Chapter 11: Muscle Tissue

controlled; their activity is influenced

by the autonomic nervous system.
○ Voluntary: Skeletal muscle relies
Overview of Muscle Tissue entirely on signals from the nervous
system and is consciously
● Types: Three muscle tissues exist: skeletal, controlled.
smooth, and cardiac. ● Hormonal Influence: Hormones,
● Function: All muscle tissues share the particularly epinephrine (adrenaline), can
ability to contract, leading to movement. enhance contraction in cardiac and smooth
muscle, leading to increased heart activity
Key Functions
during stress or excitement.
● Skeletal Muscle:
Muscle Tissue Properties
○ Movement: Responsible for external
movements of limbs and facial ● Elasticity: Muscle tissues can return to
expressions. their original length after contraction due to
○ Posture Maintenance: Constant elastic fibers.
adjustments maintain body posture ● Extensibility: Muscle tissues can stretch
and balance. beyond their resting length.
○ Joint Stabilization: Stabilizes joints ● Contractility: Muscle tissues can shorten
and protects internal organs by and exert force when stimulated.
acting as a barrier against external
trauma. Cellular Structure
○ Heat Generation: Muscle
contractions produce heat, important ● Common Components: All muscle cells
for maintaining body temperature, contain contractile proteins, mitochondria,
especially during exercise or cold nuclei, and a plasma membrane.
(e.g., shivering). ● Differences:
● Cardiac Muscle: ○ Skeletal Muscle:
○ Internal Movement: Forms the ■ Composed of long,
heart's walls and contracts to pump multinucleated fibers called
blood through the circulatory system, muscle fibers, often nearly
propelling blood into various organs. the same length as the
● Smooth Muscle: muscle itself.
○ Internal Movement: Found in the ■ Formed from the fusion of
walls of hollow organs (e.g., blood multiple myoblasts, leading
vessels, intestines, uterus) and to long cells with many
propels internal materials (e.g., food, nuclei.
menstrual blood) in a specific ○ Cardiac Muscle:
direction. ■ Composed of shorter cells,
typically with one to two
Control of Muscle Contraction centrally located nuclei.
■ Cells are connected by
● Excitability: All muscle types can change intercalated discs and gap
from relaxed to contracted states due to junctions, allowing
electrical signals at their plasma coordinated contractions
membranes. throughout the heart.
● Involuntary vs. Voluntary: ○ Smooth Muscle:
○ Involuntary: Cardiac and smooth ■ Comprised of small,
muscles cannot be consciously spindle-shaped cells with a
 single nucleus, allowing for 11.2 Skeletal Muscle
involuntary control over
organ function.

Microscopic Appearance

● Striated vs. Non-striated:

○ Striated: Skeletal and cardiac
muscle fibers have a striped
(striated) appearance due to the
organized arrangement of contractile
proteins (actin and myosin).
○ Non-striated: Smooth muscle fibers
have a uniform, nonstriated
appearance because of the irregular
arrangement of contractile proteins. Overview of Skeletal Muscle

Summary ● Composition: Skeletal muscle comprises a

significant portion of body mass and is
Muscle tissue is essential for movement and organized as an organ made up of multiple
various physiological functions. The distinct tissue types, including:
structures and characteristics of skeletal, cardiac, ○ Skeletal muscle cells (fibers)
and smooth muscle reflect their specific roles in the ○ Blood vessels
body, contributing to both voluntary and involuntary ○ Nerve fibers
actions. Understanding these differences enhances ○ Connective tissue
comprehension of muscle function and physiology.
Connective Tissue Layers

1. Epimysium:
○ A dense, irregular connective tissue
sheath that encases the entire
muscle organ.
○ Separates the muscle from
surrounding tissues, allowing
independent movement.
○ Continuous with the tendon fibers,
which attach to the periosteum of
bones, facilitating movement.
2. Fascia:
○ A layer of dense connective tissue
that may be found outside the
epimysium.
○ Visible during dissection or cooking
(e.g., the layer separating chicken
breast from chicken tender).
3. Perimysium:
○ Surrounds bundles of muscle fibers
known as fascicles.
 ○
Provides pathways for blood vessels connective tissue layers, fascicles, and individual
and nerves, allowing for organized muscle fibers allows for precise regulation of
muscle function. contraction and effective nutrient delivery, which is
4. Endomysium: crucial for maintaining muscle function during both
○ A thin connective tissue layer rest and activity.
surrounding individual muscle fibers
within each fascicle. 11.2a Skeletal Muscle cells
○ Contains extracellular fluid and
nutrients essential for muscle fiber
support.

Organization of Muscle Cells

● Fascicles: Muscle fibers are grouped into

bundles called fascicles, which are further
organized within the muscle.
● Fine-tuning Muscle Activation: The
fascicular arrangement enables the nervous
system to selectively activate subsets of
muscle fibers or fascicles, allowing for
precise control of muscle contraction.

Vascular and Nervous Supply

● Blood Supply:
○ Skeletal muscle has a high demand
for oxygen and nutrients, supplied by
an extensive network of blood
vessels.
○ Waste products from muscle
metabolism are removed through the
blood.
○ During intense activity, blood flow
may become insufficient to meet
demands, which can affect muscle
function.
● Nervous Supply:
○ Skeletal muscle fibers are highly
innervated and only contract in
response to signals from the
nervous system.
○ This reliance on nervous input Greek Roots of Muscle Terminology
distinguishes skeletal muscle from
cardiac and smooth muscle, which ● Much of the terminology associated with
can contract involuntarily. muscle cells is derived from the Greek word
sarco, meaning "flesh."
Summary Key Components of Skeletal Muscle Cells
Skeletal muscle is a complex organ structured for
● Sarcolemma:
efficient movement and control. Its organization into
 ○ The plasma membrane of muscle glucose into adenosine triphosphate
cells, characterized by its unique (ATP), the primary energy currency
structure. for muscle contraction.
○ Contains deep invaginations known
as T-tubules (transverse tubules), Summary
which facilitate the transmission of
electrical signals into the cell, The structural organization of skeletal muscle cells
ensuring that all myofibrils respond is specifically adapted to their function in
simultaneously during contraction. contraction and movement. The unique features of
● Sarcoplasm: the sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, and sarcoplasmic
○ The cytoplasm of muscle cells, reticulum, along with the arrangement of nuclei and
containing various organelles and myofibrils, contribute to the efficiency of muscle
components necessary for muscle contraction and energy production. This specialized
function. structure enables skeletal muscles to perform their
● Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): vital roles in movement and stability within the
○ A specialized form of smooth human body.
endoplasmic reticulum that primarily
functions in the storage and release 11.2b The Sarcomere
of calcium ions (Ca²⁺).
○ The SR is closely associated with
the sarcolemma and T-tubules,
allowing for efficient transmission of
electrical signals that initiate muscle
contraction.

Structural Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle

Cells

● Multinucleated:
○ Skeletal muscle cells contain
multiple nuclei located at the
periphery of the cell, unlike typical
cells where nuclei are centrally
located. This arrangement allows for
a large volume of myofibrils within
the muscle cell.
● Myofibrils:
○ Long cylindrical structures
composed of organized contractile
proteins (actin and myosin) that
facilitate muscle contraction.
○ Myofibrils shorten during contraction, Myofibrils
pulling on the epimysium and,
subsequently, the tendons attached ● Myofibrils are long, cylindrical structures
to bones, resulting in movement. composed of contractile proteins, extending
● Mitochondria: the entire length of skeletal muscle fibers.
○ Scattered among the myofibrils, Their precise arrangement is responsible for
these organelles play a crucial role the striated appearance of both skeletal and
in energy production by converting cardiac muscle cells.
Composition of Sarcomeres Contraction Mechanics

● Sarcomeres are the fundamental functional ● During contraction, individual sarcomeres

units of muscle contraction within myofibrils. shorten as the thick and thin filaments slide
Each sarcomere is delineated by Z discs at past each other, a process often described
either end and contains two main types of by the sliding filament theory. As the
protein filaments: sarcomeres contract, the myofibrils also
○ Thin Filaments: shorten, which ultimately leads to the
■ Composed primarily of actin, contraction of the entire muscle cell.
along with regulatory proteins
troponin and tropomyosin. Size and Scale
■ These filaments stretch
horizontally from the Z disc, ● Sarcomeres are incredibly small; it takes
forming the outer frame of approximately 45 sarcomeres stacked end
the sarcomere. to end to equal the thickness of a sheet of
○ Thick Filaments: printer paper. Given that muscle cells can
■ Composed mainly of myosin be several inches long, they contain
proteins arranged in bundles. thousands of sarcomeres arranged in
● The organized arrangement of these series.
proteins creates a structure that allows for
This intricate organization and interaction of
contraction:
myofibrils and sarcomeres allow for the effective
○ The thin and thick filaments interact,
contraction and function of skeletal muscle,
causing the sarcomere to shorten
enabling movement and contributing to various
and produce muscle contraction.
bodily functions.
Sarcomere Structure
11.2c The Neuromuscular Junction
● The sarcomere can be described in terms of
several key regions visible under a
microscope:
○ A Band:
■ The dark region where thick
filaments (myosin) are
present and overlap with thin
filaments (actin).
○ I Band:
■ The lighter regions on either
side of the A band where
only thin filaments are found.
The I band is bisected by the
Z disc.
○ M Line: Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) and
■ A horizontal line at the center Skeletal Muscle Control
of the sarcomere where thick
filaments are anchored. Motor Neurons and NMJ
○ H Zone:
■ The space within the A band ● Each skeletal muscle cell is innervated by a
that contains only thick single motor neuron, which is essential for
filaments, located between controlling muscle contractions. The
the ends of the thin filaments. connection between the motor neuron and
 the muscle cell occurs at the ○ Smooth Muscle:
neuromuscular junction (NMJ). ■ Smooth muscle is stimulated
by a variety of factors,
Structure and Function of the NMJ including hormones, stretch,
and local chemical signals,
● The NMJ serves as the communication rather than a single nerve
point where the neuron stimulates the ending.
muscle fiber. At this junction, the motor end
plate is the specialized region of the Summary
sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane) that
contains receptors for the neurotransmitter The NMJ is critical for the voluntary control of
released by the motor neuron. skeletal muscle contractions, with motor neurons
● Signal Transmission: providing the excitation signals needed for
○ When an action potential travels
down the motor neuron, it reaches 11. 3 Skeletal Muscle Cell Contraction and
the NMJ and causes the release of Relaxation
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh) into the synaptic cleft.
○ ACh binds to receptors on the motor
end plate, resulting in depolarization
of the muscle cell membrane. This
depolarization triggers an action
potential that propagates along the
length of the muscle cell and travels
down the T-tubules.

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

● The action potential traveling through the

T-tubules stimulates the release of calcium
ions (Ca²⁺) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
into the cytoplasm of the muscle cell.
● Calcium ions are crucial for the interaction Sliding Filament Model of Muscle
between actin and myosin, the contractile
Contraction
proteins in muscle fibers, leading to muscle
contraction. Overview of Sarcomere Shortening
Comparison with Cardiac and Smooth Muscle ● For a long time, the exact mechanism of
how the sarcomere shortens during muscle
● In contrast to skeletal muscle, cardiac and
contraction was unclear. Initially, it was
smooth muscle do not rely on a single NMJ:
hypothesized that the filaments might fold or
○ Cardiac Muscle:
change shape. However, through extensive
■ Cardiac muscle cells are
research, scientists have established the
interconnected by
sliding filament model as the primary
intercalated discs, allowing
explanation.
them to contract as a
● According to this model, muscle contraction
coordinated unit without the
occurs as thin filaments slide past the
need for NMJs. They
static thick filaments, which brings the Z
respond to intrinsic electrical
discs closer together. This shortening of
signals and hormones.
each sarcomere, aligned end-to-end along
 the myofibril, leads to a significant overall relaxation, preventing cross-bridges
shortening of the muscle. from forming.
2. Troponin:
Mechanism of Filament Sliding ○ Troponin is a complex protein that
interacts with tropomyosin and has a
● The interaction between myosin in the thick binding site for calcium ions (Ca²⁺).
filaments and actin in the thin filaments is 3. Role of Calcium Ions:
key to this sliding process. ○ When muscle contraction is initiated,
1. Myosin Heads: Ca²⁺ ions released into the
○ Myosin filaments possess heads that sarcoplasm bind to troponin.
can bind to specific sites on the actin ○ This binding causes a
subunits. conformational change in troponin,
○ When these binding sites on actin which subsequently pulls
are exposed (in the presence of tropomyosin away from the binding
ATP), myosin heads bind to actin, sites on actin, exposing them for
forming what is known as a myosin attachment.
cross-bridge. ● Control of Calcium Concentration:
2. Conformational Change: ○ The presence of Ca²⁺ ions in the
○ Upon binding, myosin undergoes a sarcoplasm is essential for
conformational change, effectively contraction. The concentration of
pulling the actin filaments toward the calcium ions is tightly regulated by
center of the sarcomere. This is the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR),
likened to a small "sit-up" motion by which stores Ca²⁺ and releases it
the myosin head. into the cytoplasm when stimulated
3. Re-cocking and Cycling: by an action potential. This
○ The myosin heads can only pull a mechanism ensures that contraction
short distance before they must occurs only in response to
reset or "re-cock" to bind again, a appropriate signals.
process requiring ATP.
○ As long as ATP and binding sites Summary
remain available, the cycle of
binding and pulling continues, further In summary, the sliding filament model explains
moving the Z discs closer together how muscle contraction occurs through the sliding
until maximum contraction is of actin filaments over myosin filaments, facilitated
achieved. This process can be by ATP and regulated by the troponin-tropomyosin
compared to the hand-over-hand complex in response to calcium ions. This intricate
motion of pulling an anchor. control mechanism prevents continuous contraction
and allows for precise movements and muscle
Regulation of Muscle Contraction control.

● While the contraction mechanism is

straightforward, muscles do not remain in a
constant state of contraction. This regulation
is primarily achieved through the actions of
the proteins troponin and tropomyosin:
1. Tropomyosin:
○ This protein wraps around the actin
filaments, covering the
myosin-binding sites during muscle
1.3b Excitation- contraction coupling ○ In neurons and muscle cells, the
resting membrane potential ranges
from approximately -60 mV to -90
mV, indicating that the inside of the
cell is more negatively charged
compared to the outside.
● Role of the Na+/K+ Pump:
○ The Na+/K+ pump is crucial for
establishing this gradient by actively
transporting three sodium ions
(Na⁺) out of the cell and two
potassium ions (K⁺) into the cell.
This process results in a higher
concentration of positive charges
outside the cell compared to the
inside.
● Excitable Cells:
○ Neurons and muscle cells are
categorized as excitable cells due
to their ability to generate electrical
signals. They control the movement
of charged particles (ions) across
their membranes to create electrical
currents.
● Ion Movement and Electrical Signals:
○ The cell membrane is selectively
permeable, allowing only small,
nonpolar, and uncharged molecules
to diffuse freely. Electrical signals
are generated by opening and
Initiation of Skeletal Muscle Contraction closing specialized protein
channels in the membrane,
Skeletal muscle contraction is intricately controlled enabling ions to flow in and out of
by the nervous system, and the process can be the cell.
understood through a series of events occurring at ○ While the currents generated by ion
the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), along the movement are small, they form the
muscle cell sarcolemma, and within the muscle cell basis of both neural signaling and
itself. This overview highlights the electrical signals muscle contraction.
that facilitate muscle contraction. ○ Resting membrane potential refers
to the state of the cell when it is not
1. Electrical Signals in Muscle and Neurons actively contracting or signaling.
Conversely, an action potential
● Membrane Potential:
occurs when the cell is active,
○ All living cells maintain an electrical
sending signals or contracting,
gradient across their membranes,
resulting in a temporary change in
creating a difference in electrical
charge across the membrane.
charge known as membrane
potential. This potential is typically 2. Process of Muscle Contraction and
measured in millivolts (mV). Relaxation
To fully understand muscle contraction and grasping how voluntary muscle contractions are
relaxation, we can break down the events into three controlled and executed.
key components:
11.3c Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
1. Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ):
○ The NMJ is the site where the motor
neuron connects with the skeletal
muscle fiber. When an action
potential travels down the motor
neuron, it triggers the release of
acetylcholine (ACh) at the NMJ.
ACh binds to receptors on the motor
end plate of the muscle cell,
causing an influx of Na⁺ ions, which
depolarizes the sarcolemma and
initiates an action potential in the
muscle cell.
2. Sarcolemma:
○ The action potential travels along the
Initiation of Muscle Contraction at the
sarcolemma (muscle cell
membrane) and down the
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)
T-tubules, allowing the electrical
The process of skeletal muscle contraction begins
signal to reach deep into the muscle
with a neuronal action potential traveling along the
fiber. This propagation of the action
motor neuron until it reaches the neuromuscular
potential leads to the release of Ca²⁺
junction (NMJ). Here's a step-by-step breakdown
ions from the sarcoplasmic
of the events that occur at the NMJ, leading to
reticulum (SR) into the sarcoplasm,
muscle contraction:
which is crucial for muscle
contraction. 1. Arrival of Action Potential
3. Sarcomere:
○ The released Ca²⁺ ions bind to ● When the action potential reaches the axon
troponin on the thin filaments, terminal of the motor neuron, it causes
leading to a conformational change voltage-gated calcium channels to open.
that pulls tropomyosin away from This influx of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) into the
the myosin-binding sites on actin. neuron triggers the release of the
This exposure allows the myosin neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) from
heads to attach to actin and initiate synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
the contraction process through the
sliding filament mechanism. 2. Diffusion of Acetylcholine

Summary ● ACh molecules diffuse across the synaptic

cleft, which is the small gap between the
The initiation of skeletal muscle contraction motor neuron and the muscle cell. This
involves a complex interplay of electrical signals diffusion is crucial as it allows the
originating from the nervous system, which triggers neurotransmitter to reach the muscle cell's
a cascade of events at the NMJ, along the sarcolemma (muscle membrane).
sarcolemma, and within the muscle cell.
Understanding these processes is essential for 3. Binding to Receptors
 ● ACh binds to ACh receptors located on the depolarization of the muscle cell membrane. This
motor end plate, a specialized region of process is critical for generating an action potential,
the sarcolemma. These receptors are which ultimately triggers muscle contraction
protein structures that undergo a through the sliding filament mechanism.
conformational change upon binding with
ACh. 11.3d Events Along the Sarcolemma

4. Opening of Ion Channels

● The binding of ACh to its receptors opens

ion channels, allowing positively charged
ions, primarily sodium ions (Na⁺), to flow
into the muscle fiber. This influx of Na⁺ ions
occurs because they are attracted to the
negative charges within the cell.

5. Membrane Polarization

● In its resting state, the muscle cell

membrane has a significant membrane
potential of approximately -90 mV,
meaning the inside of the cell is much more
negative compared to the outside. This
polarized state is essential for muscle
function.

6. Depolarization of the Membrane

● As Na⁺ ions rush into the muscle cell, the

membrane potential becomes less negative
(or closer to zero). This process is called
depolarization. The local depolarization at
the motor end plate generates an end-plate
The generation and propagation of an action
potential (EPP).
potential along the sarcolemma and down the
T-tubules is a crucial process for muscle
7. Action Potential Generation
contraction. Here's how it unfolds:
● If the end-plate potential is strong enough to
1. Ion Channels in the Sarcolemma
reach the threshold, it triggers an action
potential that propagates along the
● The sarcolemma of a muscle cell is
sarcolemma and down the T-tubules. This
equipped with voltage-gated ion channels.
electrical signal initiates the subsequent
These channels are typically closed when
steps of muscle contraction.
the cell is polarized, meaning the inside of
the cell is negatively charged compared to
Summary the outside.

The initiation of skeletal muscle contraction 2. Depolarization and Sodium Channels

involves a series of events starting with the arrival
of an action potential at the NMJ. The release of ● When the muscle cell receives an electrical
ACh, its binding to receptors on the motor end signal (via ACh binding), voltage-gated
plate, and the resulting influx of Na⁺ ions lead to
 sodium channels open in response to 5. Repolarization of the Membrane
depolarization.
● This allows sodium ions (Na⁺) to enter the ● The outflow of K⁺ ions leads to the
muscle fiber, leading to further repolarization of the membrane, restoring
depolarization of the membrane. the negative membrane potential (the inside
of the cell becomes more negative
3. Propagation of Action Potential compared to the outside).

● The influx of Na⁺ causes adjacent areas of 6. Quick Breakdown of Acetylcholine

the membrane to also depolarize, resulting
in the rapid propagation of the action ● As the action potential travels, the ACh in
potential along the entire membrane, the synaptic cleft is rapidly degraded by the
including down each T-tubule. This rapid enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
firing is critical for ensuring that the entire This breakdown reduces the amount of ACh
muscle fiber contracts in unison. available to bind to receptors on the muscle
cell.
4. Opening of Potassium Channels
7. Return to Resting State
● Shortly after the sodium channels open,
voltage-gated potassium channels open. ● As ACh levels decrease and K⁺ ions leave
However, these channels are slower to the cell, the membrane returns to its resting
respond than the sodium channels. state, characterized by a membrane
● When potassium channels open, potential of approximately -90 mV. This
potassium ions (K⁺) move out of the cell re-establishes the polarized state necessary
because their concentration is higher inside for the muscle cell to be ready for the next
the cell than outside. action potential.
11.3e Events at the Sarcomere

the signal closer to the sarcoplasmic

Excitation-Contraction Coupling: reticulum (SR), which stores calcium ions
Linking Electrical and Mechanical (Ca²⁺).
Events in Muscle Contraction ● The T-tubules are strategically located near
the SR, forming a structure called a triad (a
Excitation-contraction coupling is the T-tubule flanked by two portions of the SR).
physiological process that connects the electrical This proximity allows for efficient
excitation of a muscle cell to the mechanical communication between the action potential
contraction of its sarcomeres. Here's how the in the sarcolemma and the release of Ca²⁺
process works: from the SR.

1. Action Potential Travels Along the 3. Release of Calcium Ions (Ca²⁺) from the SR
Sarcolemma
● When the action potential reaches the triad
● After the initial action potential is region, it triggers the SR to release Ca²⁺ into
generated at the neuromuscular junction the sarcoplasm (the cytoplasm of the
(NMJ) due to acetylcholine (ACh) binding, muscle cell).
the action potential travels like a wave along
the sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane) 4. Calcium Binding to Troponin
and into the T-tubules.
● The released Ca²⁺ ions bind to troponin, a
2. T-Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) component of the troponin-tropomyosin
Interaction complex in the thin filament.

● T-tubules are invaginations of the 5. Exposure of Myosin-Binding Sites

sarcolemma that allow the action potential
to travel deep into the muscle cell, bringing
 ● When Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, it induces a calcium and ATP are present, with muscle
conformational (shape) change in the relaxation occurring when calcium is
troponin-tropomyosin complex. This change re-sequestered in the SR.
causes tropomyosin to shift away from the
myosin-binding sites on actin.
● This exposure of the myosin-binding sites
allows myosin heads to attach to actin,
forming cross-bridges.

6. Cross-Bridge Cycling and Contraction

● With the myosin-binding sites now

accessible, the myosin heads bind to actin
and perform a "power stroke," pulling the
thin filaments toward the center of the
sarcomere. This movement shortens the
sarcomere, leading to muscle contraction.
● ATP is required to detach the myosin heads 11.3f ATP and Muscle Contraction
from actin, re-cock the myosin heads, and
continue the cross-bridge cycling. As long
as ATP and Ca²⁺ are available in the
sarcoplasm, the muscle will continue to
contract.

7. Sustained Contraction and Relaxation

● The contraction will continue as long as

there is a supply of ATP and Ca²⁺ to sustain
the cross-bridge cycling.
● When the action potential ends, Ca²⁺ is
pumped back into the SR through active
transport (requiring ATP), reducing the Ca²⁺
concentration in the sarcoplasm.
● As Ca²⁺ levels drop, the
troponin-tropomyosin complex returns to
its original position, covering the ATP plays multiple crucial roles in both muscle
myosin-binding sites on actin, which leads contraction and relaxation, which is why muscle
to the cessation of cross-bridge formation, cells require so much energy:
and the muscle relaxes.
1. Energy for Cross-Bridge Cycling:
Summary
● Cross-Bridge Formation: Myosin heads
Excitation-contraction coupling is the process that bind to actin filaments, forming
links the electrical signal (action potential) traveling cross-bridges. ATP is needed to power this
along the sarcolemma to the mechanical process.
contraction of the sarcomere. The release of ● Power Stroke: When myosin binds to actin,
calcium ions from the SR, triggered by the action it undergoes a conformational change,
potential, allows myosin and actin to interact, pulling the actin filament toward the center
resulting in cross-bridge formation and muscle of the sarcomere, resulting in muscle
contraction. The process continues as long as contraction.
 ● Detachment: After the power stroke, ATP The process of skeletal muscle relaxation follows
binds to myosin, causing it to release from these key steps, which reverse the contraction
actin. This step is crucial for repeating the process and allow the muscle to return to its resting
cycle. state:
● Re-cocking: ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP
and Pi, providing the energy needed for the 1. Cessation of Acetylcholine (ACh)
myosin head to return to its "cocked" Release:
(high-energy) position, ready to bind actin ○ When the motor neuron stops
again and initiate another power stroke. sending electrical impulses, it stops
releasing acetylcholine (ACh) into
2. Role in Muscle Relaxation: the synaptic cleft of the
neuromuscular junction (NMJ).
● Calcium Ion Removal: After contraction, 2. Breakdown of Remaining ACh:
ATP is required to pump Ca²⁺ ions back into ○ Any remaining ACh in the synapse is
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via rapidly broken down by the enzyme
ATP-powered pumps. This removal of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This
calcium is necessary to stop the interaction ensures that ACh no longer binds to
between actin and myosin, allowing muscle receptors on the muscle cell
fibers to relax. membrane (sarcolemma).
● Preventing Prolonged Contraction: 3. Closure of ACh Receptor Channels:
Without ATP, myosin cannot detach from ○ Once ACh is no longer binding to its
actin, leading to a state of continuous receptors, the ion channels in the
contraction. This is what causes rigor receptor proteins close. This stops
mortis after death when ATP production the influx of sodium ions (Na⁺), which
ceases. were responsible for the
depolarization of the muscle fiber.
3. Energy Consumption in Muscles: 4. Repolarization of the Muscle Fiber:
○ The muscle fiber's membrane
● Since each muscle cell contains millions of repolarizes, meaning it returns to its
sarcomeres, and each sarcomere requires original negative charge inside the
ATP for every cycle of contraction and cell. This electrical reset is
relaxation, the total ATP demand across all necessary for the muscle to relax
muscles is enormous. The constant need and be ready for future contractions.
for ATP in these processes explains why 5. Closure of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
muscle cells are a primary consumer of Calcium Channels:
calories and why efficient ATP production is ○ As the membrane repolarizes, the
critical for maintaining muscle function. calcium (Ca²⁺) release channels in
the SR close. This prevents further
In summary, ATP is essential not just for the active release of Ca²⁺ into the muscle cell
contraction phase (cross-bridge cycling) but also for cytoplasm (sarcoplasm).
ensuring proper muscle relaxation and resetting the 6. Calcium Reabsorption into the SR:
system for subsequent contractions. Without ○ ATP-powered calcium pumps
sufficient ATP, both processes would be disrupted, actively transport Ca²⁺ ions from the
leading to muscle fatigue, cramping, or in extreme sarcoplasm back into the SR. This
cases, conditions like rigor mortis. reduces the concentration of Ca²⁺ in
the cytoplasm, which is essential for
stopping contraction.
11.3g Skeletal Muscle Cell Relaxation 7. Re-blocking of Actin Binding Sites:
 ○As the Ca²⁺ levels drop, troponin is ● Creatine phosphate (CP) acts as a quick
no longer bound to Ca²⁺. Without energy reserve, rapidly transferring a
Ca²⁺, the troponin-tropomyosin phosphate group to ADP to form ATP.
complex slides back into its original ● This system supports the first few seconds
position, covering the binding sites of muscle contraction, providing energy for
on actin. This prevents myosin from about 15 seconds.
forming cross-bridges with actin. ● It's useful for short bursts of intense activity
8. Muscle Fiber Relaxation: like sprinting or heavy lifting.
○ Without cross-bridges between the
thick and thin filaments, the muscle 2. Glycolysis (Short-Term Energy
fiber can no longer generate tension, Source)
and it relaxes. The muscle returns to
its resting state, ready for the next ● Once creatine phosphate is depleted,
signal from the motor neuron. muscles rely on glycolysis, an anaerobic
process that breaks down glucose to
This process illustrates how muscle relaxation is produce 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
an active process that requires energy, specifically ● Glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, but it
ATP, to pump calcium back into the SR and produces less ATP compared to aerobic
facilitate the return to the muscle's resting state. processes.
● During intense activity, pyruvate, the
product of glycolysis, is converted to lactic
acid when oxygen supply is insufficient.
This can sustain activity for about one
minute but leads to the buildup of lactic
acid, contributing to fatigue.

3. Aerobic Respiration (Long-Term

Energy Source)

● If oxygen is available, pyruvate and other

nutrients are further broken down in aerobic
respiration inside the mitochondria. This
process produces up to 36 ATP per
glucose.
● Although it’s slower than glycolysis, aerobic
respiration is more efficient and can
support prolonged muscle activity for hours
as long as oxygen is supplied.
11.4 Skeletal Muscle Metabolism ● Aerobic respiration also generates heat,
contributing to body temperature regulation,
11.4a Sources of ATP as seen during exercise or shivering in cold
conditions.

Muscle cells generate ATP using three main ATP Demand and Muscle Fatigue
mechanisms, each suited to different durations and
intensities of muscle activity: ● Muscle contraction is dependent on a
continuous supply of ATP. When ATP levels
1. Creatine Phosphate System drop, muscles enter a state of fatigue.
(Immediate Energy Source)
 ● Several factors contribute to muscle fatigue, aerobic respiration and
including: glycolysis.
○ ATP depletion, especially during ■ FO fibers generate more
brief, intense muscle activity. force than SO fibers but
○ Lactic acid buildup from glycolysis, fatigue more slowly than FG
which lowers the pH and disrupts fibers, making them ideal for
enzyme activity. activities like walking.
○ Ion imbalances, particularly of Na⁺
and K⁺, which affect the action Adaptations to Exercise
potentials and Ca²⁺ release needed
for muscle contraction. ● Muscle cells adapt to increased demands
by increasing their stores of myoglobin (for
Muscle Fiber Types oxygen storage) and glycogen (for
glucose).
● Muscle fibers come in three types, each ● Regular exercise also improves oxygen
with different speeds of contraction and ATP delivery through changes in the circulatory
production mechanisms: system and enhances the efficiency of
1. Slow Oxidative (SO) Fibers: aerobic respiration.
■ Slow contraction speed and ● After intense exercise, oxygen is required to
use aerobic respiration for replenish myoglobin stores, explaining why
ATP production. breathing remains elevated even after
■ These fibers are rich in activity ceases.
mitochondria and
myoglobin (which stores By using these mechanisms, muscle cells are
oxygen), giving them a red equipped to handle activities ranging from short,
color. explosive movements to prolonged,
■ They resist fatigue and are endurance-based actions.
used in endurance
activities like maintaining 11. 5 Whole Muscle Contraction
posture.
To move a load, such as lifting an object, the
2. Fast Glycolytic (FG) Fibers:
sarcomeres in skeletal muscle fibers must shorten,
■ Fast contraction speed,
generating muscle tension. The relationship
relying on glycolysis for
between muscle tension and the load it acts upon
ATP.
determines whether the muscle contraction moves
■ They fatigue quickly but
the load or not.
generate powerful, short
bursts of force. They store
large amounts of glycogen
Types of Muscle Contractions:
for quick energy.
1. Isotonic Contractions:
■ FG fibers have fewer
○ In isotonic contractions, muscle
mitochondria and no
tension moves the load, leading to a
myoglobin, making them
change in muscle length. There are
pale in color.
two types:
3. Fast Oxidative (FO) Fibers:
2. a. Concentric Contraction:
■ Combine characteristics of
○ The muscle shortens as it
both SO and FG fibers, with
generates enough tension to move
a moderate contraction
the load.
speed and reliance on both
○ Example: Lifting a hand weight
upwards with the biceps brachii
 contracting. As the muscle shortens,
the elbow joint angle decreases,
bringing the forearm closer to the
body.
3. b. Eccentric Contraction:
○ The muscle lengthens while
maintaining tension as it lowers a
load in a controlled manner.
○ Example: Slowly lowering the same
hand weight. The elbow joint angle
increases as the muscle lengthens,
but tension remains present to
control the descent.
4. Isometric Contractions:
○ In an isometric contraction, the
muscle generates tension without 11.5a The Length-Tension Range of a Sacromere
changing the joint angle or moving
the load. 1. Cross-Bridge Formation:
○ Example: Holding a suitcase with a ○ Myosin heads attach to actin to form
straight arm or maintaining a plank cross-bridges, leading to sarcomere
position. While muscle tension shortening and muscle tension.
increases, no shortening or ○ Cross-bridges only form where thin
lengthening of the muscle occurs (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments
because the tension cannot overlap.
overcome the load. 2. Length-Tension Relationship:
○ Isometric contractions are vital for ○ Optimal length: Maximum overlap
posture maintenance and joint between actin and myosin filaments,
stability. They keep the body producing the most tension.
steady, such as holding your head ○ Overstretched sarcomere: Little
upright. overlap, few cross-bridges, reduced
tension.
Coordination of Contractions: ○ Over-contracted sarcomere:
Limited space for contraction,
● In everyday movements, isotonic and minimal tension increase.
isometric contractions often work together. 3. Tension Generation:
For example, when lifting an object (isotonic ○ Sarcomere length directly affects the
concentric contraction), holding it steady for muscle's ability to generate force.
a while (isometric contraction), and then ○ Optimal overlap is essential for
lowering it back down (isotonic eccentric maximum muscle tension during
contraction), all types of contractions are contraction.
employed sequentially to achieve controlled
movement and stability. This balance between filament overlap and
sarcomere length is crucial for effective muscle
contraction.
11.5b Sustained Muscle Contraction ○Series of action potentials increases
muscle tension by continuous Ca²⁺
release.
○ Results in sustained contraction.
3. Tetanus:
○ High-frequency action potentials
lead to continuous muscle
contraction.
○ Ca²⁺ concentration remains high,
allowing maximal cross-bridge
formation.
○ Contraction continues until muscle
fatigues.

The nervous system controls both duration and

intensity of muscle contraction by adjusting action
potential frequency and motor neuron recruitment.

11.5c Muscle Tone

Muscle Tone and Neural Control of

Skeletal Muscles

1. Muscle Tone:
○ A baseline level of contraction in
skeletal muscles, even at rest.
○ Provides tension that stabilizes joints
and maintains posture.
Muscle Contraction: Key Phases and ○ Achieved through a complex
Concepts interplay between the nervous
system and skeletal muscles.
1. Twitch: ○ Involves the activation of small
○ A single contraction in response to a groups of muscles, allowing for
single action potential. rotation to prevent fatigue and
○ Lasts a few milliseconds to 100 enable recovery.
milliseconds. 2. Nervous System Control:
○ Phases: ○ Regulates various muscle activities,
1. Latent Period: Action including:
potential propagation, Ca²⁺ ■ Concentric Contraction:
release from SR, but no Muscle shortens to move a
contraction yet. load.
2. Contraction Phase: Ca²⁺ ■ Eccentric Contraction:
binds to troponin, Muscle lengthens while
cross-bridges form, generating tension.
sarcomeres shorten. ■ Isometric Contraction:
3. Relaxation Phase: Ca²⁺ Muscle generates tension
pumped back into SR, without changing length.
cross-bridge cycling stops, ○ Controls muscle fiber recruitment
muscle relaxes. and adjustments to muscle tone.
2. Summation:
 3. Motor Units: ○As more strength is required,
○ Fundamental units of muscle control, additional motor units are recruited,
consisting of a motor neuron and the resulting in stronger contractions.
muscle fibers it innervates. ○ This process allows for varying
○ Play a crucial role in the fine-tuning degrees of force, enabling delicate
of muscle contractions and tone, actions (like picking up a feather) or
allowing for coordinated and precise heavy lifting through progressive
movements. motor unit recruitment.
4. Composition of Motor Units:
Understanding muscle tone and its regulation by ○ Each motor unit consists of a single
the nervous system is essential for grasping how muscle fiber type, which allows the
skeletal muscles function in maintaining posture nervous system to selectively recruit
and facilitating movement. different types of muscle fibers
based on the task.
11.5d Motor Units ○ Muscle fibers can be classified into
different types (e.g., slow oxidative,
Motor Units and Skeletal Muscle Control fast oxidative, fast glycolytic),
affecting the contraction
1. Motor Neurons and Muscle Cells:
characteristics and energy sources.
○ Each skeletal muscle cell is
innervated by one motor neuron at Understanding the structure and function of motor
a neuromuscular junction (NMJ). units is crucial for comprehending how muscles are
○ A single motor neuron can innervate controlled and how they generate force during
multiple muscle cells, with its axon different activities.
branching to form NMJs with
different muscle fibers.
2. Motor Unit:
○ Defined as a group of muscle fibers
innervated by a single motor neuron.
○ All muscle fibers in a motor unit
contract simultaneously in response
to an action potential from the motor
neuron.
○ The size of a motor unit varies
depending on the muscle's function:
■ Fine Motor Control:
Muscles, like those in the
fingers and face, have many
small motor units for precise
movements.
■ Gross Motor Control:
Larger muscles, such as
those in the thighs and back,
have fewer, larger motor
units for powerful
contractions.
3. Recruitment of Motor Units:
○ When lifting a load, muscle
contractions start with isometric
contractions (no movement).
Exercise and Muscle Performance: ■ Improves aerobic efficiency
and muscle endurance.
Effects of Physical Training on Skeletal ○ Resistance Training:
Muscles ■ Enhances muscle mass and
strength through myofibril
1. Muscle Adaptation: hypertrophy.
○ Hypertrophy: Regular exercise ■ Increases connective tissue
increases the size of existing muscle and tendon strength,
cells (myofibrils) rather than forming improving overall muscle
new muscle cells (skeletal muscle is performance and preventing
nonmitotic). injuries.
○ Atrophy: Lack of use leads to the 4. Comparison of Endurance vs.
loss of structural proteins and Resistance Training:
myofibrils, resulting in decreased ○ Endurance training leads to more
muscle mass. mitochondria and capillaries, while
2. Types of Muscle Fibers: resistance training focuses on
○ Slow Oxidative (SO) Fibers: increasing muscle fiber thickness
■ Primarily used in endurance and connective tissue strength.
activities (e.g., long-distance ○ Both types of training have unique
running). benefits, contributing to different
■ Rely on aerobic metabolism aspects of muscle performance and
for prolonged contractions. appearance.
■ Endurance training increases
mitochondria and myoglobin, 11.6 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
enhancing aerobic capacity
and oxygen utilization. Comparison of Cardiac Muscle and
■ Improved blood supply due Skeletal Muscle
to angiogenesis supports
oxygen and glucose delivery
and waste removal.
○ Fast Glycolytic (FG) Fibers:
■ Used in resistance and
power activities (e.g.,
weightlifting).
■ Generate high force for short
durations with anaerobic
metabolism.
■ Resistance training increases
myofibril production and
thickness of muscle fibers, 1. Location and Function:
resulting in hypertrophy. ○ Cardiac Muscle:
■ Typically, these fibers have a ■ Found only in the heart.
higher ratio in muscles ■ Functions to pump blood
focused on power. effectively through
3. Training Outcomes: coordinated contractions.
○ Endurance Training: ○ Skeletal Muscle:
■ Increases mitochondria, ■ Attached to bones, enabling
capillary density, and voluntary movement of the
myoglobin content. skeleton.
2. Structure: ■ Contractions are voluntary
○ Cardiac Muscle: and controlled by the
■ Striated and organized into nervous system, with each
sarcomeres, similar to muscle cell innervated by a
skeletal muscle. motor neuron at a NMJ.
■ Fibers are shorter and ■ Action potentials are
branched, with a single generated through neural
nucleus located centrally. stimulation.
■ Contains many mitochondria 4. Regeneration:
and myoglobin for aerobic ○ Cardiac Muscle:
metabolism. ■ Largely nonmitotic, meaning
■ Connected by intercalated it has limited ability to
discs, which include: regenerate after injury (e.g.,
■ Desmosomes: heart attack).
Provide structural ○ Skeletal Muscle:
integrity by holding ■ Some regenerative capacity
cells together. due to satellite cells that can
■ Gap Junctions: differentiate into muscle
Allow direct electrical fibers after injury.
communication 5. Response to Environment:
between cells, ○ Cardiac muscle can contract in vitro
facilitating (in a lab setting) under the right
coordinated conditions, showcasing its inherent
contractions. rhythmicity and autonomy.
○ Skeletal Muscle:
■ Long, cylindrical fibers that
can be multinucleated.
■ Fibers contract
asynchronously in separate
motor units.
3. Control of Contraction:
○ Cardiac Muscle:
■ Contractions (heartbeats) are
initiated by specialized
pacemaker cells that
generate action potentials
independently of the nervous
system.
■ Pacemaker cells can
respond to autonomic
nervous system signals and
hormones to adjust heart
rate.
■ Does not require a
neuromuscular junction
(NMJ) for each cell due to
gap junctions.
○ Skeletal Muscle:
11.7 Smooth Muscle ● It consists of thin and thick filaments
arranged in a non-linear manner, leading to
no distinct banding patterns.
● Smooth muscle fibers are spindle-shaped
(like an American football), contain a single
nucleus, and are much shorter than skeletal
muscle fibers.
● Filaments are anchored to structures called
dense bodies, analogous to the Z discs in
skeletal and cardiac muscle, providing
structural support and anchorage for
contraction.

Location:

● Found in the walls of hollow organs (e.g.,

urinary bladder, uterus, stomach, intestines)
and in the walls of blood vessels, airways,
and other passageways.

Calcium Handling and Contraction Mechanism:

● Calcium ions are crucial for contraction;

they are stored in the sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR) and also enter the cell from
the extracellular fluid.
● Smooth muscle lacks T-tubules, but its
membrane features caveolae (small
pockets).
● Unlike skeletal muscle, which uses troponin
for regulating cross-bridge formation,
smooth muscle relies on calmodulin.
● When calcium ions bind to calmodulin, they
activate myosin kinase, enabling myosin
heads to interact with actin.
● Contraction occurs as the muscle fibers pull
toward the center, resulting in a corkscrew
motion.

Contraction and Muscle Tone:

● Smooth muscle can sustain contraction with

low energy expenditure, maintaining muscle
Overview of Smooth Muscle tone due to a constant low concentration of
calcium in the cytoplasm.
Definition and Structure:
● This tone is critical for maintaining functions
● Smooth muscle is characterized by the like blood pressure. A decrease in tone can
absence of striations, which differentiates it lead to significant drops in blood pressure
from cardiac and skeletal muscle. and fainting.
Control and Regulation: Smooth muscle is crucial for various involuntary
functions throughout the body. Its unique structure
● Smooth muscle is involuntary and not under and mechanism of contraction, governed by
conscious control. Contraction is triggered calcium handling and calmodulin, allow for
by: sustained, low-energy contractions essential for
○ Hormones (e.g., oxytocin for uterine processes like digestion, circulation, and
contractions) maintaining organ shape. Understanding its
○ Neural stimulation (from the properties and functions is vital for comprehending
autonomic nervous system) the roles of smooth muscle in health and disease.
○ Local factors (e.g., stretch response
in visceral organs).

Neuronal Interactions:

● Unlike the structured neuromuscular

junctions (NMJs) of skeletal muscle, smooth
muscle fibers interact with neurons through
varicosities—bulges along the axon that
release neurotransmitters directly into the
tissue.
● Some smooth muscle cells contain
pacemaker cells that can initiate
spontaneous contractions similar to cardiac
muscle.

Types of Smooth Muscle:

1. Single-Unit Smooth Muscle:

○ Most common type; fibers are
electrically coupled via gap
junctions.
○ Contracts as a single unit
(synchronous contraction).
○ Found in the walls of visceral organs
(e.g., stomach, intestines) and
exhibits a stress-relaxation
response, allowing for filling without
immediate expulsion.
2. Multiunit Smooth Muscle:
○ Lacks gap junctions; contraction is
confined to the stimulated cell.
○ Found in large blood vessels,
respiratory airways, and the iris of
the eye.
○ Allows for fine control over
contractions, as each cell can be
independently stimulated.

Summary
 ○ Muscles that assist the prime mover
in performing the movement.
○ In elbow flexion, the brachioradialis
Chapter 12: The Muscular System and brachialis are synergists that
help flex the elbow.
3. Fixators:
12.1 Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their ○ Muscles that stabilize the origin of
Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems the prime mover, allowing for
efficient movement.
12.1a Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
○ Some synergists can act as fixators
if they help stabilize the insertion
Overview of Skeletal Muscle Function point.
and Movement 4. Antagonists:
○ Muscles that oppose the action of
Muscle Attachment and Movement:
the prime mover.
○ For elbow flexion, the triceps
● Skeletal muscles attach to bones via
brachii serves as the antagonist. It
tendons that connect to the periosteum, the
produces the opposite action (elbow
outer covering of bones.
extension).
● Each muscle has two points of attachment:
○ The roles reverse during elbow
○ Origin: The fixed, immovable end of
extension, where the triceps brachii
the muscle, usually closer to the
is the agonist and the biceps brachii
body (proximal).
is the antagonist.
○ Insertion: The movable end of the
muscle, where it pulls on the bone
(distal). Functions of Antagonists

Example: Biceps Brachii ● Stabilization: Antagonists help maintain

body posture and limb position (e.g.,
● Attachments: The biceps brachii is stabilizing the arm while holding it out).
attached at the shoulder (origin) and the ● Resistance: They provide resistance to
radius of the forearm (insertion). movements, ensuring actions like flexion
● Action: and extension are controlled and fluid.
○ When the biceps brachii contracts, it
flexes the elbow joint, allowing the Special Cases of Skeletal Muscles
forearm to move upward.
○ No noticeable movement occurs at ● Facial Muscles:
the shoulder during this contraction ○ Unlike most skeletal muscles, facial
because the shoulder acts as the muscles attach to the skin, allowing
muscle's origin. expressions (smiling, frowning)
without pulling on the skeleton.
Muscle Roles in Movement ● Tongue and Sphincters:
○ Muscles in the tongue control
1. Prime Mover (Agonist): speech and swallowing.
○ The primary muscle responsible for ○ External urinary and anal sphincters
a specific movement. allow for voluntary control of
○ For elbow flexion, the biceps urination and defecation.
brachii acts as the prime mover ● Diaphragm:
(agonist). ○ The diaphragm regulates breathing
2. Synergists: by changing the volume of the
 thoracic cavity without moving the 3. Epimysium:
skeleton. ○ Encases the entire muscle, providing
overall structure and protection.
○ Blends with the tendon, which
connects the muscle to bone.

Fascicle Arrangements

The arrangement of fascicles within a muscle

significantly affects its force production and range
of motion. Here are the primary fascicle
arrangements:

1. Parallel Muscles

● Description: Fascicles are arranged in the

same direction as the long axis of the
muscle.
● Appearance: Can resemble straps or be
wider in the center (belly), tapering towards
the ends (fusiform).
● Function: When contracted, they shorten,
creating a bulge.
● Example: Sartorius muscle.

2. Circular Muscles (Sphincters)

● Description: Fibers are arranged in a

circular pattern.
● Function: Open or close passageways;
when relaxed, the opening enlarges; when
12.1b Patterns of Fascicle Organization contracted, it constricts.
● Example: Orbicularis oris (around the
Skeletal muscles are organized into a hierarchical mouth) and external urethral sphincter
structure that facilitates their function. Each level of (controls urination).
connective tissue plays a crucial role in supporting
and organizing muscle fibers. 3. Pennate Muscles

Connective Tissue Layers ● Description: Fascicles are arranged at an

angle to the tendon, resembling feathers.
1. Endomysium: ● Function: Tend to be stronger due to the
○ Encloses individual muscle fibers angle of the fibers but produce less motion.
(cells). ● Types:
○ Provides support and electrical ○ Unipennate: Fascicles on one side
insulation. of the tendon (e.g., extensor
2. Perimysium: digitorum).
○ Surrounds groups of muscle fibers, ○ Bipennate: Fascicles on both sides
forming fascicles. of the tendon (e.g., rectus femoris).
○ Contains blood vessels and nerves
that supply the muscle fibers.
 ○ Multipennate: Fascicles branch out characteristics that are observable in dissections
within the muscle, resembling and in living bodies. Understanding these roots can
multiple feathers (e.g., deltoid). aid in recognizing and recalling muscle names,
even for those that are less familiar.
4. Convergent Muscles
Key Characteristics Used in Muscle Naming
● Description: Widespread origin converging
to a single, narrow insertion point. 1. Muscle Shape:
● Function: Allows for versatile movement ○ Muscles may be named for their
and force generation. shape or appearance.
● Example: Pectoralis major, which ○ Examples:
converges on the greater tubercle of the ■ Rhomboid: Resembles a
humerus. rhombus.
■ Deltoid: Triangular,
resembling the Greek letter
delta (Δ).
2. Muscle Size:
○ Muscles can be named based on
their size relative to other muscles in
the area.
○ Examples:
■ Gluteus Maximus: Largest
of the gluteal muscles.
■ Gluteus Medius:
Medium-sized.
■ Gluteus Minimus: Smallest.
3. Location:
○ Muscles are often named for their
location in the body.
○ Examples:
■ Biceps Brachii: Located in
the brachial (arm) region.
■ Lateralis: Describes a
muscle positioned laterally.
■ Medialis: Describes a
muscle positioned medially.
4. Orientation of Fibers:
○ The arrangement of muscle fibers
can also define the name of the
muscle.
○ Examples:
■ Rectus Abdominis: Fibers
12.2 Naming Skeletal Muscles run straight (rectus).
■ Oblique Muscles: Fibers run
Anatomy of Muscle at an angle (oblique).
Names 5. Number of Origins:
○ The number of attachment points
The naming of skeletal muscles (origins) can differentiate muscles.
is often based on Latin and ○ Examples:
Greek root words, reflecting
 ■ Biceps Brachii: Two origins ○ Examples:
(bi-). ■ Sternocleidomastoid:
■ Triceps Brachii: Three Originates from the sternum
origins (tri-). (sterno-) and clavicle
6. Action: (cleido), and inserts on the
○ Some muscles are named based on mastoid process.
their primary action. 8. Grouping:
○ Examples: ○ Some muscles are named for their
■ Adductor Muscles: grouping or collective function.
Responsible for adduction ○ Examples:
(bringing the leg back toward ■ Quadriceps: A group of four
the midline). muscles in the anterior thigh.
■ Flexor Muscles: Typically ■ Hamstrings: A group of
cause flexion at a joint. muscles in the posterior
7. Attachment Location: thigh.
○ Muscles can be named based on
their points of attachment.
 ○ Location: Circular muscle around
the eyes.
○ Function: Closes the eyelids,
involved in actions like blinking or
squinting.
● Occipitofrontalis:
○ Location: Covers both the frontal
(forehead) and occipital (back of the
head) regions of the skull.
○ Function: Raises the eyebrows and
12.3 Axial Muscles wrinkles the forehead (e.g., when
you express surprise).
Some axial muscles may seem to blur the ○ Structure:
boundaries because they cross over the ■ Frontal Belly: Raises the
appendicular skeleton. eyebrows.
■ Occipital Belly: Pulls the
12.3a Muscles of Facial Expression scalp backward.
■ Epicranial Aponeurosis: A
broad tendon connecting the
frontal and occipital bellies,
stretching across the top of
the head.
● Buccinator:
○ Location: Makes up most of the
cheek.
○ Function: Compresses the cheeks,
allowing you to blow, whistle, suck,
and contributes to chewing by
holding the cheek against the teeth.
● Zygomaticus Major and Zygomaticus
Minor:
Most skeletal muscles in the body originate and attach to ○ Location: These muscles extend
bones. However, muscles of facial expression are from the zygomatic bone
unique because they originate from the bones of the (cheekbone) to the corners of the
skull but insert into the skin of the face. This special
mouth.
characteristic allows these muscles, when they contract,
○ Function: Responsible for lifting the
to move the skin, thus creating various facial
expressions. corners of the mouth to form a smile.
○ Special Note: In a genuine smile,
Key Muscles of Facial Expression these muscles often work together
Two circular muscles are found in the face, both named with the orbicularis oculi (which
orbicularis due to their shape. causes the eyes to crinkle).
● Platysma:
● Orbicularis Oris: ○ Location: A superficial muscle that
○ Location: Surrounds the mouth. covers the front of the neck.
○ Function: Closes and puckers the ○ Function: Tenses the skin of the
lips, such as when you are whistling neck and pulls down the corners of
or kissing. the mouth, used in expressions of
● Orbicularis Oculi: disgust (e.g., when you say
"Ewww").
12.3b Muscles that move the eyes

The movement of the eyeball is controlled by a

group of extrinsic eye muscles, which are
responsible for the precise movements of the eyes.
These muscles are called extrinsic because they
originate outside the eyeball and insert onto the
outer surface of the white part of the eye (the
sclera). Although these muscles are vital for eye
movement, they are located within the eye socket
and are not visible on the outer part of the eyeball.

Key Points:

● The extrinsic eye muscles allow us to

perform a variety of eye movements,
including rolling the eyes in a full circle.
● Due to the importance of vision in human
perception, nearly 40 percent of the
brain's mass is dedicated to processing
visual information, which correlates with the
high level of control we have over the
movement of our eyes.
12.3c Muscles that Move the Lower Jaw ● Pterygoid muscles: Located deep in the
skull and not visible externally, these
muscles are synergists for opening and
closing the mouth. They also perform the
side-to-side movements of the jaw that
help grind food.

12.3d Muscles that Move the Tongue

Chewing, or mastication, involves several muscles

that work together to generate the necessary force
for biting and chewing food. These muscles must
exert significant pressure to break down food
before swallowing (Figure 12.9 and Table 12.5).

Key Muscles Involved in Mastication:

● Masseter muscle: The primary muscle for

chewing, the masseter elevates the
mandible (lower jaw) to close the mouth. The tongue plays a crucial role in mastication,
This powerful muscle is essential for swallowing, and speech due to its mobility and
generating the force needed to bite and flexibility, enabling complex movements such as
chew. curling and flattening.
● Temporalis muscle: This muscle assists
the masseter by retracting the mandible. Tongue Muscles
You can feel its movement by placing your
fingers on your temple while chewing.
 ● Extrinsic tongue muscles: These muscles the hyoid bone, the floor of the mouth, and
have external origins and insert into the the larynx during swallowing.
tongue, allowing movement in different ○ Digastric: Has two bellies (anterior
directions. They all include the root word and posterior) that elevate the hyoid
"glossus" (Greek for tongue), and their bone and larynx during swallowing.
names indicate their origins: ○ Stylohyoid: Moves the hyoid bone
○ Genioglossus: Originates from the posteriorly, elevating the larynx.
mandible (chin) and moves the ○ Mylohyoid: Lifts the hyoid bone and
tongue downward and forward. helps press the tongue against the
○ Styloglossus: Originates from the roof of the mouth.
styloid bone and moves the tongue ○ Geniohyoid: Depresses the
upward and backward. mandible while raising and pulling
○ Palatoglossus: Originates from the the hyoid bone anteriorly.
soft palate and elevates the back of ● Infrahyoid muscles: Located inferior to the
the tongue. hyoid bone and responsible for depressing
○ Hyoglossus: Originates from the the hyoid bone and controlling the position
hyoid bone and flattens and of the larynx.
depresses the tongue. ○ Omohyoid: Has two bellies
(superior and inferior) that depress
Muscles of the Anterior Neck the hyoid bone.
○ Sternohyoid and Thyrohyoid:
The muscles of the anterior neck assist in Work together to depress the hyoid
deglutition (swallowing) and speech and are bone, with the thyrohyoid also
categorized based on their position relative to the elevating the thyroid cartilage of the
hyoid bone: larynx.
○ Sternothyroid: Depresses the
● Suprahyoid muscles: Located superior to thyroid cartilage, helping create
the hyoid bone and responsible for elevating different tones of voice.

12.3e Muscle that move the head ● Neck muscles are responsible for
balancing, moving, and rotating the
1. Overview of Neck Muscles: head.
 ● Most neck muscles are paired, meaning 12.3f Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back
there’s one on each side of the neck.
● When only one side contracts, it causes Reviewer: Muscles of the Posterior Neck
lateral flexion (tilting the head to one side). and Back
● When both sides contract simultaneously,
they result in anterior flexion (moving the 1. Overview of Posterior Neck and Back
head forward) or posterior extension Muscles:
(moving the head backward).
● The posterior neck muscles primarily
2. Key Muscles Involved: move the head (extension, lateral flexion,
rotation).
● Sternocleidomastoid (SCM): ● Back muscles are crucial for stabilizing and
○ Function: moving the vertebral column, controlling
■ Prime mover for head posture, and maintaining the lumbar curve.
movements. ○ e grouped according to the lengths
■ Lateral flexion: Tilts the and direction of the fascicles
head to the same side.
■ Rotation: Rotates the head 2. Key Muscles of the Posterior Neck:
to the opposite side.
■ Flexion: When both SCMs ● Splenius Muscles:
contract together, they bring
the head forward (anterior responsible for: head extension, lateral flexion,
flexion). and rotation.
○ Origin: Sternum and clavicle.
○ Insertion: Mastoid process of the ○ Splenius Capitis: Inserts onto the
temporal bone. head
○ Palpation: You can feel the SCM ○ Splenius Cervicis: Extends onto
contract when you turn your head the cervical region, assists in neck
side to side or tilt it. movements.
● Scalenes: ○ Action: These muscles originate at
○ Function: the midline of the neck and back,
■ Synergists to the SCM in running laterally and superiorly
neck flexion and rotation. toward their insertions.
■ Elevates the first and
3. Erector Spinae Group:
second ribs during deep
breathing. ● The erector spinae is the primary
○ Location: Anterior, middle, and extensor of the vertebral column, crucial for
posterior scalenes are located along maintaining posture.
the sides of the neck. ● Composed of three muscle groups (from
lateral to medial):
3. Practical Application:
○ Iliocostalis: Most lateral.
● Lateral flexion: When only one ○ Longissimus: Middle group.
sternocleidomastoid contracts, the head tilts ○ Spinalis: Most medial.
to that side.
Function:
● Rotation: Rotating your head to the left or
right involves the contraction of one SCM on ● Extends the vertebral column.
the opposite side. ● Controls flexion, lateral flexion, and
● Neck flexion: Both SCMs working together rotation of the vertebral column.
pull the head forward (chin towards chest).
 ● Maintains the lumbar curve, supporting ● Located in the lumbar region, this muscle
the lower back. contributes to:
○ Lateral flexion of the spine when
4. Transversospinalis Muscles: one side contracts.
○ Spinal extension when both sides
● These muscles run from the transverse contract, in coordination with the
processes to the spinous processes of erector spinae.
the vertebrae.
● Function: Assist with rotation and
stabilization of the spine.

5. Quadratus Lumborum:
12.3g Muscles of the Abdomen ● They are segmented by transverse collagen
bands, creating the "six-pack" appearance
Muscles of the Anterolateral Abdominal Wall when hypertrophied.
The anterolateral abdominal wall consists of four
groups of muscles: Linea Alba:

1. External obliques (superficial layer): Fibers ● A fibrous band where the rectus sheaths
run diagonally (inferiorly and medially), like from both sides meet at the midline,
sliding your hand into your front pocket. enclosing the rectus abdominis.
2. Internal obliques (middle layer): Fibers run
perpendicularly to the external obliques, Posterior Abdominal Wall:
superiorly and medially.
3. Transversus abdominis (deepest layer): ● Consists of lumbar vertebrae, iliac bones,
Fibers run transversely around the psoas major, iliacus, and quadratus
abdomen, acting like a belt. lumborum muscles, playing a key role in
core stability and posture.
These three layers, with their distinct fiber
orientations, allow trunk movement and protect the
abdominal organs.

Rectus Abdominis:

● Located within the middle layer along with

the internal obliques, these long, linear
"sit-up" muscles run vertically from the pubic
crest and symphysis to the trunk.
 ● During inhalation, it contracts and flattens,
pushing down on abdominal contents,
increasing thoracic volume and causing the
belly to protrude.
12.3h Muscle of the Thorax ● During exhalation, it relaxes back into its
dome shape, reducing thoracic space.
● Abdominal muscles can force air out by
pushing against the diaphragm during
forced exhalation.
● The diaphragm has three openings:
○ Caval opening for the inferior vena
cava.
○ Esophageal hiatus for the
esophagus and nerves.
○ Aortic hiatus for the aorta, thoracic
duct, and azygous vein.

Intercostal Muscles

● Three layers of muscles span the spaces

between the ribs:
1. External intercostals (11 pairs): Aid
in inspiration by raising the ribs,
Muscles of the Chest (Facilitating Breathing) expanding the thorax.
The muscles of the chest primarily serve to change 2. Internal intercostals (11 pairs): Aid
the size of the thoracic cavity during breathing in expiration by drawing the ribs
(Figure 12.16, Figure 12.17, Table 12.10). together, constricting the rib cage.
3. Innermost intercostals: Act as
The Diaphragm
synergists for internal intercostals,
further assisting in expiration.
● A bell/parachute-shaped muscle dividing the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
12.3i Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum

Pelvic Floor
The pelvic floor is a muscular sheet forming the
base of the pelvic cavity. The key structure is the
pelvic diaphragm, spanning from the pubis to the
coccyx. It consists of:

● Levator ani: Made up of two skeletal

muscles, the pubococcygeus and
iliococcygeus, which are crucial for
supporting pelvic viscera. It also resists
abdominal pressure during defecation and
childbirth.
● Ischiococcygeus (Coccygeus): Assists in
pulling the coccyx anteriorly during
defecation and childbirth.
The pelvic diaphragm has openings for the anal ○ Urogenital triangle (anterior):
canal, urethra, and (in women) the vagina. Contains the external genitals.
○ Anal triangle (posterior): Contains
Perineum the anus.

● The perineum is a diamond-shaped space The perineum is further divided into superficial and
below the pelvic diaphragm, divided into two deep layers, with common muscles across genders
triangles: that assist in pelvic functions.

For example, wiggling your thumb uses

intrinsic muscles.
12.4 Appendicular Muscles ● Extrinsic Muscles: Located some distance
from their action (e.g., muscles in the
Muscles of the Shoulder and Upper Limb forearm). When you wrap your hand around
your forearm and wiggle your fingers,
The muscles of the shoulder and upper limb are extrinsic muscles are engaged.
categorized into four functional groups:
12.4a Shoulder Muscles
1. Stabilizing and Positioning Muscles:
Support and maintain the position of the
shoulder joint.
2. Arm Movement Muscles: Facilitate
movement at the shoulder joint.
3. Forearm Movement Muscles: Enable
movement at the elbow joint.
4. Wrist, Hand, and Finger Muscles: Control
fine movements of the wrist and hand.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Muscles:

● Intrinsic Muscles: Located in the same

region as their action (e.g., hand muscles).
 ● Pectoralis Minor: Pulls the scapula forward
(protraction).
● Serratus Anterior: Assists in scapular
protraction and stabilizes the scapula
against the thoracic wall.

Posterior Muscles

● Trapezius: Elevates, retracts, and rotates

the scapula.
● Rhomboid Major: Retracts and elevates
the scapula.
● Rhomboid Minor: Assists in retracting the
scapula.

Muscles stabilizing and moving the shoulder are Functions:

categorized based on their location on the thorax:
● Protraction: Anterior muscles pull the
Anterior Muscles scapula forward.
● Retraction: Posterior muscles pull the
● Subclavius: Stabilizes the clavicle. scapula back and toward the midline.
12.4b Muscles that Move the Humerus that provides significant strength for
arm movements.
The glenohumeral joint, where the humerus 2. Latissimus Dorsi
meets the scapula, has the widest range of motion ○ Shape: Broad, triangular muscle
of any joint in the human body. A large array of located on the inferior part of the
muscles crosses the shoulder joint and facilitates back.
movements of the humerus. ○ Function: Another prime mover of
the humerus; convergent muscle
Major Muscles Involved: contributing strength.
1. Pectoralis Major Both of these muscles are prime movers of the humerus,
○ Shape: Large, fan-shaped muscle and both are convergent muscles, lending a tremendous
covering the superior portion of the amount of strength to arm movements.
anterior thorax.
○ Function: Acts as a prime mover of
the humerus; convergent muscle
The rest of the muscles that move the humerus 7. Teres Major
originate on the scapula: ○ Location: Inferior to the teres minor.
○ Function: Extends the arm; assists
3. Deltoid in adduction and medial rotation.
○ Location: Thick muscle that caps 8. Teres Minor
the lateral shoulder. ○ Function: Laterally rotates and
○ Function: Major abductor of the extends the arm.
arm; also facilitates flexion, medial 9. Coracobrachialis
rotation, extension, and lateral ○ Function: Flexes and adducts the
rotation. arm.
4. Subscapularis
○ Origin: Anterior scapula. Rotator Cuff (aka musculotendinous cuff)
○ Function: Medially rotates the arm.
5. Supraspinatus ● Composition: Formed by the tendons of
○ Location: Superior to the spine of the subscapularis, supraspinatus,
the scapula. infraspinatus, and teres minor.
○ Function: Abducts the arm. ● Function: Provides structure and stability to
6. Infraspinatus the shoulder joint by encircling it, allowing
○ Location: Inferior to the spine of the for a wide range of arm movements while
scapula. maintaining joint integrity.
○ Function: Laterally rotates the arm.

12. 4c Muscles that Move the Forearm ○ Flexors:

■ Biceps Brachii:
The forearm, composed of the radius and ulna, ■ Two-headed muscle
has four main types of actions at the elbow joint: crossing both the
flexion, extension, pronation, and supination. shoulder and elbow
joints.
Actions: ■ Functions: Flexes the
forearm, supinates
1. Flexion and Extension of the Elbow Joint
 the forearm at the Extrinsic Muscles
radioulnar joints, and
flexes the arm at the ● Origin and Connection: The extrinsic
shoulder joint. muscles of the hand and wrist originate on
■ Brachialis: the humerus and connect to the hand via
■ Located deep to the long tendons. Most tendons pass through
biceps brachii. the carpal tunnel, formed by the carpal
■ Function: Provides bones of the wrist, and are sheathed by
additional power for retinacula at the wrist.
flexing the forearm. ○ Flexor Retinaculum: Extends over
■ Brachioradialis: the palmar surface.
■ Functions: Flexes the ○ Extensor Retinaculum: Extends
forearm quickly or over the dorsal surface.
assists in lifting a load
slowly. Actions and Naming
○ Extensors:
● Flexion and Extension:
■ Triceps Brachii:
○ Anterior forearm muscles produce
■ The primary extensor
flexion of the wrist and hand.
of the forearm.
○ Posterior forearm muscles produce
■ Anconeus:
extension.
■ Assists the triceps in
● Muscle Naming: Most forearm muscles
extending the elbow.
have three-part names:
2. Pronation and Supination of the Forearm
○ Action (e.g., flexor, extensor)
○ Pronators:
○ Location (e.g., carpi for wrist,
■ Pronator Teres:
digitorum for fingers)
■ A major pronator of
○ Descriptive Term
the forearm.
■ radial or ulnar side,
■ Pronator Quadratus:
■ superficial (superficialis) or
■ Assists in pronation.
deep (produndus) ,
○ Supinator:
■ longus (longer muscle) or
■ The only prime supinator of
brevis (shorter muscle)
the forearm.
Muscle Arrangement

● Superficial Anterior Muscles (from lateral

to medial):
○ Flexor Carpi Radialis
○ Palmaris Longus
○ Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
○ Flexor Digitorum Superficialis:
Flexes the hand and digits at the
knuckles, allowing rapid finger
movements.
● Deep Anterior Muscles:
○ Flexor Pollicis Longus
○ Flexor Digitorum Profundus
● Superficial Posterior Muscles:
○ Extensor Radialis Longus
12.4d Muscles that Move the Wrist, Hand, and
○ Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
Fingers
 ○ Extensor Digitorum ■ Adductor Pollicis
○ Extensor Digiti Minimi ■ Function: Act on the thumb,
○ Extensor Carpi Ulnaris integral for precise hand
● Deep Posterior Muscles: movements.
○ Abductor Pollicis Longus 2. Hypothenar Muscles (on the
○ Extensor Pollicis Brevis medial side):
○ Extensor Pollicis Longus ■ Abductor Digiti Minimi
○ Extensor Indicis ■ Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis
■ Opponens Digiti Minimi
Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand ■ Function: Act on the little
finger.
● Definition: These muscles both originate 3. Intermediate Muscles:
and insert within the hand and allow for ■ Lumbrical Muscles
precise movements. ■ Palmar Interossei
● Groups: ■ Dorsal Interossei
1. Thenar Muscles (on the ■ Function: act on all the
radial/thumb side): fingers
■ Abductor Pollicis Brevis
■ Opponens Pollicis
■ Flexor Pollicis Brevis
 Gluteal Muscles

● The gluteal muscles are among the largest

and most powerful muscles in the body:
○ Gluteus Maximus: The largest
muscle of the gluteal group, primarily
responsible for hip extension and
lateral rotation.
○ Gluteus Medius: Located deep to
Gluteal Region Muscles that Move the Femur the gluteus maximus; plays a key
role in hip abduction and
Origin and Function stabilization of the pelvis.
○ Gluteus Minimus: The smallest of
● Most muscles that insert on and move the the gluteal muscles, located deep to
femur originate from the pelvis. the gluteus medius; assists in hip
abduction and medial rotation.
Iliopsoas Group

● Psoas Major and Iliacus combine to form

the iliopsoas group, a crucial group for hip
flexion.
 ● Tensor Fasciae Latae: ● Adductor Longus:
○ A thick, squarish muscle located on ○ Flexes the thigh.
the superior aspect of the lateral ○ Can both medially and laterally
thigh. rotate the thigh depending on foot
○ Acts as a synergist to the gluteus placement.
medius and iliopsoas in flexing ● Adductor Brevis:
and abducting the thigh. ○ Similar function to the adductor
○ Positioned at the top of the iliotibial longus; assists in medial and lateral
tract (IT band), a long, flat tendon rotation.
running along the lateral thigh and ● Adductor Magnus:
inserting at the knee. ○ Extends the thigh.
○ Pulling on the iliotibial tract ○ Capable of medial and lateral
contributes to knee stabilization. rotation depending on foot position.
● Muscles Deep to the Gluteus Maximus: ● Pectineus:
○ Piriformis ○ Adducts and flexes the femur at the
○ Obturator Internus hip.
○ Obturator Externus ○ Located in the femoral triangle,
○ Superior Gemellus which also contains:
○ Inferior Gemellus ■ Femoral Nerve
○ Quadratus Femoris ■ Femoral Artery
○ These muscles laterally rotate the ■ Femoral Vein
femur at the hip. ■ Deep Inguinal Lymph
Nodes
Adductor Group
Types of Physical Therapy ● Cast on a Broken Ulna: When a cast is
applied to immobilize a broken ulna, it holds
1. Cardiopulmonary Physical Therapy: the elbow in a flexed position.
○ Focuses on heart and lung ○ Flexor Compartment Muscles:
disorders. ■ Muscle cells and sarcomeres
2. Orthopedic Physical Therapy: in the flexor compartment
○ Addresses skeletal muscle and bone shorten and tighten due to
injuries. prolonged immobilization.
3. Pelvic Floor Physical Therapy: ■ After cast removal, these
○ Targets pelvic floor issues and muscles struggle to stretch
related diseases. properly.
4. Neurological Physical Therapy: ○ Extensor Compartment Muscles:
○ Aims at recovery or symptom ■ These muscles remain
improvement for neurological stretched while the cast is
conditions, such as stroke or on, leading to lengthening of
multiple sclerosis. their sarcomeres and muscle
5. Specialized Areas: cells.
○ Some PTs specialize in specific
populations, including geriatric Implications of Prolonged Positions
(elderly patients) and pediatric
(children) care. ● Sedentary Lifestyle: Many individuals
spend significant time seated, causing:
Muscle Adaptability: Muscles exhibit remarkable ○ Iliopsoas Shortening: Prolonged
adaptability, capable of increasing or decreasing in hip flexion results in the iliopsoas
size, length, and strength based on activity and muscle tightening.
positioning. ○ Pelvic Tilt: Tight iliopsoas can lead
to a pelvic tilt, contributing to lower
Example: Effects of Immobilization back strain.
Thigh Muscles that Move the Femur, Tibia, and ○ Patellar Ligament: The inferior
Fibula portion of the tendon extending from
the patella to the tibia.
Deep Fascia and Compartmentalization: The ○ Sartorius (Tailor’s muscle) : A
thigh is divided into three compartments by deep bandlike muscle running from the
fascia: medial, anterior, and posterior. anterior superior iliac spine to the
medial side of the proximal tibia. It
Medial Compartment flexes the knee and allows flexion,
abduction, and lateral rotation of the
● Function: Adducts the femur at the hip.
thigh at the hip, enabling
● Muscles:
cross-legged sitting.
○ Adductor Longus
○ Adductor Brevis Posterior Compartment
○ Adductor Magnus
○ Pectineus ● Function: Flexes the knee and extends the
○ Gracilis: Straplike muscle that hip.
adducts the thigh and also flexes the ● Muscles:
knee. ○ Hamstring Group (three long
muscles that flex the knee):
Anterior Compartment ■ Biceps Femoris
■ Semitendinosus
● Function: Flexes the thigh and extends the
■ Semimembranosus
knee.
○ Popliteal Fossa: The tendons of
● Muscles:
these muscles form this
○ Quadriceps Femoris Group (four
diamond-shaped space at the back
muscles that extend and stabilize
of the knee.
the knee):
■ Rectus Femoris: Located on
the anterior aspect of the
thigh.
■ Vastus Lateralis: Positioned
on the lateral aspect of the
thigh.
■ Vastus Medialis: Located on
the medial aspect of the 12.4e Muscles that Move the Feet and Toes
thigh.
■ Vastus Intermedius: Found
between the vastus lateralis The muscles of the lower leg are divided into three
and vastus medialis, deep to compartments by deep fascia: anterior, lateral, and
the rectus femoris. posterior.
○ Quadriceps Tendon: All four
muscles converge into this tendon, Anterior Compartment
which blankets the anterior knee and
inserts on the tibial tuberosity. ● Function: Dorsiflexion (raising the front of
○ Patella: A sesamoid bone the foot).
suspended within the quadriceps ● Muscles:
tendon, dividing it into halves. ○ Tibialis Anterior: A long, thick
muscle on the lateral surface of the
tibia.
 ○ Extensor Hallucis Longus: ● Deep Muscles:
Located deep to the tibialis anterior; ○ Popliteus: Unlocks the knee joint.
extends the big toe. ○ Flexor Digitorum Longus: Flexes
○ Extensor Digitorum Longus: the toes.
Found lateral to the extensor hallucis ○ Flexor Hallucis Longus: Flexes the
longus; extends the toes. big toe.
○ Fibularis Tertius (peroneus tertius): ○ Tibialis Posterior (posterior tibialis):
A small muscle that originates on the Supports the arch of the foot and
anterior surface of the fibula; assists assists in plantar flexion.
with dorsiflexion and may be fused
with the extensor digitorum longus in Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot
some individuals.
● Retinacula: The superior and inferior Similar to the hand, the foot contains intrinsic
extensor retinacula are thick bands of muscles that provide support for the foot and its
connective tissue that hold the tendons of arch and contribute to movements of the toes.
these muscles in place during dorsiflexion.
● Plantar Aponeurosis: A thick sheet of
Lateral Compartment connective tissue that supports the sole of
the foot, running from the calcaneus to the
● Function: Eversion and plantar flexion of toes.
the foot.
● Muscles:
○ Fibularis Longus (peroneus
longus): A long muscle that assists ●
in eversion and plantar flexion. ● Muscle Groups:
○ Fibularis Brevis(peroneus brevis): ○ Dorsal Group:
A shorter muscle that also ■ Extensor Digitorum Brevis:
contributes to these actions. The only muscle in this
group; assists in extending
Posterior Compartment
the toes.
● Function: Plantar flexion (pointing the toes) ○ Plantar Group: Comprises three
and stabilization of the body during layers:
standing. ■ Superficial Layer: Contains
● Muscles: muscles like the abductor
○ Gastrocnemius: The most hallucis and flexor digitorum
superficial and visible muscle of the brevis.
calf, which has two heads. ■ Intermediate Layer:
○ Soleus: A wide, flat muscle located Includes the quadratus
deep to the gastrocnemius; primarily plantae and lumbricals.
responsible for plantar flexion. ■ Deep Layer: Comprises the
○ Plantaris: A small muscle that runs interossei muscles, which
diagonally between the facilitate toe movements.
gastrocnemius and soleus; varies
among individuals in presence and
number.