and Joe and Harry, finding that they could not extricate themselves, were
waiting with white faces and trembling lips for Charley to come to their help.
Charley knew perfectly well that if he ventured too near the other boys, he would himself
be caught in the quicksand, and there would be no hope that any of them could escape.
Keeping his presence of mind, he swam to the stern of one of the canoes, set it afloat,
and pushed it toward Tom, so that the latter could get hold of its bow. He then brought
two other canoes to the help of Joe and Harry; and when each of the three unfortunate
canoeists was thus furnished with something to cling to, he climbed into his own canoe.
"What are we to do now?" asked Harry.
"Just hold on to your canoes until I can tow them out into the stream. You can't sink
while you hang on to them."
"Won't the canoes sink with us?" asked Tom.
"Not a bit of it. You wouldn't sink yourselves if you could lie down flat on the quicksand. I
was caught in a quicksand once, and that's the way I saved myself."
"I hope it's all right," exclaimed Joe; "but it seems to me that you'll have to get a derrick
to hoist me out. But I'm not complaining. I can hang on to my canoe all day, only I don't
want to be drowned and buried both at the same time."
Charley, meanwhile, was busily making his canoe fast to Tom's canoe with his painter.
When this was done, he paddled away from the shore with all his might, while Tom tried
to lift himself out of the quicksand by throwing the weight of his body on the canoe.
Slowly Tom and his canoe yielded to the vigorous strokes of Charley's paddle, and were
towed out into deep water. By the same means Joe and Harry were rescued, and then
the entire fleet—Charley paddling, and the others swimming and pushing their canoes—
floated a short distance down stream, and finally landed where the sand was firm and
hard.
"What should we have done if you'd got into the quicksand, as we did?" said Harry to
Charley, as they were dressing.
"By this time we should all have disappeared," replied Charley.
"I shall never go ashore again while we're on this river without making sure that I'm not
walking into a quicksand," continued Harry. "It was awful to find myself sinking deeper
and deeper, and to know that I couldn't help myself."
"Very likely there isn't another quicksand the whole length of the St. Lawrence," said
Charley. "However, it's well enough to be careful where we land. I've noticed that where
a little stream joins a big one the bottom is likely to be soft; but, after all, a regular
dangerous quicksand isn't often met. I never saw but one before."
"Tell us about it," suggested Joe.
"No; we've talked enough about quicksands, and the subject isn't a cheerful one. Do you
see that pile of boards? Let's make a board shanty, and go to sleep in it after we've had
some lunch. It will be too hot to paddle before the end of the afternoon."
A shanty was easily made by leaning a dozen planks against the top of the pile of boards,
and after a comfortable lunch the boys took a long nap. When they awoke they were
disgusted to find that their canoes were high and dry two rods from the edge of the
water. They had reached a part of the river where the tide was felt, and without knowing
it they had gone ashore at high tide. They had to carry the canoes, with all their
contents, down to the water, and as the receding tide had left a muddy and slippery
surface to walk over, the task was not a pleasant one. They congratulated themselves
that they had not gone ashore at low tide, in which case the rising of the water during
the night would have carried away the canoes.
Sailing down the river with a gentle breeze, and with the help of the ebbing tide, the
canoeists came to the mouth of a small river which entered the St. Lawrence from the
north. They knew by means of the map that the small river was the Jacques Cartier. It
was a swift, shallow, and noisy stream, flowing between high, precipitous banks, and
spanned by a lofty and picturesque bridge. Taking in their sails, the boys entered the
Jacques Cartier, picking their way carefully among the rocks, and making headway very
slowly against the rapid current. They stopped under the bridge, just above which there
was an impassable rapid, and went ashore for lunch.
Near by there was a saw-mill, and from one of the workmen who came to look at the
canoes the boys heard wonderful reports of the fish to be caught in the stream. It was
full of salmon—so the man said—and about nine miles from its mouth there was a pool
where the trout actually clamored to be caught. The enthusiasm of the canoeists was
kindled; and they resolved to make a camp on the bank of the stream, and to spend a
few days in fishing.
After having thus excited his young hearers, the workman cruelly told them that the right
to fish for salmon was owned by a man living in Montreal, and that any one catching a
salmon without permission would be heavily fined. The trout, however, belonged to
nobody, and the boys, though greatly disappointed about the salmon, would not give up
their plan of trout fishing. They hired two carts from a farmer living a short distance from
the river, and placing their canoes on the carts, walked beside them over a wretchedly
rough road until they reached a place deep in the woods, where a little stream, icy cold,
joined the Jacques Cartier. Just before entering the latter the little stream formed a quiet
pool, in which the trout could be seen jumping. The point of land between the trout
stream and the river was covered with a carpet of soft grass, and on this the canoes
were placed and made ready to be slept in.
The workman at the mouth of
the Jacques Cartier had not
exaggerated the number of
trout in the pool. It was alive
with fish. The boys were
charmed with the beauty of
their camping ground and the
luxury of their table. It was
rather tiresome to walk two
miles every day to the nearest
farm-house for milk, but with
the milk rice griddle-cakes
were made, and upon these
and fresh-killed trout the
canoeists feasted for three "THEY FOUND A BEAR FEASTING UPON THE
delightful days. REMAINS OF THEIR BREAKFAST."
They had one real adventure while on the Jacques Cartier. One day when they returned
to their camp from an exploration of the upper part of the trout stream, they found a
bear feasting upon the remains of their breakfast and their bottle of maple syrup, which
he had upset and broken. The animal was full-grown, and looked like a very ugly
customer; but no sooner did he see the boys than he started on a rapid run for the
woods. By the time the boys had found their pistols and were ready to follow him, the
bear had disappeared, and though they hunted for him all the rest of the day they could
not find him. Had the bear taken it into his head to hunt the boys, he would probably
have been much more successful, for their pistol-bullets would have had little effect upon
him, except to sharpen his appetite for tender and wholesome boy's-meat.

[to be continued.]
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