Relativity

Ether?—Michelson-Morley Exp
 −1
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑡𝑡1 = + = 2 2
= 1− 2
𝑐𝑐 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

−1/2
2𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑡𝑡2 = 2 = 1− 2
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑣𝑣 2 1/2 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

−1 −1/2
2𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 2
Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑡2 = 1− 2 − 1− 2
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

1 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ≈ 1 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (for x << 1)

 Lv 2
∆t = t1 − t 2 ≈ 3
c
Path difference
2 Lv 2
∆d = c(2∆t ) = 2
c
Shift
∆d 2 Lv 2
=
λ λc 2
Earth velocity 3 ×10 4 m / s

2 Lv 2
∆d = 2 = 2.2 ×10 −7 m
c

∆d 2 Lv 2 2.2 ×10 −7 m
= = = 0.40
λ λc 2 −7
5.0 ×10 m
 Wave Equation

1.The law of physics are the same in all inertial

systems. No preferred inertial system exists.
2. The speed of light in free space has the same
value c in all inertial system
 𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝜓𝜓 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ′ )
Holding t constant
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓
= ; = � = ……….(1)
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)
= =1
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
Holding x constant
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓
= � = (∓𝑣𝑣) ′ ……….(2)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

Combining (1) & (2)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= (∓𝑣𝑣)
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕2 𝑓𝑓
= ( ) = 2 � = 2
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′

𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓

= ((∓𝑣𝑣) ′ ) = ∓𝑣𝑣 ′ ( )
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓
=
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓
⟹ 2 = ∓𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑣 2 ′ 2
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜓𝜓 2
𝜕𝜕 2
𝜓𝜓
⟹ 2 = 𝑣𝑣
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 2
 Lorentz Transformation
 Speed of light is constant c
 Any physical laws always hold in any inertial
reference frame

𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑎11 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎12 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎13 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎14 𝑡𝑡

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑎𝑎21 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎22 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎23 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎24 𝑡𝑡
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑎𝑎31 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎32 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎33 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎34 𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑎𝑎41 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎42 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎43 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎44 𝑡𝑡
Homogeneity in Space
𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑎11 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑥𝑥2′ − 𝑥𝑥1′ = 𝑎𝑎11 (𝑥𝑥22 − 𝑥𝑥12 )

𝑥𝑥2′ − 𝑥𝑥1′ = 3𝑎𝑎11 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥2 = 2; 𝑥𝑥1 = 1

𝑥𝑥2′ − 𝑥𝑥1′ = 9𝑎𝑎11 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥2 = 5; 𝑥𝑥1 = 4

Rod length is dependent on the location violating

homogeneity in Space
 With no relative motion in y and z direction

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧

𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑎11 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎12 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎13 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎14 𝑡𝑡

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑎𝑎41 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎42 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎43 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎44 𝑡𝑡

y
v
𝑎𝑎42 = 𝑎𝑎43 = 0
S S’
If not , clock reading will
depend on the location
x
y
v

x
𝑥𝑥 ′ = 0
𝑥𝑥 = v𝑡𝑡

0 = 𝑎𝑎11 (v𝑡𝑡) + 𝑎𝑎12 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎13 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎14 𝑡𝑡

y, z and t are independent

⇒ 𝑎𝑎11 v + 𝑎𝑎14 = 0; 𝑎𝑎12 = 0; 𝑎𝑎13 = 0

 𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑎11 (𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡)
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑡𝑡 2
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧 2 2 2 2
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑎𝑎41 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎44 𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 ′ + 𝑦𝑦 ′ + 𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑡𝑡 ′

2
𝑎𝑎11 (𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡)2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑎41 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎44 𝑡𝑡)2

2 2 2 2 2
(𝑎𝑎11 − 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎41 )𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 − 2(v𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎41 𝑎𝑎44 )𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = (𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎44 − v 2 𝑎𝑎11 )𝑡𝑡 2
 1
2
𝑎𝑎11 2
− 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎41 =1
𝑎𝑎11 =
2 1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2
v𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎41 𝑎𝑎44 = 0
2
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎44 2
− v 2 𝑎𝑎11 = 𝑐𝑐 2 v/𝑐𝑐 2
𝑎𝑎41 =−
1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2
1
𝑎𝑎44 =
(𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡) 1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2
𝑥𝑥 ′ =
1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧
𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑥𝑥 Lorentz transformation equation
𝑡𝑡 ′ =
1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2 1 1
𝛾𝛾 = =
1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2 1 − 𝛽𝛽2
 β γ 1/γ
0.000 1.000 1.000
0.100 1.005 0.995
0.200 1.021 0.980
0.300 1.048 0.954
0.400 1.091 0.917
0.500 1.155 0.866
0.600 1.250 0.800
0.700 1.400 0.714
0.800 1.667 0.600
0.866 2.000 0.500
0.900 2.294 0.436
0.990 7.089 0.141
0.999 22.366 0.045
 𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝛾(𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡) 𝑥𝑥 = 𝛾𝛾(𝑥𝑥 ′ + v𝑡𝑡 ′ )
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 ′
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 ′
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝛾𝛾 𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
= 𝛾𝛾 𝑡𝑡 ′ + (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑥𝑥 ′

Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝛾(Δ𝑥𝑥 − vΔ𝑡𝑡) Δ𝑥𝑥 = 𝛾𝛾(Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ + vΔ𝑡𝑡 ′ )

Δ𝑦𝑦 ′ = Δ𝑦𝑦 Δ𝑦𝑦 = Δ𝑦𝑦 ′
Δ𝑧𝑧 ′ = Δ𝑧𝑧 Δ𝑧𝑧 = Δ𝑧𝑧 ′
Δ𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝛾𝛾 Δ𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )Δ𝑥𝑥 Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝛾𝛾 Δ𝑡𝑡 ′ + (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )Δ𝑥𝑥 ′
 ′
(𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡)
𝑥𝑥 =
1 − 𝛽𝛽2
𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑥𝑥
𝑡𝑡 ′ =
1 − 𝛽𝛽2

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝜕𝜕
= � ′+ � ′
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 v/𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕
= � ′− � ′
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝛽𝛽2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝛽𝛽2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡

According to the same scheme, we obtain second derivative

𝜕𝜕 2 1 𝜕𝜕 2 v 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕 2
= 2 − 2 + 4
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 2
1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 2 ′
𝑐𝑐 1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑐𝑐 (1 − 𝛽𝛽2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 2
 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝜕𝜕
= � ′+ � ′
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 v 𝜕𝜕
= � ′− �
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
2 1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
2

𝜕𝜕 2 1 𝜕𝜕 2 2𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕 2
= 2 − +
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 2 2
1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 2 ′
1 − 𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ (1 − 𝛽𝛽2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 2

𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 v 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓

2 − 2 2 = 2 � ′2 − 2 ′ ′ + 4 ′2 −
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 1−𝛽𝛽 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 2v 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓
+ 2 ′ ′ − 2 ′2� = − 2 ′2 −
𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 ′ 2 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 1−𝛽𝛽 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 2 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
1𝑣𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐𝑐 2 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝜓𝜓
− 2 ′2 = ′2 − 2 ′2
1−𝛽𝛽 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ′ 2 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
 Velocity Addition
If the velocity of a particle in S is u and in S’ is u’
Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝛾𝛾(Δ𝑥𝑥 − vΔ𝑡𝑡)
′
𝑢𝑢 = ′ =
Δ𝑡𝑡 𝛾𝛾 Δ𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )Δ𝑥𝑥

Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ (Δ𝑥𝑥/Δ𝑡𝑡 − v) 𝑢𝑢 − v
′
𝑢𝑢 = ′ = =
Δ𝑡𝑡 2
1 − (v/𝑐𝑐 )Δ𝑥𝑥/Δ𝑡𝑡 1 − v𝑢𝑢/𝑐𝑐 2

1. as v=0 u=u’
𝑢𝑢′ + v 2. v/c<<1, u=u’+v (Galilean
𝑢𝑢 =
1 + v𝑢𝑢′ /𝑐𝑐 2 transformation)
3. u’=c; u=c
4. v=c; u=u’=c
 If motion is not 1-D but 3-D
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 ′
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥′ = ′ ; 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦′ = ′ ; 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧′ = ′
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 = ; 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 = ; 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − v𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 − v

𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥′ = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (v/𝑐𝑐 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
2
Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝛾(Δ𝑥𝑥 − vΔ𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢
Δ𝑦𝑦 ′ = Δ𝑦𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦′ = =
𝑦𝑦
Δ𝑧𝑧 ′ = Δ𝑧𝑧 𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
Δ𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝛾𝛾 Δ𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )Δ𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − v 2 /𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢
𝑧𝑧
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧′ = =
𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
 Classical Doppler Effect
 The observer moves
with a speed of vo
 Assume a point source
that remains stationary
relative to the air
 It is convenient to
represent the waves
with a series of circular
arcs concentric to the
source
– These surfaces are
called a wave front
 The distance between adjacent wave fronts is
the wavelength
 The speed of the sound is v, the frequency is
ƒ, and the wavelength is λ
 When the observer moves toward the source,
the speed of the waves relative to the
observer is v ’ = v + vo
– The wavelength is unchanged
 The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’,
appears higher when the observer
approaches the source
light
𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣0 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑣𝑣0
′
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 ′ = 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓(1 + 𝛽𝛽)
𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐

 The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’,

appears lower when the observer moves
away from the source

′
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣0
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓
𝑣𝑣
 Relativistic Doppler Effect
(longitudinal )
y
v Observer

θ’
x
1-D wave function
𝐴𝐴 cos( 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)

3-D wave function 2-D wave function

→ →
𝐴𝐴 cos( 𝑘𝑘 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
𝑥𝑥 ′ cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ + 𝑦𝑦 ′ sin 𝜃𝜃 ′ ′ 𝑡𝑡 ′
⇒ 𝐴𝐴 cos 2 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝜆′
 𝑥𝑥 ′ cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ + 𝑦𝑦 ′ sin 𝜃𝜃 ′
wave function in S’ cos 2 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑣𝑣 ′ 𝑡𝑡 ′
𝜆𝜆′
𝛾𝛾(𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡) cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ + 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 ′ ′ 𝛾𝛾 𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 2 )𝑥𝑥
cos 2 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝜆′

𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝛾𝛾(𝑥𝑥 − v𝑡𝑡) 1
𝛾𝛾 =
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦 1 − 𝛽𝛽 2
𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧
𝑡𝑡 ′ wave function in S
= 𝛾𝛾 𝑡𝑡 − (v/𝑐𝑐 )𝑥𝑥2

𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝜃𝜃)

cos 2 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ⇒ cos 2 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝜆 𝑐𝑐

cos 𝜃𝜃 𝛾𝛾(cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ + 𝛽𝛽) sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 ′ 𝑣𝑣 ′ (1 + 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ )

= = 𝑣𝑣 =
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆′ 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆′ 1 − 𝛽𝛽2
 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆′ 𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑐𝑐

sin 𝜃𝜃 ′ 1 − 𝛽𝛽 2
tan 𝜃𝜃 =
cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ + 𝛽𝛽

sin 𝜃𝜃 1 − 𝛽𝛽 2
tan 𝜃𝜃 ′ =
cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝛽𝛽

𝑣𝑣 ′ (1 + 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃 ′ ) 𝑣𝑣(1 − 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃) 1 − 𝛽𝛽 2

𝑣𝑣 = ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑣
1 − 𝛽𝛽2 1 − 𝛽𝛽2 1 − 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃
 Red and Blue Shifts
1 − 𝛽𝛽 2
𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑣
1 − 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃

Let’s consider a special case of θ=0 ; source and

observer are approaching each other
1 + 𝛽𝛽
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0
1 − 𝛽𝛽

Let’s consider a special case of θ=π ; source and

observer are separating each other

Wikipedia
1 − 𝛽𝛽
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0
1 + 𝛽𝛽
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 (1 + 𝛽𝛽)1/2 (1 − 𝛽𝛽)−1/2
1 1 2 1 2 3 2
= (1 + 𝛽𝛽 − 𝛽𝛽 +. . . . . . . )(1 + 𝛽𝛽 + 𝛽𝛽 +. . . . . . . )
2 8 2 8

Different form classical prediction

1 2
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 (1 + 𝛽𝛽 + 𝛽𝛽 +. . . . . . . )(approaching)
2

1 2
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 (1 − 𝛽𝛽 + 𝛽𝛽 −. . . . . . . )(separating)
2
 Transverse Doppler Effect
Let’s consider a special case of θ=π/2 ; source and
observer are separating each other

1 − 𝛽𝛽 2
𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣 1 − 𝛽𝛽2
1 − 𝛽𝛽 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 (1 + 𝛽𝛽)1/2 (1 − 𝛽𝛽)−1/2

1 2
= (1 − 𝛽𝛽 +. . . . . . . )
2 Longitudinal >>Transverse

No this term in classical prediction

Ives and Stillwell
Wikipedia
Why it is difficult to measure the transverse Doppler effect Wikipedia
accurately using a transverse beam. The illustration shows the
results of attempting to measure the 4861 Angstrom line emitted by
a beam of "Canal rays" (a mixture of H1+ , H2+ , and H3+ ions) as they
recombine with electrons stripped from the dilute hydrogen gas used
to fill the Canal ray tube. Here, the predicted result of the TDE is a
4861.06 Angstrom line. On the left, conventional Doppler shift
results in broadening the emission line to such an extent that the
TDE cannot be observed. In the middle, we see that even if one
narrows one's view to the exact center of the beam, very small
deviations of the beam from an exact right angle introduce shifts
comparable to the predicted effect. Ives and Stilwell used a concave
mirror that allowed them to simultaneously observe a nearly
longitudinal direct beam (blue) and its reflected image (red).
Spectroscopically, three lines would be observed: An undisplaced
emission lines, and blueshifted and redshifted lines. The average of
the redshifted and blueshifted lines is 4861.06 Angstroms.
 Walter Kundig

Wikipedia

Phys. Scr. 79 (2009) 065007

http://www.conspiracyoflight.com/Transvers
e_Doppler_Effect.html
 Relativistic Dynamics
Totally inelastic
In S
y

u u
m m 2m

In S’

v(= u) u
2u
m m 2m
 Classical Viewpoint
In S
Momentum conservation:
Initial momentum=0= final momentum

Mass conservation:
m+m=2m

In S’

Momentum conservation:
Initial momentum=2mu= final momentum=2mu

Mass conservation:
m+m=2m
 Relativistic Viewpoint
Totally inelastic
In S
y

u u
m m 2m

In S’

v(= u) ' u
2u
m m 2m
 Relativistic Viewpoint
𝑢𝑢 − v 2𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑢′ = 2
′
⇒ 𝑢𝑢 =
1 − v𝑢𝑢/𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
In S
Momentum conservation still holds
Initial momentum=0= final momentum

In S’
Momentum conservation is violated

Initial momentum final momentum

2𝑢𝑢
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢′ = 𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1 + 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
 Totally inelastic
In S
y

u u Rest mass

m m M0

In S’

v(= u) Rest mass

u
2u '
m' m0 M

We assume mass is dependent of velocity

Mass conservation M = m′ + 𝑚𝑚0

Momentum conservation Mu = m′ 𝑢𝑢′

′
2𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑢 =
1 + 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2

m′ m′ 2𝑢𝑢′ 𝐴𝐴
u= ′ 𝑢𝑢′ let A = ′ 𝑢𝑢′ =
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚0 1 + 𝑢𝑢′ 2 𝐴𝐴2 /𝑐𝑐 2

2 2
⇒ 1 + 𝑢𝑢′ 𝐴𝐴2 /𝑐𝑐 2 = 2𝐴𝐴 ⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 + 𝑢𝑢′ 𝐴𝐴2 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 2
 ′2 ′
2 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 + 𝑢𝑢′ = 2 𝑐𝑐 2
(𝑚𝑚′ + 𝑚𝑚0 )2 𝑚𝑚′ + 𝑚𝑚0

2 2
⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑚𝑚′ + 𝑚𝑚0 )2 + 𝑢𝑢′ 𝑚𝑚′ = 2(𝑚𝑚′ + 𝑚𝑚0 )𝑚𝑚′ 𝑐𝑐 2

2 2
⇒ 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑚𝑚02 + 𝑢𝑢′ 𝑚𝑚′ = 𝑚𝑚′ 𝑐𝑐 2

′
𝑚𝑚0
⇒ 𝑚𝑚 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢′ 2 /𝑐𝑐 2

𝑚𝑚0
⇒ 𝑚𝑚′ =
1 − 𝛽𝛽2
Relativistic Momentum
𝑚𝑚0 →
𝑢𝑢
⇒→
𝑝𝑝 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2

𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦
𝑝𝑝𝑦𝑦 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧
𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
Force Law & Dynamics of a Single
Particle
→ 𝑑𝑑 → 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚0 →𝑢𝑢
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑝𝑝 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2

In an absence of external force, momentum is constant

→ 𝑚𝑚0 𝑑𝑑 →
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 →
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑢𝑢
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Wrong!
 Kinetic Energy
For simplicity, we consider the motion in x direction
Classical
𝑢𝑢
→ → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾 = � 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑚𝑚0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝑚𝑚0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢2
2

Relativistic 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾 = � 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= � 𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) = �(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢
= � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑢𝑢2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
 𝑚𝑚0
𝑚𝑚 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑚𝑚02 𝑐𝑐 2

⇒ 2𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) − 𝑚𝑚2 2𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 2𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑢𝑢2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾 = � 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚
= � 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2
0 𝑚𝑚0
 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2
2
1
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 ( − 1)
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝛾𝛾 − 1)

If we assume E=mc2

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2
 1
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 ( − 1)
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2
−1/2
𝑢𝑢2
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 1− 2 −1
𝑐𝑐

Binomial expansion in u/c as u/c<<1

2
1 𝑢𝑢 2 3 𝑢𝑢 4
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 1 + + +. . . . . . −1
2 𝑐𝑐 8 𝑐𝑐
1 2
3 𝑢𝑢 2
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑢𝑢 1 + +. . . . .
2 4 𝑐𝑐
 → 𝑚𝑚0 →
𝑢𝑢
𝑝𝑝 =
1 − 𝑢𝑢2 /𝑐𝑐 2

(𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 )2 = (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)2 + (𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 )2

 Relativistic Force
→ 𝑑𝑑 → 𝑑𝑑 →
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

→ 𝑑𝑑 → → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 2
1 𝑑𝑑
= 2 = 2 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 = 2 𝐾𝐾
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

→ 𝑑𝑑 → → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→ → →
𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙 → 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙
𝐾𝐾 = = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→
= 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ → 𝑢𝑢
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1→ →
= 2 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐

→ → → →
→ 𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢 ( 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 )
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 2

→ → → → →
→ 𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝐹𝐹 𝑢𝑢 ( 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑢𝑢 )
𝑎𝑎 = = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2
 Equivalence of Mass & Energy
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2

In a totally inelastic collision

In S 2𝑚𝑚0
𝑀𝑀0 = 2𝑚𝑚 = = 2𝑚𝑚0 𝛾𝛾
1 − 𝛽𝛽2

Increase in rest mass 𝑀𝑀0 − 2𝑚𝑚0 = 2𝑚𝑚0 (𝛾𝛾 − 1)

 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2
2
1
= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 ( − 1)
2
1 − 𝑢𝑢 /𝑐𝑐 2

= 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝛾𝛾 − 1)

𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝛾𝛾 − 1)

After collision, no kinetic energy left.

Kinetic energy  thermal (internal) energy

Increase in internal energy= decrease in kinetic energy

= 2𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2 (𝛾𝛾 − 1)
 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚0 𝑐𝑐 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑐𝑐 2 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

A change in kinetic energy of a particle causes a proportionate

Change in its (relativistic) mass
Geometric Representation of
Spacetime: Minkowski Space
 x ' = γ ( x − β (ct )) x = γ ( x ' + β (ct ' ))
ct ' = γ [ct − βx ] [
t = γ ct ' + βx ' ]
x' = 0

ct ' = 0

0 = ct ' = γ [ct − βx ] ⇒ tan θ = β < 1 ⇒ θ < 45 Dr. Russell L. Herman

Diagram exhibiting simultaneous
events

Dr. Russell L. Herman

Length Contraction
Time Dilation
Twin Paradox
 (cdτ ) = (cdt ) − (dx)
2 2 2

2
(dx)
dτ = (dt ) − 2 2

c
2
Q Q (dx)
⇒ ∆τ = ∫ dτ = ∫ 2
(dt ) − 2
P P c
Q Q
∆τ s = ∫ dτ = ∫ dt = tQ − t P
P P

2
Q (dx)
∆τ t = ∫ 2
(dt ) − 2
P c
 2
Q (dx)
∆τ t = ∫ 2
(dt ) − 2
P c

Along curve path, dx is not equal to zero

⇒ ∆τ t < ∆τ s
 1+ β 1 + 0.8
v = v0 = v0 = 3v0
1− β 1 − 0.8

1− β 1 − 0.8 v0
v = v0 = v0 =
1+ β 1 + 0.8 3