In calculus, Leibniz's notation, named in honor of the 17th-century German

philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, uses the symbols dx and dy
to represent infinitely small (or infinitesimal) increments of x and y,
respectively, just as Δx and Δy represent finite increments of x and y,
respectively.[1]

Consider y as a function of a variable x, or y = f(x). If this is the case, then

the derivative of y with respect to x, which later came to be viewed as the limit

lim
Δ
x
→
0
Δ
y
Δ
x
=
lim
Δ
x
→
0
f
(
x
+
Δ
x
)
−
f
(
x
)
Δ
x
,
{\displaystyle \lim _{\Delta x\rightarrow 0}{\frac {\Delta y}{\Delta x}}=\lim _{\
Delta x\rightarrow 0}{\frac {f(x+\Delta x)-f(x)}{\Delta x}},}
was, according to Leibniz, the quotient of an infinitesimal increment of y by an
infinitesimal increment of x, or

d
y
d
x
=
f
′
(
x
)
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}=f'(x),}
where the right hand side is Joseph-Louis Lagrange's notation for the derivative of
f at x. The infinitesimal increments are called differentials. Related to this is
the integral in which the infinitesimal increments are summed (e.g. to compute
lengths, areas and volumes as sums of tiny pieces), for which Leibniz also supplied
a closely related notation involving the same differentials, a notation whose
efficiency proved decisive in the development of continental European mathematics.

Leibniz's concept of infinitesimals, long considered to be too imprecise to be used

as a foundation of calculus, was eventually replaced by rigorous concepts developed
by Weierstrass and others in the 19th century. Consequently, Leibniz's quotient
notation was re-interpreted to stand for the limit of the modern definition.
However, in many instances, the symbol did seem to act as an actual quotient would
and its usefulness kept it popular even in the face of several competing notations.
Several different formalisms were developed in the 20th century that can give
rigorous meaning to notions of infinitesimals and infinitesimal displacements,
including nonstandard analysis, tangent space, O notation and others.

The derivatives and integrals of calculus can be packaged into the modern theory of
differential forms, in which the derivative is genuinely a ratio of two
differentials, and the integral likewise behaves in exact accordance with Leibniz
notation. However, this requires that derivative and integral first be defined by
other means, and as such expresses the self-consistency and computational efficacy
of the Leibniz notation rather than giving it a new foundation.

History

Leibniz manuscript of integral and differential notation

The Newton–Leibniz approach to infinitesimal calculus was introduced in the 17th
century. While Newton worked with fluxions and fluents, Leibniz based his approach
on generalizations of sums and differences.[2] Leibniz adapted the integral symbol
∫
{\displaystyle \textstyle \int } from the initial elongated s of the Latin word
ſumma ("sum") as written at the time. Viewing differences as the inverse operation
of summation,[3] he used the symbol d, the first letter of the Latin differentia,
to indicate this inverse operation.[2] Leibniz was fastidious about notation,
having spent years experimenting, adjusting, rejecting and corresponding with other
mathematicians about them.[4] Notations he used for the differential of y ranged
successively from ω, l, and
y
/
d
until he finally settled on dy.[5] His integral sign first appeared publicly in
the article "De Geometria Recondita et analysi indivisibilium atque infinitorum"
("On a hidden geometry and analysis of indivisibles and infinites"), published in
Acta Eruditorum in June 1686,[6][7] but he had been using it in private manuscripts
at least since 1675.[8][9][10] Leibniz first used dx in the article "Nova Methodus
pro Maximis et Minimis" also published in Acta Eruditorum in 1684.[11] While the
symbol
dx
/
dy
does appear in private manuscripts of 1675,[12][13] it does not appear in this
form in either of the above-mentioned published works. Leibniz did, however, use
forms such as dy ad dx and dy : dx in print.[11]

At the end of the 19th century, Weierstrass's followers ceased to take Leibniz's
notation for derivatives and integrals literally. That is, mathematicians felt that
the concept of infinitesimals contained logical contradictions in its development.
A number of 19th century mathematicians (Weierstrass and others) found logically
rigorous ways to treat derivatives and integrals without infinitesimals using
limits as shown above, while Cauchy exploited both infinitesimals and limits (see
Cours d'Analyse). Nonetheless, Leibniz's notation is still in general use. Although
the notation need not be taken literally, it is usually simpler than alternatives
when the technique of separation of variables is used in the solution of
differential equations. In physical applications, one may for example regard f(x)
as measured in meters per second, and dx in seconds, so that f(x) dx is in meters,
and so is the value of its definite integral. In that way the Leibniz notation is
in harmony with dimensional analysis.

Leibniz's notation for differentiation

Main article: Notation for differentiation
Suppose a dependent variable y represents a function f of an independent variable
x, that is,

y
=
f
(
x
)
.
{\displaystyle y=f(x).}
Then the derivative of the function f, in Leibniz's notation for differentiation,
can be written as

d
y
d
x
or
d
d
x
y
or
d
(
f
(
x
)
)
d
x
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}\,{\text{ or }}{\frac {d}{dx}}y\,{\text{ or }}{\frac
{d{\bigl (}f(x){\bigr )}}{dx}}.}
The Leibniz expression, also, at times, written dy/dx, is one of several notations
used for derivatives and derived functions. A common alternative is Lagrange's
notation

d
y
d
x
=
y
′
=
f
′
(
x
)
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}\,=y'=f'(x).}
Another alternative is Newton's notation, often used for derivatives with respect
to time (like velocity), which requires placing a dot over the dependent variable
(in this case, x):

d
x
d
t
=
x
˙
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {dx}{dt}}={\dot {x}}.}
Lagrange's "prime" notation is especially useful in discussions of derived
functions and has the advantage of having a natural way of denoting the value of
the derived function at a specific value. However, the Leibniz notation has other
virtues that have kept it popular through the years.

In its modern interpretation, the expression

dy
/
dx
should not be read as the division of two quantities dx and dy (as Leibniz had
envisioned it); rather, the whole expression should be seen as a single symbol that
is shorthand for

lim
Δ
x
→
0
Δ
y
Δ
x
{\displaystyle \lim _{\Delta x\to 0}{\frac {\Delta y}{\Delta x}}}
(note Δ vs. d, where Δ indicates a finite difference).

The expression may also be thought of as the application of the differential

operator
d
/
dx
(again, a single symbol) to y, regarded as a function of x. This operator is
written D in Euler's notation. Leibniz did not use this form, but his use of the
symbol d corresponds fairly closely to this modern concept.

While there is traditionally no division implied by the notation (but see

Nonstandard analysis), the division-like notation is useful since in many
situations, the derivative operator does behave like a division, making some
results about derivatives easy to obtain and remember.[14] This notation owes its
longevity to the fact that it seems to reach to the very heart of the geometrical
and mechanical applications of the calculus.[15]
Leibniz notation for higher derivatives
If y = f(x), the nth derivative of f in Leibniz notation is given by,[16]

f
(
n
)
(
x
)
=
d
n
y
d
x
n
.
{\displaystyle f^{(n)}(x)={\frac {d^{n}y}{dx^{n}}}.}
This notation, for the second derivative, is obtained by using
d
/
dx
as an operator in the following way,[16]

d
2
y
d
x
2
=
d
d
x
(
d
y
d
x
)
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}}\,=\,{\frac {d}{dx}}\left({\frac {dy}{dx}}\
right).}
A third derivative, which might be written as,

d
(
d
(
d
y
d
x
)
d
x
)
d
x
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {d\left({\frac {d\left({\frac {dy}{dx}}\right)}{dx}}\right)}
{dx}}\,,}
can be obtained from

d
3
y
d
x
3
=
d
d
x
(
d
2
y
d
x
2
)
=
d
d
x
(
d
d
x
(
d
y
d
x
)
)
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{3}y}{dx^{3}}}\,=\,{\frac {d}{dx}}\left({\frac {d^{2}y}
{dx^{2}}}\right)\,=\,{\frac {d}{dx}}\left({\frac {d}{dx}}\left({\frac {dy}{dx}}\
right)\right).}
Similarly, the higher derivatives may be obtained inductively.

While it is possible, with carefully chosen definitions, to interpret

dy
/
dx
as a quotient of differentials, this should not be done with the higher order
forms.[17] However, an alternative Leibniz notation for differentiation for higher
orders allows for this.[citation needed]

This notation was, however, not used by Leibniz. In print he did not use multi-
tiered notation nor numerical exponents (before 1695). To write x3 for instance, he
would write xxx, as was common in his time. The square of a differential, as it
might appear in an arc length formula for instance, was written as dxdx. However,
Leibniz did use his d notation as we would today use operators, namely he would
write a second derivative as ddy and a third derivative as dddy. In 1695 Leibniz
started to write d2⋅x and d3⋅x for ddx and dddx respectively, but l'Hôpital, in his
textbook on calculus written around the same time, used Leibniz's original forms.
[18]

Use in various formulas

One reason that Leibniz's notations in calculus have endured so long is that they
permit the easy recall of the appropriate formulas used for differentiation and
integration. For instance, the chain rule—suppose that the function g is
differentiable at x and y = f(u) is differentiable at u = g(x). Then the composite
function y = f(g(x)) is differentiable at x and its derivative can be expressed in
Leibniz notation as,[19]

d
y
d
x
=
d
y
d
u
⋅
d
u
d
x
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}={\frac {dy}{du}}\cdot {\frac {du}{dx}}.}
This can be generalized to deal with the composites of several appropriately
defined and related functions, u1, u2, ..., un and would be expressed as,

d
y
d
x
=
d
y
d
u
1
⋅
d
u
1
d
u
2
⋅
d
u
2
d
u
3
⋯
d
u
n
d
x
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}={\frac {dy}{du_{1}}}\cdot {\frac {du_{1}}{du_{2}}}\
cdot {\frac {du_{2}}{du_{3}}}\cdots {\frac {du_{n}}{dx}}.}
Also, the integration by substitution formu