Understanding of PV cells

PN junction
A common, conventional p–n junction diode, whose characteristics are presented below

A p–n junction diode allows current to flow easily

1
from the p-side to then-side, but not in reverse
 Understanding of PV cells
PN junction
Forward bias:
If we were to apply a voltage Vd across the diode terminals, forward current would flow easily
through the diode from the p-side to the n-side (the voltage drop across the diode is only a few
tenths of a volt.)

Reverse bias:
If we try to send current in the reverse direction, only a very small (≈10−12 A/cm^2) reverse
saturation current I0 will flow. This reverse saturation current is the result of thermally
generated carriers
with the holes being swept into the p-side and the electrons into the n-side

Note: The symbol for a real diode is shown here as a blackened triangle to distinguish it from an “ideal” diode.
Ideal diodes have no voltage drop across them in the forward direction, and no current at all flows in the reverse
direction.
2
Understanding of PV cells
PN junction

The voltage–current characteristic curve for the p–n junction diode is described by the
following Shockley diode equation:

where
Id is the diode current in the direction of the arrow (A),
Vd is the voltage across the diode terminals from the p-side to the n-side (V),
I0 is the reverse saturation current (A),
q is the electron charge (1.602 × 10^−19C),
k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.381 × 10^−23 J/K), and
T is the junction temperature (K).

3
 Understanding of PV cells
PN junction
Substituting the above constants into the exponent of the equation gives

A junction temperature of 25◦C is often used as a standard, which results in the following diode
equation:

Example: A p –n Junction Diode. Consider a p–n junction diode at 25◦C with a reverse
saturation current of 10^−9 A. Find the voltage drop across the diode when it is carrying the
following:
a. no current (open-circuit voltage)
b. 1 A
4
c. 10 A
Understanding of PV cells
PN junction
Solution

a. In the open-circuit condition, Id = 0, so from the diode equation Vd = 0.

b. With Id = 1 A, we can find Vd by rearranging the diode equation

c. With Id = 10 A,

Note: Small difference in Vd  0.6 V approximation 5

PV model
Model of PV cell

With electrical contacts  electrons will flow out of the n-side into the connecting wire,
through the load and back to the p-side.
• Since wire cannot conduct holes  only the electrons actually move around the circuit.
• When they reach the p-side, they recombine with holes completing the circuit.
• By convention, positive current flows in the direction opposite to electron flow

6
PV model
Model of PV cell
A simple equivalent circuit model for a photovoltaic cell consists of a real diode in parallel with
an ideal current source
 The ideal current source delivers current in proportion to the solar flux to which it is exposed

7
PV model
Model of PV cell

The two actual PV characteristics

(1) the current that flows when the terminals are shorted together (the short-circuit current, ISC)
(2) the voltage across the terminals when the leads are left open (the open-circuit voltage, VOC)

8
 PV model
Model of PV cell

• It is interesting to note that the second term in the equation is just the diode equation with a
negative sign
• That means that a plot of the equation is just ISC added to the diode curve turned upside-down
• The curve of current–voltage relationship for a PV cell is shown next

9
PV model
Model of PV cell

Photovoltaic current–voltage relationship for “dark” (no sunlight) and “light” (an illuminated
cell). The dark curve is just the diode curve turned upside-down. The light curve is the dark
curve plus ISC. 10
PV model
Model of PV cell

With O/C condition

I = 0 and we can solve the open-circuit voltage VOC :

And at 25◦C,

11
PV model
Model of PV cell

Example: The I –V Curve for a Photovoltaic Cell

Consider a 100-cm^2 photovoltaic cell with reverse saturation current I0 = 10−12 A/cm2.
In full sun, it produces a short-circuit current of 40 mA/cm^2 at 25◦C. Find the open-circuit
voltage at full sun and again for 50% sunlight. Plot the results.

12
PV model
Model of PV cell
Solution

The reverse saturation current I0 is 10−12 A/cm2 × 100 cm2 = 1 × 10^−10 A. At full sun ISC is
0.040 A/cm2 × 100 cm^2 = 4.0 A.

From the equation of the open-circuit voltage,

Since short-circuit current is proportional to solar intensity, at half sun ISC = 2 A and the
open-circuit voltage is

13
PV model
Model of PV cell

Plot of I-V curve showing cases of full and half sun 14

PV model
Model of PV cell
• Consider the impact of shading on a string of cells wired in series  see the following
figure

The simple equivalent circuit of a string of cells

in series suggests no current can flow to the
load if any cell is in the dark (shaded)

15
PV model
Model of PV cell

• Based on the derived equation, if any cell in the string is in the dark (shaded)  it produces
no current  means no power will be delivered to a load
• However, the actual situation is different

The simple PV equivalent circuit with an added parallel resistance 16

PV model
Model of PV cell

Modifying the idealized PV

equivalent circuit by adding
parallel resistance causes the
current at any given voltage to
drop by V/RP .

For a cell to have losses of less than 1% due to its parallel resistance, RP should be
greater than about

17
PV model
Model of PV cell

• An even better equivalent circuit will include series resistance as well as parallel resistance
• Before we can develop that model, consider the following figure

Note: Some of this resistance result from contact resistance associated with the
bond between the cell and its wire leads, and some might be due to the resistance of
the semiconductor itself.
18
PV model
Model of PV cell

For a cell to have less than 1% losses due to the series resistance, RS wil need to be less than
about

19
PV model
Model of PV cell

The original PV I –V curve with the voltage at any given

current shifted to the left by ΔV = IRS 20
PV model
Model of PV cell
Finally, let us generalize the PV equivalent circuit by including both series and parallel
resistances

21
PV model
Model of PV cell

• The obtained equation is complex and has no explicit solution for either voltage V or current
I
• A spreadsheet solution is needed
- The approach is based on incrementing values of diode voltage, Vd , in the spreadsheet
- For each value of Vd , corresponding values of current I and voltage V can easily be
found

From the equation:

Rearrange:

Voltage across an individual cell:

22
PV model
PV module and PV array

Note: Wired in series to increase voltage and in parallel to increase current  an important
element in PV system design is deciding how many modules should be connected in series and
how many in parallel  referred to as an array

Photovoltaic cells, modules, and arrays

23
 PV model
PV module and PV array
- PV cells wired in series  they all carry the same current, and at any given current their
voltages add up
- The spreadsheet solution of the previous one can be used to find an overall module voltage

For cells wired in series, their

voltages at any given current add.
(a typical module will have 36 cells)

24
 PV model
PV module and PV array

Example: Voltage and Current from a PV Module

A PV module is made up of 36 identical cells, all wired in series. With 1-sun insolation
(1kW/m^2), each cell has short-circuit current ISC = 3.4 A and at 25◦C its reverse saturation
current is I0 = 6 × 10^−10 A. Parallel resistance RP = 6.6 and series resistance RS = 0.005 Ω.

a. Find the voltage, current, and power delivered when the junction voltage of each cell is 0.50 V.

b. Set up a spreadsheet for I and V and present a few lines of output to show how it works.

25
PV model
PV module and PV array

Solution

a. Using Vd = 0.50 V in

26
PV model
PV module and PV array

b. A spreadsheet might look something like the following:

The maximum power point for this

module, which is at I = 3.16 A, V =
17.43 V, and P = 55 W.
This would be described as a 55-W
module.

27
PV model
PV module and PV array

Modules in series  increase voltage, and in parallel  increase current

• For modules in series, the I –V curves are simply added along the voltage axis. That is, at
any given current (which flows through each of the modules), the total voltage is just the
sum of the individual module voltages

• For modules in parallel, the same voltage is across each module and the total current is
the sum of the currents. That is, at any given voltage, the I –V curve of the parallel
combination is just the sum of the individual module currents

28
PV model
PV module and PV array

For modules in series,

at any given current the voltages add.

For modules in parallel,

at any given voltage the currents add.

29
PV model
PV module and PV array

To obtain higher power  the array will usually consist of a combination of series and parallel
modules  the total I –V curve is the sum of the individual module I –V curves

Note: This is done by considering that the individual module curves are the same in either case
when everything is working right

Although the I –V curves for arrays are the same, two strings
of three modules each (a) is preferred than (b).
The total I –V curve of the array is shown in (c).
30
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
When the load is connected to PV module, some combination of current and voltage will result
and power will be delivered
 Using both the I –V characteristic curve of the module as well as the I –V characteristic curve
of the load

No power is delivered when the circuit is open (a) or shorted (b).

When the load is connected (c), the same current flows through the load
31
and module and the same voltage appears across them.
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics

The I –V curve and power output for a PV module,

showing the maximum power point (MPP)

The voltage and current at the MPP are sometimes designated as Vm and Im for the general
case and designated VR and IR (for rated voltage and rated current) under the special
circumstances that correspond to idealized test conditions.
32
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
• The maximum power point can be found by finding the biggest possible rectangle that will
fit beneath the I –V curve

• The fill factor (FF) = the ratio of the power at the maximum power point to the product of
VOC and ISC, so FF can be visualized as the ratio of two rectangular areas

33
 PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics

Fill factors around 70–75% for

crystalline silicon solar modules are
typical, while for multijunction
amorphous-Si modules, it is closer to
50–60%.

The maximum power point (MPP) corresponds to the biggest rectangle and the fill factor (FF)
is the ratio of the area (power) at MPP to the area formed by a rectangle with sides VOC and ISC.
34
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
• Since PV I –V curves shift all around as the amount of insolation changes and as the
temperature of the cells varies, standard test conditions (STC) have been established
• The test conditions: solar irradiance of 1 kW/m^2 (1 sun), air mass ratio of 1.5 (AM 1.5),
standard cell temperature of 25◦C (the 25◦ is cell temperature, not ambient temperature)
• The key parameter for a module is its rated power  the dc power measured under standard
test conditions, PDC,STC

Note: Later the method to adjust rated power to account for temperature effects as well as an
estimate of the actual ac power that the module and inverter combination deliver will be
addressed

35
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
I,Amperes

1000 W/m2 Max power point

4

700 W/m2

500 W/m2

O.C. voltage drops with

increasing cell temperature

V,Volts
21

Typical characteristic of a PV module

36
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
Examples of PV Module Performance Data Under Standard Test
Conditions (1 kW/m2, AM 1.5, 25◦C Cell Temperature)

37
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
• Manufacturers will often provide I –V curves showing the curves shift as insolation and cell
temperature changes
• Short-circuit current drops in direct proportion to the insolation, while Open-circuit voltage
does so following a logarithmic relationship (slight change)

Current-voltage characteristic curves under

various cell temperatures and irradiance
levels for the Kyocera KC120-1 PV module.

38
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
• As cell temperature increases, the open-circuit voltage decreases substantially, while the
short-circuit current increases only slightly  cold weather is better

• For crystalline silicon cells, VOC drops by about 0.37% for each degree Celsius increase in
temperature and ISC increases by approximately 0.05%

• The net result when cells heat up is the MPP slides slightly upward and toward the left with
a decrease in maximum power available of about 0.5%/◦C

39
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
• Cells vary in temperature due to ambient temperatures and insolation
• Only a small fraction of the insolation hitting a module is converted to electricity and carried
away; most of that incident energy is absorbed and converted to heat
• To account for changes in cell performance with temperature, manufacturers often provide an
indicator called the NOCT (Nominal Operating Cell Temperature) - the NOCT is cell
temperature in a module when ambient is 20◦C, solar irradiation is 0.8 kW/m^2, and windspeed
is 1 m/s.
• To account for other ambient conditions, the following expression may be used:

40
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
Example: Impact of Cell Temperature on Power for a PV Module

Estimate cell temperature, open-circuit voltage, and maximum power output for the 150-W
BP2150S module under conditions of 1-sun insolation and ambient temperature 30◦C. The
module has a NOCT of 47◦C.
Solution

Using the proposed equation with S = 1 kW/m^2, cell temperature is estimated to be

41
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics
From Table shown, for this module at the standard temperature of 25◦C, VOC = 42.8 V. Since
VOC drops by 0.37%/◦C, the new VOC will be about

42
PV model
Effect of temperature and irradiance on PV characteristics

Series and parallel resistances in the PV equivalent circuit decrease

both voltage and current delivered.
To improve cell performance, high RP and low RS are needed.
43