Topic 1: Wave Mechanics

Waves
Produced by any disturbance in a system in which the disturbance propagate outwards.
Wave is a travelling disturbance that carries/transports energy from one point in space to another.

Most common examples of waves:

➢ Radial wave Kinds of wave:
• Electromagnetic wave – can travel through
vacuum; also called light
Ex: visible light, x-rays, gamma

• Mechanical wave – vibrations that require

medium to travel; any wave that travels
through a medium
Ex: sound waves, water waves,
➢ Linear wave earthquake waves
Quantities that describe waves

Wavelength (𝝀) – distance between two crests or two

troughs; length of one cycle

Amplitude (A) – the maximum

displacement from the equilibrium
Position

Crest: the point where the wave exhibits

the maximum positive or upwards
displacement

Trough: the point where the wave exhibits

the maximum negative or downward
displacement

Wave structure
Quantities that describe waves
AMPLITUDE WAVELENGTH
• Determines loudness (sound) • what notes we hear (i.e. pitch) (sound)
• brightness (EM wave) • determines what colors we see (EM wave)
Quantities that describe waves
Period (𝑻) – time elapsed between two
successive crests passing the same point in
space
Unit: seconds (s)

Frequency (𝒇) – number of cycles that pass a

given point per unit time
Unit: Hertz (Hz)
𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇

There are sounds that we cannot hear!

Audio test…
Quantities that describe waves

Wave number (k) – number of waves in a unit

distance
Angular frequency (𝝎) 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇
𝒌 = 𝟐𝝅/𝝀

Wave speed (𝒗) – the distance that disturbance

travels per unit time; the rate at which the energy
travels 𝝀
𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝑻
NOTE: wave speed is dependent on the
properties of the medium in which it travels.
Wave speed is dependent on the type wave and the type of medium
• Mechanical waves travel faster through dense mediums
• Electromagnetic Waves are faster through less dense mediums

Mechanical waves travel at constant wave speed at a given medium.

Speed of sound in different media:
General properties of a wave
• Disturbance travels or propagates with
definite speed through the medium

• The medium does not travel through space

with the wave– each particle of the medium
undergo oscillation along their position but
not translated

• WAVES TRANSPORT ENERGY BUT NOT

MATTER from one region to another
Energy Transported by Waves
• The amount of energy carried by a wave is related to the amplitude of the wave.
• A high energy wave is characterized by a high amplitude; a low energy wave is
characterized by a low amplitude.

The energy transported by a wave is directly proportional to the square of the

amplitude of the wave:
Energy Transported by Waves
The total mechanical energy of the wave is the sum of its kinetic energy and
potential energy:
1
𝐾𝐸 = 4 (𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 λ) 𝐴 is the wave amplitude
𝜔 is the angular frequency
1 𝜆 is the wavelength, and
𝑈 = 4 (𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 λ) µ is the linear density of
the string (𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿)

Total mechanical energy of the wave E:

𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑈
1 1
𝐸 = 4 𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 λ + 4 (𝜇𝐴2 𝜔2 λ)

𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐 𝝁𝑨𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝀

11
Types of waves according to propagation

Wave travel • The oscillation that produced the waves is

parallel to the propagation of the waves.
disturbance • Particles in the medium vibrate parallel to
the direction of the wave

disturbance
• The oscillation that produced the waves is
perpendicular to the propagation of the
waves.
• The particles in the medium vibrate
Wave travel
perpendicular to the direction of the
propagation of the wave
Types of waves according to propagation

Longitudinal wave Transverse wave

 Mathematical Description of a wave
Wave function – a mathematical equation that describes the wave.
- used to find the displacement (from equilibrium), velocity, and acceleration of
any particle at any time t.

Sine Wave Use according to initial conditions:

𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 ∓
𝑇 𝜆 Sine wave: If at t=0, x=0, y displacement is zero
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝑘𝑥

Cosine Wave Cosine wave: If at t=0, x=0, y displacement is maximum (the Amplitude)
𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋 ∓
𝑇 𝜆 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝑘𝑥

Sign convention:
−𝑘𝑥 if going to +x
+𝑘𝑥 if going to -x
Calculation of particle’s velocity and acceleration using the Wave equation:

For a wave function: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥

The transverse velocity is given by the The transverse acceleration is given by

first partial derivative wrt time: the second partial derivative wrt time:
𝜕 𝜕2
𝑣𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑎𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕
= 𝜔𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝑦
𝒗𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝝎 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) 𝜕
= 𝜕𝑡 ω𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
= −ω2 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
𝒂𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)
Example
Transverse waves on a string have speed 8.00 m/s, amplitude 0.0700 m and wavelength 0.320
m. The waves travel in –x-direction and at t=0 the x=0 end of the string has its maximum
upward displacement. Find the wave number, angular velocity, and write a wave function
describing the wave.

Initial conditions:
• Towards –x-direction
• at t=0 the x=0 end of the string has its maximum
upward displacement

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥

Wave number: k = 2π/λ = 19.63 m-1

𝑣 8 𝑚/𝑠
Note: 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 so 𝑓 = = = 25 Hz or 25 𝑠 −1
𝜆 0.320 𝑚
Angular velocity/angular frequency: ω= 2πf = 157 rad/s

Wave function: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = (0.0700 𝑚) cos (157 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 + (19.6 𝑚−1 )𝑥

Example
A transverse wave on the string has a wave speed of 12 m/s, amplitude 0.05 m, and wavelength
0.4 m. The waves travel in the +x-direction, and at t=0, the x=0 end of the string has zero
displacement and is moving upward. (a) Find: f, T, k, ω. (b) Write a wave function describing the
wave. (c) Find the transverse displacement of a point at x=0.250 m at time t=0.150 s.

A transverse wave on the string has a The waves travel in the +x-direction, and at t=0, the
wave speed of 12 m/s, amplitude x=0 end of the string has zero displacement and is
0.05 m, and wavelength 0.4 m. moving upward.
𝑣 12 𝑚/𝑠 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑓= = = 30 𝐻𝑧
𝜆 0.4 𝑚
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.05𝑚 sin (60.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 − (5.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)𝑥
1 1
𝑇= = = 0.033 𝑠
𝑓 30 𝐻𝑧
Transverse displacement of a point at x=0.250 m at
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 time t=0.150 s:
𝑘= = = 5𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚 = 15.71 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚
𝜆 0.4 𝑚
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.0500𝑚 sin((60.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)(0.150𝑠) −
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 30 𝐻𝑧 = 60𝜋 = 188.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 (5.0𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)(0.250𝑚))
𝑠
𝑦 𝑥 = 0.250𝑚, 𝑡 = 0.150𝑠 = −0.035m
How waves interact?
Waves

interactions

Object Wave
How waves interact?
Reflection
Waves Boundary conditions
Fixed end Free end

interactions

Object Wave The behavior of a wave when it reaches the end

of its medium is called the wave’s boundary
behavior:
• At a fixed end, the reflected pulse is
Reflection Transmission inverted
• At a free end, the reflected pulse is not
inverted; it is identical to the incident
Fixed Free pulse, except it is moving in the opposite
direction
Inverted Not inverted The speed, wavelength, and amplitude of the reflected wave are
the same as the incident wave in both cases.
𝑨𝐢 = −𝑨𝐫 fixed end
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒓 𝝀 𝐢 = 𝝀𝐫
𝑨𝐢 = 𝑨𝐫 free end
How waves interact? Transmission/refraction
Boundary conditions
Waves the medium of a wave changes

interactions

Boundary behavior during transmission:

Object Wave
• Part of the wave is reflected, and part of the
wave is transmitted.
• Part of the wave energy is transferred to the
more dense medium, and part is reflected.
Reflection Transmission • The transmitted pulse is upright, while the
reflected pulse is inverted.
Fixed Free The speed and wavelength of the reflected wave remain
the same, but the amplitude decreases.
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒓 𝝀𝐢 = 𝝀𝐫 𝑨𝐢 ≠ 𝑨𝒓
Inverted Not inverted
The speed, wavelength, and amplitude of the transmitted
wave are all smaller than in the incident pulse.
𝒗𝒕 < 𝒗𝒊 𝝀𝐭 < 𝝀𝐢 𝑨𝒕 < 𝑨𝐢
•The transmitted pulse (in the less dense medium) is •The transmitted pulse (in the more dense medium) is
traveling faster than the reflected pulse (in the more traveling slower than the reflected pulse (in the less dense
dense medium). medium).
•The transmitted pulse (in the less dense medium) has a •The transmitted pulse (in the more dense medium) has a
larger wavelength than the reflected pulse (in the more smaller wavelength than the reflected pulse (in the less
dense medium). dense medium).
•The speed and the wavelength of the reflected pulse are •The speed and the wavelength of the reflected pulse are
the same as the speed and the wavelength of the incident the same as the speed and the wavelength of the incident
pulse. pulse.
How waves interact?
Waves

interactions

Object Wave

Reflection Transmission Superposition ➢ Two or more waves can overlap

Fixed Free Interference ➢ A result of superposition

Inverted Not inverted Constructive Destructive ➢ Two types of interference

➢ A combination of constructive and

Standing waves destructive interference
Wave interaction with another wave: Superposition and Interference
Matter vs. Waves
• Matter cannot occupy • Two or more waves can Addition of two or more waves is
the same space at the occupy the same space known as superposition
same time; cannot at the same time; can
Principle of superposition
overlap overlap
When two or more waves overlap,
• Waves can pass through
the displacement at any point is the
each other
algebraic sum of the displacement of
the corresponding points of the
overlapping waves.
Superposition of waves causes
interference

Interference
The resulting effect when Blue moving to the left
two or more waves overlap Green moving to the right
in the same region of space. Red sum
Types of interference:
• Constructive
• Destructive
Interference
• Constructive interference
Results when the waves are in phase
Path difference between the two waves is:
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3

The resultant wave always have greater

amplitude than the original waves.
Interference
• Destructive interference
Results when the waves are out of phase
Path difference between the two waves is:
1
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑛 + 𝜆 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
2

The resultant wave always has lesser

amplitude (or even zero amplitude) than
the original waves.
Interference
Interference
Standing waves
• When waves continuously bounce back and forth and interfere, they form standing waves
• Condition: Occurs when two waves, of the same frequency and amplitude but traveling
in opposite direction, interfere.
Blue moving to the left
Green moving to the right
Red sum (Standing waves)

Standing waves does not appear to be

moving in either direction;
It looks as if it is just oscillating in place

Parts of a standing wave:

Node – points that never move at all; manifests
destructive interference
Antinode – points that have greatest
amplitude; manifests constructive interference
Does not transfer energy – there is local flow of
energy from each node to the next; but average
energy transfer is zero
Standing waves
Location of the nodes:
Mathematical expression (wave function)
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
of standing waves:
sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0 𝒌𝒙 must be a multiple of 𝝅
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 …

𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥 = 0, , , ,…, 𝑥=
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
+𝒚 𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆 𝑛𝜆 𝑛λ
𝑥 = 0, , , , … , 𝑥=
2 2 2 2 2

Location of the antinodes:

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝐴
+𝒙 𝝅
sin 𝑘𝑥 = 1 𝒌𝒙 must be a multiple of
𝟐
𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = , 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …
2

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥= , , ,…, 𝑥=
2𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘

𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 𝑛𝜆 𝑛λ
𝑥= , , ,…, 𝑥=
4 4 4 4 4
Example
Standing waves on a wire are described by 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥) cos(𝜔𝑡), with k = 3.0
rad/cm. Find the positions of the nodes and antinodes.
+𝒚

Since
+𝒙

Nodes: 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 = 0, , ,…
3 3

𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
Antinodes: 𝑥= , , ,…
6 2 6
Standing waves: Harmonics
We consider a string of length 𝐿, rigidly held at both ends.
When a guitar string is plucked, a wave is produced in the string, this wave
is reflected and re-reflected from the ends of the string, making a standing
wave.

This standing wave on the string in turn produces a sound wave in the air,
with a frequency determined by the properties of the string.

1 𝐹 𝑣
Fundamental frequency 𝑓1 = 2𝐿 = 2𝐿 (lowest possible
𝜇
frequency)
𝑛𝑣 𝑣
Frequency 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 = =𝜆 called harmonics or
2𝐿 𝑛
overtones
2𝐿 Length 𝐿=
𝑛𝜆𝑛
Wavelength 𝜆𝑛 = 2
𝑛
𝑛 = 1,2,3, … where 𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿 is the line density
𝑚 – is the mass of the string
𝐿 – is the length of the string
Standing waves: Harmonics (Harmonics vs. Overtones)
1 𝐹 Harmonic series – sequence of frequencies in
Fundamental frequency 𝑓1 = 2𝐿 𝜇 which each frequency is an integer of a
𝑣 𝑛𝑣 fundamental
Frequency 𝑓𝑛 = 𝜆 = = 𝑛𝑓1
𝑛 2𝐿
Overtone – any frequency greater than the
fundamental frequency
𝑣
1st harmonic 𝑓1 =
2𝐿
2𝑣
2nd harmonic 𝑓2 = 1st overtone
2𝐿

3𝑣
3rd harmonic 𝑓3 = 2nd overtone
2𝐿
Standing waves: Harmonics (Calculation of wave speed)
1 𝐹 𝑣
Fundamental frequency: 𝑓1 = = (lowest possible frequency)
2𝐿 𝜇 2𝐿
where 𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿 is the line density

1 𝐹 𝑣
From the equation of the fundamental frequency: =
2𝐿 𝜇 2𝐿

2𝐿 𝐹
𝑣=
2𝐿 𝜇

𝐹
𝑣=
𝑚/𝐿

Wave Speed
𝐹𝐿
The speed in which the transverse wave travels along the string: 𝑣=
𝑚

𝐹 – is the stretching force or tension in the string

𝑚 – is the mass of the string
𝐿 – is the length of the string
Standing waves: Harmonics (Calculation of stretching force or tension in the string )

Wave Speed
𝝀
𝒗 = 𝝀𝒏 𝒇𝒏 = 𝑻𝒏 𝐹𝐿
𝒏 𝑣= 𝑚

𝐹𝐿
𝝀𝒏 𝒇𝒏 = 𝑚

𝟏 𝐹𝐿 2𝐿
𝒇𝒏 = 𝝀 Recall: equation for wavelength 𝜆𝑛 =
𝒏 𝑚 𝑛

𝒏 𝐹𝐿
𝒇𝒏 = Goes back to: 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1
𝟐𝑳 𝑚

To solve for stretching force or tension in the string:

𝟏 𝐹𝐿
𝒇𝟐𝒏 = 𝟐
𝝀𝒏 𝑚
𝟐 𝟐
Thus, the wavelength λ𝑛 and frequency 𝑓𝑛 of the standing
𝒎 𝒇𝒏 𝝀𝒏 waves are dependent on the tension 𝑭 in the string; i.e. we can
𝑭=
𝑳 create harmonics by varying the tension in the string
Standing waves: Harmonics

Normal modes of a string 2𝐿

𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
Harmonic series overtone wavelength
1st harmonic -- 𝜆1 = 2𝐿

2nd harmonic 1st overtone 𝜆2 = 𝐿

2𝐿
3rd harmonic 2nd overtone 𝜆3 =
3

𝐿
4th harmonic 3rd overtone 𝜆4 =
2

2𝐿
5th harmonic 4th overtone 𝜆5 =
5
Example:
A steel wire 1.0 m long having a mass of 5.0 g is under tension of 500 N.
(a) What is the fundamental frequency of vibration? (b) How many overtones can be heard by a person
capable of hearing frequencies up to 9480 Hz?

𝑛𝑣 𝑛 𝐹
𝑓𝑛 = = 2𝐿 where 𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 where 𝒏 gives the
2𝐿 𝜇
number of harmonics
𝑛 𝐹𝐿 So 𝒏 − 𝟏 must give the
𝑓𝑛 = 2𝐿 𝑚 number of overtones
For the fundamental frequency, n=1

1 (500 𝑁)(1.00 𝑚)
𝑓1 = 2(1.0 𝑚) = 158.11 𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑛 9480 𝐻𝑧
5.00×10−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑛= = = 60
𝑓1 158 ℎ𝑧

# 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛 − 1 = 60 − 1 = 59
Standing waves: vibrating pipes
Normal modes of vibrating pipes
❑ Open pipes

𝑛𝜆𝑛
Length 𝐿= 2

2𝐿
Wavelength 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑛

𝑣 𝑛𝑣
Frequency 𝑓𝑛 = 𝜆 = = 𝑛𝑓1
𝑛 2𝐿

𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
Normal modes of vibrating pipes
❑ Close pipes

𝑛𝜆𝑛
Length 𝐿= 4

4𝐿
Wavelength 𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛

𝑣 𝑛𝑣
Frequency 𝑓𝑛 = 𝜆 = 4𝐿
= 𝑛𝑓𝑛
𝑛

𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
Normal modes of vibrating pipes
Open pipes vs. closed pipes
Find the fundamental frequency and the first two overtones of a pipe 40.0 cm long. Take the speed of
sound in air to be 344 m/s.
(a) if the pipe is open and if the pipe is closed
(b) For each of the cases above, what is the number of the highest harmonic that may be heard
by a person who can hear frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz?

Open pipe Closed pipe

𝑛𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓= 𝑓=
2𝐿 4𝐿
(1)(344𝑚/𝑠) (1)(344𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓1 = = 430 𝐻𝑧 𝑓1 = = 215 𝐻𝑧
2(0.40 𝑚) 4(0.40 𝑚)

𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1
𝑓2 = (2)𝑓1 = 860 𝐻𝑧 𝑓3 = (3)𝑓1 = 645 𝐻𝑧
𝑓3 = (3)𝑓1 = 1290 𝐻𝑧 𝑓5 = (5)𝑓1 = 1075 𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑛 20,000𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑛 20,000𝐻𝑧
𝑛= = ≅ 46 𝑛= = ≅ 93
𝑓1 430 𝐻𝑧 𝑓1 215 𝐻𝑧
Resonance
A phenomena that occurs if the frequency is equal to the one of the normal modes of frequencies,
the amplitude of the resulting force oscillation can become very large.

Bathroom singing

Many people sing in the bathroom because the hard wall

surfaces, often tiles or wooden panels, and lack of soft
furnishings, create an aurally pleasing acoustic
environment.

The multiple reflections from walls enrich the sound of

one's voice.

Small dimensions and hard surfaces of a typical bathroom

produce various kinds of standing waves, echoes, giving
the voice "fullness and depth."
Resonance
• Driving force is the opposite of a dissipative force or the forces that cause damping of the SHM.
• Driving force is a force that increases the oscillation, i.e. increases the amplitude of the oscillation over
time – which results to resonance.

Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate

with greater amplitude at some frequencies
(resonant frequencies) than at others
This happens when the driving angular frequency
𝝎 is very close to the natural frequency 𝒇 of the
undamped harmonic oscillator:

Tacoma Bridge
collapses (1940)

The driving force should be in the same direction

as the velocity.
Summary
• Wave carries/transports energy from one point in • Wave number 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆
space to another • Interaction of waves with objects: Reflection
• Two kinds of waves: Electromagnetic and Mechanical or Transmission
• Types of waves according to direction of oscillation
• Interaction of waves with another waves:
and propagation: Transverse and Longitudinal
superposition – which lead to interference
• Set-up wave function:
• Types of interference:
Sine Wave Use according to
𝑡 𝑥 initial condition Constructive and Destructive
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 𝑇 ∓ 𝜆
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝑘𝑥 Sine wave: at t=0,
x=0, y displacement
is zero
Cosine Wave
𝑡 𝑥 Cosine wave: at t=0,
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋 ∓𝜆 x=0, y displacement
𝑇
is maximum
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝑘𝑥 • Standing wave’s wave function:
Sign convention: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡
−𝑘𝑥 if going to +x
𝑛𝜋 𝑛λ
+𝑘𝑥 if going to -x Location of nodes: 𝑥 = = 𝑛 = 0,1,2, . .
𝑘 2

Location of antinodes: 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 = 𝑛λ 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …

2𝑘 4
 Summary of equations (String and pipes)

String Open pipe Closed pipe

1 𝐹 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
Fundamental frequency 𝑓1 = = 𝑓1 = = 𝑓1 = =
2𝐿 𝜇 2𝐿 𝜆1 2𝐿 𝜆1 4𝐿

𝑛𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑛𝑣 𝑣 𝑛𝑣
Frequency (harmonics) 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 = = 𝑓𝑛 = = = 𝑛𝑓1 𝑓𝑛 = = = 𝑛𝑓1
2𝐿 𝜆𝑛 𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 𝜆𝑛 4𝐿

2𝐿 2𝐿 4𝐿
Wavelength 𝜆𝑛 = 𝜆𝑛 = 𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛𝜆𝑛 𝑛𝜆𝑛 𝑛𝜆𝑛

Length 𝐿= 𝐿= 𝐿=
2 2 4

𝑛 = 1,2,3, … 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … 𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
where 𝜇 = 𝑚/𝐿 is the line
density