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PROBLEMS
10.1. In the process shown in Fig. P10.1, the concentration of salt leaving the second tank
is controlled using a proportional controller by adding concentrated solution through
a control valve. The following data apply:
a) The controlled concentration is to be 0.1 lb salt/ft 3 solution. The inlet
concentration ci is always less than 0.1 lb/ft 3 .
b) The concentration of concentrated salt solution is 30 lb salt/ft 3 solution.
c) Transducer: the output of the transducer varies linearly from 3 to 15 psig as the
concentration varies from 0.05 to 0.15 lb/ft 3 .
d) Controller: the controller is a pneumatic, direct-acting, proportional controller.
e) Control valve: as valve-top pressure varies from 3 to 15 psig, the flow through
the control valve varies linearly from 0 to 0.005 cfm.
f) It takes 30 sec for the solution leaving the second tank to reach the transducer at
the end of the pipe.
Draw a block diagram of the control system. Place in each block the appropriate transfer
function. Calculate all the constants and give the units.

Figure P10.1
Solution 10.1

(5.23)
Use the process shown in Figs. 10.3 and 10.4 for Problems 10.2-10.5

Figure 10.3 Block diagram for a chemical-reactor control system.

An equivalent diagram is shown in Fig. 10.4 in which some of the blocks have been
combined.

Figure 10.4 Equivalent block diagram for a chemical-reactor control system ( CR is now
in concentration units).
10.2 Verify the values of τ 1 and τ 2
Solution 10.2
V
τ = residence time for each tank = , (time)
F
V τ
τ 1 = effective time constant for tank 1 = = , (time)
F + k1V 1 + k1τ
τ 3 3
τ1 = = = = 2 min
1 + k1τ 1 + *3 1.5
1
6
τ 3 3
τ2 = = = = 1min
1 + k2τ 1 + 2 *3 3
3

10.3 Determine the steady state value of the controller output, ps in mA.
From Eq(10.10), the steady state pressure signal to the control valve is 10.5psig:
( 20mA − 4mA) = 14mA is the signal to the transducer from the controller.
(10.5 psig )
(15 psig − 3 psig )
10.4 Use Simulink to determine simulate the open loop response of the two chemical
reactors to a step change in the feed concentration, C0, from 0.1 lbmole A/ft3 to 0.25
lbmole A/ft3.

0.67 0.333
2s+1 s+1
Step Transfer Fcn Transfer Fcn 1
Add Scope

0.0244

C2 steady state
10.5 The open loop process has an upset such that the flow rate to the process
instantaneously rises to 120CFM (from the original 100CFM). How does the open
loop block diagram change? Plot the outlet concentration of A both reactors as a
function of time.

Solution
Assuming the temperatures all stay the same, the increased flow rate changes the time
constants in the two reactors. The reduced residence time means less conversion, hence
the concentration of A exiting the 2 reactors will increase.

dC1 1 1 Fnew
τ 1new + C1 = C0 + M (1)
dt (1+ k1τ new ) (1+ k1τ new )
dC2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
τ 2 new + C2 = ⎢ ⎥ C1 (2)
dt ⎣1+ k2τ new ⎦
V 300 ft 3
τ new = = = 2.5 min
Fnew 120CFM
V τ new 2.5
τ 1new = = = = 1.765 min (was 2min)
Fnew + k1V 1 + k1τ new ⎛1⎞
1 + ⎜ ⎟ 2.5
⎝6⎠
V τ new 2.5
τ 2 new = = = = 0.9375 min (was 1min)
Fnew + k2V 1 + k2τ new ⎛2⎞
1 + ⎜ ⎟ (2.5)
⎝3⎠
Block diagram is essentially the same, except time constants are decreased
and the initial steady states are different... they are they steady state concentrations
from the previous conditions: C1 (0) = 0.0733 and C2 (0) = 0.0244.
Using (1) and (2) above:
dC
1.765 1 + C1 = 0.706(0.1) + 0.00588(1) C0 = 0.1 and M=1
dt
dC
0.9375 2 + C2 = 0.375C1
dt
Solving using MATLAB, using an m-file:

function CPRIME=prob10_5(t,C)
CPRIME(1,1)=((0.0706+0.00588)-C(1))/1.765;
CPRIME(2,1)=(0.375*C(1)-C(2))/0.9375;

[t,C]=ode45('prob10_5',[0,10],[0.0733 0.0244]);
plot(t,C)
 0.08

0.07

0.06
Conc A

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tim e

C =

0.0733 0.0244
0.0737 0.0251
0.0741 0.0257
0.0744 0.0262
0.0747 0.0266
0.0749 0.0270
0.0751 0.0272
0.0753 0.0275
… …..
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
0.0765 0.0287
Using Simulink:

dC1/dt 1 C1
s C1
IC=0.0733

Scope

0.0706 +0.00588 1/1.765

Add
Gain
Constant

0.375

Gain 1

1 1/0.9375
s C2 C2
Add 1
IC=0.0244 Gain 2

Same
solution.
10.6 Two isothermal stirred tank reactors are connected by a long pipe that acts as a pure
time delay between the two tanks (no reaction takes place in the pipe). CSTR #1 is
at a higher temperature than CSTR #2, but both temperatures remain constant.
Assume constant throughputs and holdups (volumes) and a first order, irreversible
reaction taking place in each CSTR (AÆ B). The flow rate through the system is 4
ft3/min and the delay time in the pipe is 30 seconds. The inlet concentration to
CSTR #1 is initially at steady state at 1 lbmole/ft3 and is increased at time zero
through a step change to 2 lbmole/ft3.
a) Draw the block diagram for the process, be sure to include all necessary constants.
b) Use Simulink to plot the exit concentration of A from each of the reactors.
c) Use Simulink to plot the exit concentration of B from each of the reactors.

DATA
CSTR #1 CSTR #2
Rate Constant (min-1) 0.3 0.15
Volume (ft3) 25 15

Reactor
Reactor Dead Time = 30 sec #2
#1
 0.348 Ca1' 0.64
2.17 s+1 2.4s+1 Ca2'
Step CSTR #1 Transport CSTR #2
Ca1' Delay

0.223

0.348 Initial Ca 2
Ca1 Ca2
Inital Ca 1

Cb1
Scope

This section calculates the total molar concentration

if there is no reaction , k=0. To get Cb 's we subtract Ca 's from
their corresponding total molar concentration .
Cb2

1 1
6.25 s+1 3.75 s+1
Step 1 CSTR #3 Transport CSTR #4
Delay 1

1 Initial Total Molar

Conc in Tk 2 Total Molar Coc out of Tk 2
Initial Total Molar
Conc in Tk 1
Total Molar Conc out of Tk 1
Key:
Yellow = CA2
Magenta= CA1
Red= CB1
Blue= CB2
Green= C2Total
Turquoise= C1Total
Another way to solve using Simulink:
dC
FC A0 − FC A1 − k1V1C A1 = V1 A1 (1)
dt
C AD = C A1u (t − τ D ) (2)
dC A2
FC AD − FC A2 − k2V2C A2 = V2 (3)
dt
Rearranging (1):
dC A1 F ⎛F ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + k1 ⎟ C A1 (1')
dt V1 ⎝ V1 ⎠
dC A1 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + 0.3 ⎟ C A1
dt 25 ⎝25 ⎠
0.46

Rearranging (2):
dC A 2 F ⎛F ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + k2 ⎟ C A 2 (1')
dt V2 ⎝ V2 ⎠
dC A 2 4 ⎛ 4 ⎞
= C A0 − ⎜ + 0.15 ⎟ C A 2 (2')
dt 15
N ⎝
15 ⎠
0.267 0.417

Initial Steady States:

C A0 (0− ) = 1
From (1'): (4)(1) − 4C A1 (0) − (0.3)(25)C A1 (0) C A1 (0) = 0.348
CB1 (0) = 0.652 since CB1 (0) + C A1 (0) = 1.0
Now at steady-state, C A 2 = C AD since at SS the concentration entering the pipe equals
the concentration leaving the pipe.
From (2'): (0.267)(0.348) − (0.417)C A2 (0) C A2 (0) = 0.223
CB 2 (0) = 0.777

Programming on Simulink:
 dCa 1/dt

1 Ca1
s 0.46

Integrator
Gain

4/25

Constant

Transport
Delay

0.348

Ca1o
Scope 2

dCa 1/dt

1 Cb1
s 4/25

Integrator 1
Gain 1

Cb1 0.3

Gain 2
0.267

Gain 3

Transport
Delay 1
0.652

1 Ca2 Cb 10
s 0.417

Integrator 2 0.223
Gain 4

Ca2 initial

0.267

Cb2 Gain 5
Cb2

1
s
0.777
Integrator 3 0.15

Gain 6 Cb2 initial1

Key:
Red = CA2
Yellow = CA1
Magenta= CB1
Green= CB2
Blue= C2Total
Turquoise= C1Total

Same results as previously.

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 Flourishing only by reason of their isolation, the Mormons looked
with little favor upon the passing emigration, though they drew
much benefit from it. They could sell their cattle, grain, horses and
other supplies to the emigrants at high prices, but the steady march
of these people toward the west threatened the security they wished
to enjoy apart from the world. Though always hostile to the great
westward movement, and sometimes resorting to violence to stay it,
the Mormons have been made to contribute to its success, not
indeed as free agents, but as instruments in the hands of destiny.
Formidable only in their seclusion, they have presented the anomaly
of a handful of people throwing themselves before the wheels of
progress. Though no longer formidable, they have done a notable
work in making productive what was before considered an
uninhabitable desert.

FOOTNOTES

[1] The Mormon Sect was founded by Joseph Smith, a native of

Vermont (1805), who claimed direct revelation from God, and
in 1830 put forth the Book of Mormon, or Mormon Bible, as of
Divine inspiration. The same year the Mormon Church began at
Manchester, N.Y. Smith's authority was absolute, like that of the
Pope, and could continue only by apostolic succession. The
Mormons went first to Ohio, next to Jackson County, Mo., then
to Nauvoo, Ill., where Smith was killed by a mob (1844). They
had little settlements at the Pueblo of the Arkansas and at Fort
Bridger.

[2] Polygamy, or plurality of wives. The Mormons claim to

practise it in accordance with a revelation of the Divine will. It
is however now made an offence by United States laws framed
to reach it. (See the Edmunds Bill.)
[3] Their City, elevated almost a mile above the sea, "was
located mainly on the bench of hard gravel that slopes
southward from the foot of the mountains toward the lake
valley. The houses—generally small and of one story—have a
neat and quiet look, while the uniform breadth of the streets
(eight rods) and the 'magnificent distances' usually preserved
by the buildings (each block containing ten acres, divided into
eight lots, giving each householder a quarter of an acre for
buildings, and an acre for a garden) make up an ensemble
seldom equalled. Then the rills of bright, sparkling, leaping
water which flow through each street give an air of freshness
and coolness which none can fail to enjoy."—Horace Greeley.

[4] Utah is the name of an Indian tribe, said to mean "those

who dwell on the mountains." It was formed into a Territory,
1850. "The great basin, six hundred miles by three hundred,
seems to have been a vast inland sea. The immediate valley in
which Salt Lake lies is much its best portion, and with irrigation
the soil is very productive."—A. D. Richardson. But for
polygamy, Utah would long ago have been a State in the Union.
 Group III.

GOLD IN CALIFORNIA, AND WHAT

IT LED TO.

"There is nothing in the world so sound as American

society."—Goldwin Smith.

I.
THE GREAT EMIGRATION.
 EL DORADO FOUND AT LAST.

"It is always the unexpected that happens."

What El Dorado[1] had been to the active imaginings of De

Soto's Spaniards, was now to become a reality that would startle the
world from its long forgetfulness. The world believed they had been
chasing a phantom which lured them to their death. One seeks in
vain to know why Nature at last revealed the secret she had so long
kept hid from those who had sought but not found, to disclose it to
others who had found without seeking.

The war was scarcely ended[2] which gave us California, when a

scene took place there of far-reaching moment to mankind. Words
can hardly describe it. For a time it seemed the overturning of all
laws governing the acquisition and distribution of wealth, if it were
not to put the common laborer on a level with the millionaire, and so
revolutionize society itself. When we consider what has followed in
its train, the story itself seems tame indeed.
 SUTTER'S MILL.

Captain Sutter had been having a saw-mill built for him fifty
miles above his fort, on the south fork of the American River, which
is here a swift mountain stream. One evening, when all within the
fort wore its usual quiet, a horseman rode up in hot haste, and
asked to see Sutter alone. This was James W. Marshall, one of
Sutter's men, who had charge of the mill above. Seeing by his
manner that something unusual was the matter, Sutter led the way
into his private room, and turned the key in the lock. With much
show of mystery, Marshall then handed his employer a packet, which
being opened, was found to contain a handful of yellow metal, in
flakes or kernels, which he said he had taken from the mill-race, and
asserted to be gold. By the light of a candle the two men bent over
the little heap of shining particles in eager scrutiny. Sutter would not
believe it was gold. Marshall was sure it could be nothing else.
Aquafortis was then tried without effect. The metal was next
weighed with silver, in water. All doubt was removed. It was indeed
gold, yellow gold, that Marshall had found.

His story, briefly told, was to this effect. They had started the
mill, when the tail-race was found too small to carry off the water. In
order to deepen it the whole head of water was then let into the
race, thus washing it out to the required depth. It was while looking
at the work the water had done, that Marshall saw many shining
particles lodged in crevices of the rocks, or among the dirt the water
had carried down before it. All at once it flashed upon him that this
might be gold. Gathering up what he could without risk of detection,
he had started off for the fort without making his discovery known to
any one.

Sutter saw his happy pastoral life of the past on the point of
vanishing. He made an idle effort to keep the discovery secret, at
least till he could set his house in order. It was soon known in the
household and at the mill. From this little mountain nook it was
borne on the wings of the wind to the sea-coast, and from the sea-
coast to the four quarters of the globe.

Captain Sutter's men[3] deserted him in a body. The American

settlers and Indians of the neighborhood next caught the infection.
Gold was quickly found at a point midway between Sutter's Fort and
Mill, called the Mormon Diggings,[4] on Feather River, and in the
gulches above the mill site. From these districts the first miners
began to straggle down to San Francisco with pouches of gold-dust
in their possession. Men who had hardly known what it was to have
a dollar of their own suddenly lived

"Like an emperor in their expense."

The effect was magical. Within a short three months most of the
houses in San Francisco and Monterey were shut up. Blacksmiths left
their anvils, carpenters their benches, sailors their ships. Soldiers
were every day deserting from the garrisons of San Francisco,
Sonoma, and Monterey. The two newspapers[5] then printed in the
country suspended their issue indefinitely. Everybody was off for the
mines, and nothing else was talked of but gold.

Consul Larkin thus describes the scene at the Mormon Diggings

in June, 1848: "At my camping-place I found forty or fifty tents,
mostly occupied by Americans, strewn about the hillsides next the
river. I spent two nights in company with eight Americans, two of
whom were sailors, two carpenters, one a clerk, and three common
laborers. With two machines called cradles, these men made fifty
dollars each per day. Another miner had washed out, with a common
tin pan, gold to the value of eighty-two dollars in a single day."

Mr. Larkin thought there were then about one thousand people,
mostly foreigners, actually working in the mines, whose daily gains
 would amount to at least ten thousand
dollars. And he even ventured to hint that
at this rate gold enough would be
produced in a single year to repay what
California had cost the nation.

Colonel Mason, the military governor,

adds what he saw while making a tour of
inspection to the new placers: "Along the
whole route mills were lying idle, fields of
wheat were open to cattle and horses,
houses vacant, and farms going to waste.
At Sutter's there was more life and
business. Launches were discharging
TWO MINERS. their cargoes at the river, and carts were
hauling goods to the fort, where were
already established several stores, a hotel, etc. Captain Sutter had
only two mechanics in his employ, whom he was then paying ten
dollars a day. Merchants pay him a monthly rent of one hundred
dollars per room; and while I was there a two-story house in the fort
was rented as a hotel for five hundred dollars a month."

FOOTNOTES

[1] El Dorado. Refer to p. 14 for the origin of this name.

[2] The War hardly ended. Confusion exists as to the precise

date of the gold discovery. Larkin says, on the spot, January or
February. Hittell, a well-informed writer, says January 19.
Royce, January. Bancroft is not accessible as I pen this note.
[3] Captain Sutter's Men. Some of those who were either in his
employ or under his military command, became wealthy and
influential citizens of the State. Among them John Bidwell,
Pearson B. Reading, Samuel J. Hensley, and Charles M. Weber
may be named.

[4] Mormon Diggings. The Mormons who were found here by Mr.
Larkin in June, probably came into California overland with
Colonel Cooke, or with Samuel Brannan by sea in July, 1846.
Governor Mason reports them as preparing to go to Salt Lake.
See Note 5.

[5] The Two Newspapers. The "Californian" (later "Alta

California"), first published in Monterey, then in San Francisco;
founded 1846 by Walter Colton and Robert Semple; edited by
Semple after its removal to San Francisco. The "California Star,"
founded by Samuel Brannan early in 1847, was merged with
the "California." See Note 4.
 SWARMING THROUGH THE GOLDEN GATE.[1]

Meanwhile the area of the gold-fields was being rapidly enlarged

on all sides by new discoveries. Each day had its story of the finding
of some richer placer for which a general rush was made. As time
wore on, gold was found in all the streams which cut their way
through the foothills of the great Sierra.[2] By midsummer four
thousand people, half of whom were Indians, were washing for gold
as if it had been the only employment of their lives.

By this time too the first guarded statements made about the
extent and richness of the gold-fields gave place to predictions as
bold as they were hard to believe. For instance, Governor Mason,
who had been over-cautious at first, soon had no hesitation in
saying that there was more gold in the country than would pay the
cost of the war a hundred times over.

It is true that flour was worth fifty

dollars a barrel, at the mines, and a
common spade ten dollars, but when
even the poor and degraded Indians
of the rancherias[3] could afford the
luxuries of life, the cost of necessaries
was of little account to men who
THE GOLDEN GATE.
thought four golden ounces only a fair
return for a day's labor.

This is the story of only a few short months,—the preface, as

one might say, to the larger history. It was yet too soon for the
discovery to be known in the United States, but the time was
drawing near when it would be the one all-engrossing topic in every
hamlet from Maine to Florida. Meanwhile it spread to all the shores
and isles of the Pacific. Dark-visaged Kanakas from the Sandwich
Islands, swarthy Peruvians and Chilenos, added their thousands to
the already composite character of the population of the land of
gold. From the Russian Possessions in the north, from the Sandwich
Islands in the midst of the Pacific, the wondrous tale was speeding
on to China and the Australian Isles. Then with the autumnal rains
the first chapter of this history of marvels was closed for a brief
season.

Authentic reports of the gold discovery

first appeared in the public prints of the
Atlantic States in the autumn. In December,
President Polk gave Governor Mason's and
Consul Larkin's reports to the country. From
these sources the story was taken up and
multiplied through the myriad channels of
public and private intelligence, until the
name of California became a household
word throughout all the length and breadth
of the land. Talismanic word! It was soon to
entice a million men from their homes to
seek their fortunes among the gulches of
the wild Sierra.
CHINESE
Rarely in the history of the world has LAUNDRYMAN.

society been so deeply stirred to its centre.

It was like an electric shock that is felt throughout the whole social
organization. First there was the numbness of wonder, then the
fever of unwonted excitement. How to get to this land of gold, was
now the one absorbing question of the hour. Near a thousand
leagues of barren plains and desert mountains lay between it and
the settled frontier. These could only be crossed after grass had
grown in the spring. A still longer ocean journey must be made by
crossing the Isthmus of Darien, over the trail struck out by the
viceroys when Spain held the keys of the East; or, if the voyage were
to be made round Cape Horn, the distance would be more than
quadrupled. But the thought of these vast distances to be traversed
seemed only to add to the general impatience to surmount them.
The temper of the public mind was such that it would bear any thing
but delay. Soon ships were fitting out in every port[4] of the Union
for Tampico or Vera Cruz, for Chagres, and for the long voyage
round Cape Horn. In the seaports nothing was heard but the note of
preparation. On the frontier caravans were everywhere forming to
go forward with the appearance of the first blade of grass above
ground. "Ho for California!" was the cry borne on every breeze that
wafted ship after ship out over the wide ocean with her little colony
of gold-seekers. "Ho for California!" was the watchword of those
who were braving the perils of a winter journey across the Sierras.
And "California!" was still the answer of other bands that were
wending their way across the Cordilleras, in paths first traced by
Cortez and his comrades, to Acapulco, San Blas or Mazatlan on the
Pacific. All roads seemed leading to the Golden Gate. El Dorado was
found at last.

FOOTNOTES

[1] The Golden Gate. "Approaching from the sea, the coast
presents a bold outline. On the south the bordering mountains
come down in a narrow ridge of broken hills, terminating in a
precipitous point, against which the sea breaks heavily. On the
northern side, the mountain presents a bold promontory, rising
in a few miles to a height of two or three thousand feet.
Between these points is the strait—about one mile broad in its
narrowest part, and five miles long from the sea to the bay. To
this gate I gave the name of Chrysopylae, or Golden Gate, for
the same reason that the harbor of Byzantium was called
Chrysoceras, or Golden Horn."—Fremont. This was prior to the
gold discovery. The old Presidio was at the end of the southerly
point.

[2] One Vast Gold-Field. Most of the tributaries of the

Sacramento and San Joaquin were soon tapped, and search
was even made among the sources of these rivers in the belief
that gold existed there in virgin masses, from which the
particles found lower down had been worn by water. Eager
prospectors soon carried exploration from the Trinity in the
north, to King's River in the south.

[3] Indians of the Rancherias were employed in large numbers by

the whites to wash gold for them. With willow baskets fifty
Indians washed out in one week fourteen pounds (avoirdupois)
of gold.

[4] In Evert Port. "A resident of New York coming back after an
absence of three months (this was in January) would be
puzzled at seeing the word 'California' everywhere staring him
in the face, and at the columns of vessels advertised to sail for
San Francisco."—New York Tribune.
 THE CALIFORNIA PIONEERS.

Although we have seen much doing there in the previous year,

and the earliest comers were the true pioneers, the great rush to the
gold region took place in 1849, upon the first news being spread
throughout the States. It is therefore from that year that the history
of the gold fever is usually dated.

So great was the demand for shipping, that even old whale-ships
were fitted up to carry three or four hundred passengers round Cape
Horn. Even these were quickly crowded with emigrants. But ere long
the demand for vessels that would show greater speed gave rise to
new models in ship-building; and to this cause we owe the fast
clipper ships which sometimes sailed from New York to San
Francisco in eighty-seven days.

At first it was much the fashion for men to go in companies

formed in their own neighborhoods. Those who could not go
themselves would club together and send a substitute, as men may
own shares in a ship or a machine, the substitute being allowed to
keep a certain share of the profits of his own labor.

Then, again, a novel appearance was given to the streets of our

seaport towns by the daily presence in them of men dressed in red
woollen shirts, slouch hats, and cowhide boots,—men wearing
pistols and dirks, or carrying rifles,—whom it was not easy to know
for peaceful citizens just turned out of their farms or workshops or
counting-houses. Nor was the emigration confined to the bone and
sinew of society only. Men of every walk in life were drawn into it. A
scholar might have a day-laborer for his companion. Larkin has told
us how this worked in the mines. The one purpose to dig for gold
quickly put all on an equal footing, for in making labor the sole
 means of wealth, as in the beginning it was, the
common laborer had become the peer of the
most learned scholar in the land. Hence every
ship and every caravan carried its little republic of
equality. And hence society seemed going back
into its original elements, as if gold were the
magnet attracting all else to itself.

The sailing of many

ships, full freighted with
eager gold-seekers, was
followed in the early
spring by the march of
thousands across the
A FATHER.
plains. Like colonies of
migratory ants the long MOUNT SHASTA.

line of wagons crept along the roads

leading to the South Pass and Rio Grande. At Salt Lake City, which
we have just seen founded, the weary emigrants tarried a while to
recruit their failing animals for the dreaded passage of the desert;
then to the road again to struggle ever on through the parched
valleys, where their gaunt beasts died of thirst, or up the granite
sides of the Sierras, where they dropped from exhaustion, till the
Sacramento Valley was reached at last, and Shasta Peak burst on
their enraptured sight. Hundreds perished by the way, and long after
the march for gold in 1849 might be traced by the abandoned
wagons or dead animals that strewed its path.

Many reached Panama by way of the Chagres River, whose

course led up to the mountain chain dividing the waters of the
Atlantic from those of the Pacific. Day by day a motley fleet of dug-
out canoes might have been seen toiling with pole and oar against
the swift current of this mountain stream. At the head of boat
navigation, in an open spot, under the high mountains, a few
cocoanut palms lifted tufts of graceful foliage above a clump of
miserable huts, whose owners were of mixed Spanish and Indian
blood. This was on the route the Spaniards had discovered in 1513.
This was Gorgona.

Taking mules at Gorgona the emigrants

crossed the mountains to the Pacific, which
they here closely approach. At the ancient
city of Panama, interesting only as a
specimen of that older civilization which had
run its course, several thousand
Americans[1] were soon waiting for vessels
to take them on to California. Every crazy
hulk that would float had been taken up by
ON THE OREGON earlier comers. So these people had to stay
TRAIL.
at Panama through the sickly season,
though the deadly fever of the country was
daily thinning their ranks of the bravest and best. Thus months of
weary waiting must pass before these people could set foot in the
land of gold.

When they did reach it[2] they found San Francisco[3] a city of
tents and shanties scattered about a group of barren, wind-swept
sand-hills. In the basin below, formed by the curving shore, a fleet
of deserted ships rode at anchor. Farther off rose the little island of
Yerba Buena,[4] and still farther, beyond the leagues of glittering
water, the rugged wall of the Coast Range grandly enclosed the bay
in its encircling arm.
 SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849.

To this picture now add the hurry and confusion which the beach
showed at all hours of the day, and we shall get a rapid glimpse at
the humble beginnings of the destined mart of the Pacific. Those
tents on the beach were the warehouses of the future metropolis;
those on the hills were the abodes of its wealthiest citizens.

Should we follow the swarm of boats seen every hour pushing

off from the beach for the mines, they would lead us to the two
great inland waterways of the country. On the spot where Sutter had
made his landing-place another city had sprung into being. This was
Sacramento. On the San Joaquin, where Weber had made a home in
1844, Stockton was growing up. These were the two great depots
for the mines north and south.

By the beginning of the new year (1849) the

population of California had run up to twenty-five
thousand. The winter months, or, as we should
say of this region, the rainy season, everywhere
brought great suffering to the badly-housed and
EARLY COIN. ill-fed emigrants, many of whom reached the
mines in a state of destitution. There were many things even gold
could not buy or wealth command. Men who had both were glad to
get acorns to live on. Many died this first winter. With the coming of
spring the depleted ranks were more than filled by new arrivals, and
when January came round again the pioneers of 1849 were a
hundred thousand.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Two Thousand Americans. "In settling an island the first

building erected by a Spaniard will be a church; by a
Frenchman, a fort; by a Dutchman, a warehouse; and by an
Englishman, an alehouse." To this it should be added that an
American would start a newspaper. The detained Americans
having found at Panama an unused printing-office started a
paper called the "Star," of which John A. Lewis of Boston was
editor.

[2] When They did reach it. The schooner Phœnix was a hundred
and fifteen days making the passage; the Two Friends, five and
a half months going from Panama to San Francisco.

[3] San Francisco: named for St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the
Franciscan order, which founded the California missions. See
legend of his preaching to the birds. The Mission of San
Francisco was situated two miles from the landing-place on the
bay, where the present city of the name was begun. At this
landing a custom-house was established, and the place called
Yerba Buena (see Note 4). The missionaries chose the little
Dolores Valley because it was the sunniest and warmest part of
the peninsula.

[4] Yerba Buena; first name of San Francisco (see Note 3);
meaning good herb: now continued in the island. A vine with a
small white flower, common to California.
 CALIFORNIA A FREE STATE.

The United States did not set up a Territorial government in

California at once, but put military governors over it, who continued
the old laws of Mexico in force. What these were, only the native
people could know. They had not yet been translated into English.
Many, indeed, derided the idea of being governed by laws made for
Spaniards. Instead, then, of being clothed with power to enact laws
suited to the new and strange conditions growing out of the gold
discovery, with society unformed, or breaking to pieces about them,
the people of California found themselves living almost without law,
except such as imperative need compelled them to make and
enforce for themselves. This state of things could have but one
result among a people hastily thrown together from all parts of the
earth, most of whom were law-abiding, but many the outcasts of
society. It led to confusion, lawlessness, and crime. In the annals of
the State it is usually called the interregnum, from the Latin word
signifying a suspension of the regular functions of government.

Therefore, as the actual laws remained either mostly unknown,

or were held in little esteem, the people conformed to them only so
far as to give the officers or courts they chose among themselves
Spanish names. They everywhere took the law into their own hands,
establishing such local laws, or usages having the force of laws, as
their situation would seem to give warrant for.

Thus, the miners determined for themselves how much room

each man should have to dig in; and they established in their camps
rude codes of justice by which the worst crimes usually met with
prompt punishment. If, for instance, a man committed murder, he
would be tried on the spot by a miners' court, hastily summoned for
the purpose. Trials of this sort were generally conducted in an
orderly manner, and seldom failed of doing justice, but they were
always felt to be a departure from the usages of civilized people, and
in so far a going-back toward barbarism.

HYDRAULIC MINING.

Much disorder brings with it much order. Informed of all the evils
to which this state of affairs gave rise, Governor Riley, in 1849,
called the people to meet in convention for the forming of a State
government. The delegates accordingly assembled in September at
Monterey. They framed a constitution, on the plan of the free States,
prohibiting slavery; for as labor was to be the corner-stone of the
State, the men of 1849 would not degrade free labor by competition
with slave-labor. In November the constitution was ratified by the
people; and in December the officers elected under it met at San
José to fully organize the State government.

The petition of California to be a free

State was strongly resisted by the
Southern men in Congress, who had
hoped it would come in as a slave State.
Once again it brought up the whole
subject of slavery extension. Eventually
the struggle gave rise to another
compromise by which California came in
as a free State (1850), the slave-trade
was abolished in the District of Columbia,
and the Fugitive Slave Law passed,
mainly by the efforts of Henry Clay. The
execution of the last-named law roused
the indignation of the North as nothing
CHICKEN-VENDER.
had ever yet done. Resistance to slavery
extension was now become the dominant
question there in politics, in literature, and in the pulpit. The doctrine
that the people of a territory alone should have the right to decide
whether they would have slavery or not had been urged with much
force by Senator Douglas in the case of California; and thus popular
sovereignty, as it was called, now first brought together the
moderate partisans of slavery, those indifferent to its extension, and
those who believed such a settlement as Mr. Douglas proposed
would lift the question out of party agitation, and so put a stop to
the threats of secession, which was the bugbear of all who loved the
Union.
 ARIZONA.

A dispute having arisen with Mexico about the boundary the war
had established, President Pierce settled it by buying the territory in
question (1853) for ten millions of dollars. General James Gadsden
negotiated its transfer, and for him it was called the Gadsden
Purchase. The United States thus acquired the strip of country lying
between the Gila River and the present southern boundary of
Arizona. Prior to its purchase it had formed part of the Mexican State
of Sonora. Mr. Gadsden exerted himself to secure with it the port of
Guaymas on the Gulf of California, but was not sustained by
Congress in his effort to do so.

At the period of its cession to us Arizona was practically

unknown except to hunters and trappers or to the few who had read
the accounts of the early Spanish explorers. Mr. Gadsden was
ridiculed for making the purchase, and Congress censured for
squandering the people's money upon an arid waste destitute of
sufficient wood and water to sustain a population of civilized beings.
The failure of the Spaniards to found any considerable settlements
was dwelt upon. Stories of mines of fabulous wealth that Arizona
held locked up in her mountains had indeed come down from a
remote time, and were more or less current abroad, but few
believed in them, or could see any compensating advantage to
accrue to us for the millions Congress had spent. Government,
however, caused the territory immediately to be surveyed with the
view of settling the question whether we had or had not been
cheated in making the purchase.
MISSION SAN XAVIER DEL BAC, NEAR TUCSON.
 II.
THE CONTEST FOR FREE SOIL.

THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA STRUGGLE.

At the period now reached by our story the political sense of the
people, in all things touching the national life, was represented by
the Whig and Democratic parties. There was yet another body
formed to prevent the coming in of any more slave States, and
therefore called the Free-Soil party. This last party had only come
into being since the war with Mexico, and was not yet strong enough
to successfully cope with the older ones for control in national
affairs; but it was growing stronger every day.

Neither of the two great parties was divided by geographical

lines. Both called themselves national parties, but since the
extension of slavery was become the vital question of the hour, the
Whig party was losing ground to the Free-Soil party, which indeed
mostly grew up from the defection of those Whigs who determined
henceforth to stand with the opponents of slavery until that question
should be settled forever. So while the Whig party was strongest in
the free States, it was beginning to go to pieces because it no longer
represented the growing feeling against slavery in those States,
though it was still led by able statesmen like Daniel Webster, whom
the country had always looked to in the past for safe counsel and
guidance through all the perils of party strife.

The Democratic party, on the contrary, being most numerous in

the slaveholding States, was more firmly united than ever by the
agitation about slavery, which their great leader, Calhoun, had told
them could only be maintained by being extended, and could only
be extended by becoming aggressive.

Here, then, we have the political

situation after the admission of California,
in a nutshell. In the South the Democratic
party stood solid and defiant in support of
slavery extension; in the North it favored
popular sovereignty, as defined by Mr.
Douglas. The Free-Soil party declared its
purpose to oppose the making of any more
slave States, and under the lead of Sumner
of Massachusetts, Chase of Ohio, and
Seward of New York, prepared to make
head against its formidable opponents. The STEPHEN A.
Whigs were now looked upon as the party DOUGLAS.
of vacillation, weakness, and compromise.
Though in nominal opposition to the Democrats, its leadership was
no longer trusted, because it was felt to have surrendered the one
principle[1] on which the coming struggle inevitably would turn.

The Democratic party succeeded in electing Franklin Pierce[2] to

the Presidency, for the term running from 1853 to 1857.

His administration is chiefly memorable for the passage of the

Kansas-Nebraska Act, by which two new Territories were formed of
the Louisiana Purchase, and thrown open to settlement. In framing
this Act its authors left it to the people to choose for themselves
whether they would have slavery or not, as Douglas urged they
should; and in order that they might do so, the compromise of 1820
was set aside. This measure was largely the work of Mr. Douglas,
who, arguing that the people are sovereigns, viewed a reference of
the slavery question back to them, as the only true way of settling
the agitation about it. It had a certain fair-play look that won many
to its support in the North. In this form Congress passed the Act,
May 30, 1854.

To repeal the Missouri Compromise, was held by many at the

North and some at the South,[3] to be a violation of the pledge so
sacredly made to the whole people, not to admit slavery north of
36° 30´. We shall see what it led to.

Let us look first at the new Territories as the organic Act found
them. From the Missouri on the east, they reached to the Rocky
Mountains on the west. They contained the most fertile lands of the
public domain. The great thoroughfares to Oregon, California, and
New Mexico, traversed them in their whole length, so making it clear,
even at this early day, that the great movement of the people from
east to west must be along the lines of these thoroughfares,
strewing its pathway with populous cities and towns as it went.

Already we have led the explorers through this magnificent land.

Through them much knowledge had been gained of its natural
features, its fine climate, and of the unequalled fecundity of its soil.
The West was its neighbor and knew most about it. The East knew it
only through the accounts of Pike, Long, and Fremont, from the
reports of emigrants, or in the stories of travel written by Irving,
Latrobe and others, all of which gave it a kind of romantic interest
with their readers.

Upon the virgin soil of Kansas the fragments of many of the one-
time powerful red nations of the East had been colonized. Here, at