C1.

1 Grammar Reference

Unit 1
• Clauses
 that contain a structure with be + -ing / -ed can
REVISION OF -ING VS be reduced by eliminating the subject and the verb be:
-ED ADJECTIVES When he was taken to court for stealing, he felt
ashamed.
-ing adjectives When taken to court for stealing, he felt ashamed.
• They describe how something or someone makes If you are caught in traffic, you’ll have to be patient.
others feel. If caught in traffic, you’ll have to be patient.
This poison has paralysing effects. • Relative
 clauses in the present can be reduced using –ing,
even if the original clause is not in a continuous form:
This novel is long but interesting.
Students who need a special certificate should contact
Ms Adams is a very encouraging teacher. the international office.
The huge dog was a frightening sight. Students needing a special certificate should contact
the international office.
-ed adjectives
Incorrect Reduced Adverb Clause to Adverbial
• They describe how people feel.
Phrase
I was paralysed with fear.
• Because she needed to study for a test, her brother
We are really interested in your new product. took care of the dog. ≠ Needing to study for a test,
Students are encouraged to study on their own. her brother took care of the dog.
I’m frightened of dogs. The verb form needing doesn’t have a clear subject so
the reader will assume that her brother is the subject and
therefore the person who needs to study.
REDUCED –ED / -ING CLAUSES
We can use reduced clauses when the subjects are
• 
Clauses that refer to time, cause and opposition can be different if we mention the first subject too: His sister
reduced using –ing forms: needing to study for a test, he took care of the dog.

TIME
REVISION OF MODIFYING ADVERBS
• -ing (meaning as)
As I was crossing the street, I tripped over my • For
 more information on gradable and non-gradable
shoelace. adjectives, see page 117
Crossing the street, I tripped over my shoelace.
Modifying adverbs with gradable and
• Before / After / Since / Until / While non-gradable adjectives
Before he lived in Spain, he never ate olives. The teacher was
Before living in Spain, he never ate olives. extremely helpful.
extremely Her eyes were fairly
• with
• When can be replaced by On / Upon gradable fairly large.
When she arrived at the party, the host took her adjectives rather He was rather strange.
coat.
hot, cold, slightly I find her giggle
On arriving at the party, the host took her coat.
angry very slightly annoying.
CAUSE As the water was very
cold, I didn't take a dip.
• (Not) -ing (meaning because / since / as)
As she knew she was going to be late, she called • with non-
her mother. gradable
Knowing she was going to be late, she called her adjectives* We were absolutely
mother astonished by her
boiling,
Since we didn’t want to disturb the neighbours, freezing, absolutely reaction.
we closed the door quietly.
furious, totally She felt totally awful
Not wanting to disturb the neighbours, we closed
the door quietly. enraged, completely about what she’d done.
hilarious, His threats sounded
OPPOSITION repulsive, completely ridiculous.
heartbroken
• Although / Though / While
Although he felt unwell, he carried on with the work.
Although feeling unwell, he carried on with the work. *
These are extreme, or maximum intensity, adjectives.
While he is still a child, he speaks like an adult. Classifying adjectives (like international, indoor, or civilian)
While still being a child, he speaks like an adult. are also non-gradable but cannot be modified by adverbs
like very or absolutely.

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C1.1 Grammar Reference

really I was really anxious Anticipatory it as subject

(informal) when I found out I’d It’s obvious /
be on my own. It’s obvious that he wasn’t happy
clear / probable
with the new arrangements.
pretty She can be pretty that…
(informal) awful when she It appeared / seemed that they
wants to be. It appears /
quite + hadn’t taken the necessary
• with both seems that…
precautions.
types gradable The exam was quite
(not very) difficult (difficult, but It’s a mistake to ignore their
It’s a mistake /
quite not very). warnings.
a shame
+ non- He was quite furious that… / It’s a shame that so many
gradable when he heard the to… resources are wasted.
(totally) news (totally furious).
It + be a good It was a good idea to publish the
idea / a pity / results early.
absurd /
• We
 tend to use rather with negative adjectives. difficult / It has been difficult to accept his
When we use it with positive adjectives, it usually wrong, etc. to… resignation.
means we were surprised by the positive quality
described. It + be a good
idea / a pity /
She’s rather nosy when it comes to my personal It would be absurd / wrong for me
absurd /
life. to make that decision because I
difficult /
can’t be impartial.
It turned out to be a rather enjoyable experience. wrong, etc. for
someone to…
• There
 are many other modifying adverbs we can It + be
use with both gradable and non-gradable adjectives essential / It’s essential / imperative / vital to
which add intensity or an opinion to the adjective imperative / reduce costs.
(e.g. incredibly, purely, perfectly, thoroughly, vital to…
utterly, simply, exceedingly, ridiculously, bitterly,
etc.). There are no rules for using one or another It + be
beyond noticing what people say. Some words essential /
function together (collocate) and some don’t. imperative / It’s essential / imperative / vital
vital that that she (should) be here at
She’s perfectly capable of doing that job on her someone eight.
own. (should) +
Assuming the opposite would be utterly ridiculous. infinitive
He thought the cake was incredibly good. It + be
essential / It’s essential / imperative / vital
It was bitterly cold outside when they left the imperative / for them to change their attitude
house. vital for on this matter.
someone to…
It amazes / It amazes / surprises me that
IT IN IMPERSONAL AND annoys / they have never questioned
their motives.
ANTICIPATORY USES bothers /
frightens / It often frightens / scares people
scares / that not every situation can be
• We
 use the pronoun it as an impersonal subject for surprises / controlled.
sentences that refer to dates, time, the weather or worries
distances. It really annoys / bothers me
someone that / when people waste good
It’s two o’clock. It’s sunny. when… opportunities.
It’s two miles from here to the station.

• W
 hen we have long complex clauses as subjects,
• We
 can also have a long clause as an object, and
we normally put them at the end of the sentence therefore use an anticipatory it after the main
and use an ‘empty’ it to anticipate the subject. verb.
Why he made such a ridiculous decision is not clear. I like it when you smile.
Object

It is not clear why he made such a ridiculous decision.

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Anticipatory it as object RELATIVE CLAUSES

I, he, she… like(s)… it when / that / if…
I don’t like it when he lies to me. Defining relative clauses
He hates it that you never seem to understand • Used
 to specify which object, person, place or
his problems. time we refer to.
She would love it if they chose her for the role. • No commas are used.
I, he, she... consider(s) / find(s) it • That, which and who can be omitted if they are
interesting… that / to... not the subject of the clause, that is, if they are
not followed by a verb.
I consider it a major step that they have accepted
our apologies. People: who / that
We find it necessary to express these feelings in Things and animals: which / that
public. Time: when
Places: where
Sometimes
 we use it when there is no object Possession: whose
but the structure needs one (normally with Adjectives expressing opinion usually go before
verbs that are similar to like or hate). those expressing more objective qualities
I love it here. following this order:
People who / that appreciate art will enjoy visiting
• Remember
 that we also use it + be… that / who at this museum.
the beginning of a sentence when we want to give The Picasso (which / that) they were trying to sell
importance to a specific element. was fake.
My ex-girlfriend decided that we should split up. The time (when / that*) you could find bargains in
art galleries is now gone.
It was my ex-girlfriend that / who decided we
The room where they stored the pieces was too
should split up.
damp.
Most weddings are held in late spring. ➞ Velázquez and Goya are only two of the many
It is in late spring that most weddings are held. artists whose work you can see at the Prado.
Non-defining relative clauses
Unit 2 • Used
 to add extra information about an object,
person, place or time.
ADJECTIVE ORDER • Placed between or after commas.

Adjectives expressing opinion usually go before People: who

those expressing more objective qualities Things and animals: which
following this order: Time: when
Opinion / Size / Shape / Age (temperature) / Places: where
Colour / Origin / Material / Purpose Possession: whose
Andy Warhol, who died in 1987, is one of the most
He owned a beautiful old French oil painting.
famous artists in the world.
She gave me an enormous pink birthday card.
Picasso’s last painting, which dates from 1972, is
• The
 purpose is often described using a noun now on sale.
as an adjective, e.g. city centre, alarm clock, In the 90s, when the gallery was opened, business
tennis racket. These compound nouns are never was booming.
separated by other words.
The new storage room, where the paintings are
• -ed / -ing participles can come before adjectives now kept, is much larger.
that describe origin or material, e.g. a worrying
regional phenomenon, a painted wooden door We visited the Bargello Museum, whose collection
includes masterpieces by many Italian sculptors.

 informal English, when can be replaced by that or omitted

* In
after nouns referring to time.

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After
 a preposition we have to use whom (for • A
 relative pronoun followed by verbs indicating
people) and which (for things) but this structure presence, such as: be, seem, appear, feel, etc. +
is only used in formal English. More commonly, prepositional phrase is reduced to a prepositional
prepositions are placed at the end of the clause phrase.
and that, which or who are used (or omitted) The man who appears in the photo stole the
following the rules shown above. vase.
Julius II is the Pope for whom Michelangelo ➞ The man in the photo stole the vase.
painted. The paintings which are on the second floor
Julius II is the Pope (that / who) Michelangelo are even more interesting.
painted for. ➞ The paintings on the second floor are even
This is the town in which he shot his first more interesting.
film.
This is the town (which / that) he shot his
first film in. RECOMMEND, ADVISE,
SUGGEST
Reduced relative clauses These verbs can be followed by different structures
• A
 relative pronoun followed by a verb in the without a change in meaning.
active voice or a continuous form in the passive
voice is reduced to the -ing form.
advise recommend suggest
The company which sponsored the
exhibition has spent millions of pounds. The agent A colleague
➞ The company sponsoring the exhibition has advised The guidebook suggested
spent millions of pounds. buying* recommends organising
-ing
the tickets visiting the a day trip
The woman who was standing next to me is a
as early as local museum. to Hampton
famous actress.
possible. Court Palace.
➞ The woman standing next to me is a
famous actress. A friend
The I suggest that
The pieces which are being auctioned are that organisers
recommended
you don’t
exceptional. someone + advised
that I went to
spend too
see the new
➞ The pieces being auctioned are exceptional. conjugated that people much time on
James Bond
verb reserved in the interactive
• A
 relative pronoun followed by a verb in the film but I
advance. displays.
passive voice is reduced to the past participle. hated it.

The artists who will be included in the project Experts

are all American. They The guide
advise that
recommended suggested
➞ The artists included in the project are all that buyers
that our group that everyone
American. someone should take
should allow should get
should + measures
Her latest novel, which was published last at least two a copy of
infinitive to prevent
month, has been a hit. hours for the the free
being
➞ Her latest novel, published last month, has visit. catalogue.
conned.
been a hit.
We advise
 relative pronoun followed by have to (or
• A His teacher The artist
that
equivalent words like need to, must, should etc.) recommends suggests that
that students
is reduced to to + infinitive. that he everyone
someone + take the
continue with consider the
If you are interested in politics, this is infinitive extra art
his private impact of
the programme that you should watch. appreciation
classes. consumerism.
➞ If you are interested in politics, course.
this is the programme to watch.
I recommend
This is the place where you must go if you The police
you to read a
want to eat the best hamburgers in town. someone advised
bit about the
to + us to be
➞ This is the place to go if you want to eat the artist before
infinitive aware of
best hamburgers in town. you visit the
pickpockets.
exhibition.


* Also advise against + -ing, used for warnings: Experts strongly
advise against using cleaning products on paintings.

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Unit 3 • rather / fairly:


Rather and fairly can be used before an adjective
INVERSION FOR EMPHASIS to mean moderately. However, rather often shows
disapproval whereas fairly shows approval.
If you start a sentence with the expression not only in
order to make it more dramatic or emphatic, that part He was driving fairly slowly. (He was being careful,
of the sentence will take the structure of a question. not driving too fast).
Not only is frequently used in combination with but… He was driving rather slowly. (He was driving too
also / as well : slowly).
They wanted to interview me and find out all my Sometimes rather can be used before a positive
secrets. adjective to mean very (often with the idea of
'surprisingly' or 'contrary to what was expected').
Not only did they want to interview me, but they
also wanted to find out all my secrets. I met your sister and I think she’s rather clever.
Although I didn’t expect much when I went to the
She is both a good friend and a faithful one as cinema, the film was rather amusing.
well.
Not only is she a good friend, but a faithful one Here are some common extreme adjectives:
as well.
He not only works hard, but he also enjoys his job. Gradable Extreme
Not only does he work hard, but he also enjoys angry furious
his job.
bad awful, terrible, horrible
He could play the piano at the age of four and
write music when he was six. beautiful gorgeous
Not only could he play the piano at the age of four, big huge, enormous
but he could also write music when he was six.
cold freezing

GRADABLE AND NON-GRADABLE crowded packed

ADJECTIVES
frightened terrified

• Gradable adjectives can have degrees of intensity
and can be modified by adverbs like extremely, funny hilarious
very, quite, slightly, rather, fairly, a bit, etc. (See Unit
amazing, fantastic,
1 – modifying adverbs). good
wonderful
It was extremely cold for September so we couldn’t
use the pool. The children got rather angry when hungry starving
we told them.
interesting fascinating

• Extreme adjectives describe an absolute quality or
have the meaning of very + quality, so they cannot scary terrifying
be modified in the same way, e.g. we can’t say It was
slightly finished or It was very impossible. Adverbs silly ridiculous
we can use to make these adjectives stronger are
absolutely, totally and completely. (See Unit 1 – small tiny
modifying adverbs).
tired exhausted
The weather was absolutely freezing so I was totally
furious when my central heating broke down.
upset devastated
• quite:
EXPRESSING CONFIDENCE AND
 we use quite with extreme adjectives, it means
If HESITATION
absolutely.
• If we are confident about an opinion or fact, we can
The food in the restaurant was quite awful. use totally, certainly, definitely before verbs and
 we use quite with gradable adjectives, it means
If adjectives.
really. Skydiving was certainly / totally / definitely fun,
although scary.
The food in the restaurant was quite good.
I certainly / totally / definitely think you are wrong.

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• If
 we want to soften an opinion, we can use a bit verb + and + verb
(often with negative adjectives), pretty, somewhat,
sort of, kind of before adjectives and sort of, kind of She insisted and insisted until she managed to
before verbs. talk to the manager.
He just talks and talks but no one actually listens
The lecture was pretty / somewhat / kind of / sort
to him.
of interesting.
The children were a bit upset by the bad news GET USED TO AND BE USED TO
I kind of / sort of knew something was wrong.
get used to + noun / -ing
Unit 4
• To become accustomed to something.
DESCRIBING TYPICAL BEHAVIOUR When I came to live in the city, it took me a
while to get used to the constant noise.
Routines Typical behaviour I will eventually get used to my new
smartphone.
will I’ve finally got used to getting up at 6:00 a.m.
• To
 describe characteristic every morning.
behaviour.
She’s not a heavy smoker. be used to + noun / -ing
She’ll usually smoke a • To be familiar or accustomed to something.
cigarette after dinner, but
that’s all. She’s used to her new smartphone.
He’s very unreliable. One I’m used to speaking in English with my
present simple day he’ll work for fifteen classmates now.
I usually smoke hours and the next day
a cigarette after he’ll stay in bed all day. DESCRIBING PAST HABITS AND
dinner. ROUTINES
present continuous
I don’t usually
drink coffee in • To
 describe repetitive Routines
the evening. behaviour perceived as
exaggerated or annoying. used to + infinitive
She’s constantly checking • To
 describe routines that have changed in the
her phone to see if she’s present, past habits or states.
got messages. I used to smoke ten cigarettes a day, but I quit
My neighbours are forever smoking years ago.
spying on us through the Did she use to play volleyball when she was
window. a student?
He’s always telling lies! He didn’t use to be very strong, but now he’s
started training and it shows!
OTHER WAYS TO DESCRIBE Typical behaviour
REPETITIVE BEHAVIOUR
would + infinitive *
On (and on), keep (on), carry on, go on • To
 describe characteristic behaviour in the
(and on) past.
When he was young, he was very foolish.
• To continue doing something.
He would do drugs, and he’d drink and drive
We were totally lost, but he just drove on (and every weekend.
on) hoping to find his way.
As a student, I would always study for exams
He keeps (on) telling me that he doesn’t need the night before.
help… but he does!
They carried on arguing after I had left.
I went on working until my boss told me to *We never use would to describe qualities in the past:
take a break. I used to be (would) very thin when I was young.
I told her to stop insulting me, but she went on
(and on) until I lost my temper.

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SHOWING IMPATIENCE AND They arranged

verb + to + infinitive
INSULTING to meet us at the
airport.
agree, aim, arrange,
• In
 English, it is quite frequent to use religious words ask, attempt, choose, He promised to be
like God or Jesus to show impatience and anger. decide, demand, expect, here at eight.
However, this is considered disrespectful language fail, help*, hope, intend, We managed to get
and it can easily offend people. Therefore, people learn, long, manage, offer, our picture taken
often use the word goodness to avoid saying God. plan, prepare, pretend, with our favourite
promise, propose, refuse, player.
A similar thing happens with the word hell, which tend, would hate, would
is frequent in expressions like What the hell…?, like, would love, would I would love to see
Where the hell…?, Who the hell…?, etc. It is safer to prefer you again.
use alternatives like the heck (very colloquial), on The new study
earth (more neutral) or in heaven’s name. *also followed by infinitive
without to could help (to) find a
Oh my goodness! Look at you! You look so pretty! vaccine.
Who the heck are you? verb + noun / pronoun +
How on earth did the dog get in here? to + infinitive
What in heaven’s name do you think you are
advise, allow, ask, They encouraged us
doing?
convince, enable, to ask for a loan.
encourage, expect, force, She persuaded me
• When we want to insult someone, we usually
address them with the word you + noun. get, help*, intend, invite, to work for her.
order, persuade, prefer**,
Why on earth did you have to do that, you fool? remind, teach, tell, want, I would like you to
Of course they wanted to keep your money, you idiot! warn (not to), would like help your brother if
you can.
*also followed by infinitive
• When we don’t want to insult the listener but a third without to
person, we can use the + noun.
**see unit 8
Look at John trying to climb that tree, the fool!
verb + -ing
Unit 5 admit, avoid, can’t help, I don’t feel like going
can’t stand, consider, out tonight.
REVISION OF VERB PATTERNS deny, detest, dislike, They finished
enjoy, fancy, feel like, repairing the roof
finish, give up, hate*, late at night.
Verb patterns
imagine, involve, keep,
We’ve given
verb + infinitive They could help us if like*, love, mind, miss,
up trying to
they wanted to. practise, prefer**, put off,
demonstrate that we
modal verbs: can, could, You must find risk, suggest
are right.
may, might, must, shall, ways to solve this *see note below
should, will, would problem. **see unit 8

They let us use their

verb + noun / pronoun + car when they are • Speakers use like + to and like + -ing indistinctively
infinitive away on holiday. to express enjoyment or lack of it.
let, make* They made us pay I don’t like doing the laundry. = I don’t like
for our meals. / We to do the laundry.
*with to in the passive voice were made to pay for
I like watching series on TV. = I like to watch
our meals.
series on TV.

• We often use like + -ing to imply we enjoy

doing something, but like + to + infinitive
when we do something because we think it is
a good idea or best for us. It describes habits
or routines. We often use a time expression.
I like to get a full medical check-up once a year.
We like to cook with very little salt.

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We tried to help him


• Hate + to + infinitive is used to announce an escape from the fire, but
action that we’d rather avoid. to: make an effort he got badly hurt.
try
-ing: see if it works Why don’t you try
I hate to tell you this, but we’re out of money
taking an aspirin for that
headache? It might help.

Verbs followed by to or -ing without a change She wants to help us

in meaning with the project.
to: feel the need This house wants
The baby began to cry / crying want painting. Do you know
and I didn’t know what to do with -ing: lack, need
of a good painter that
begin, start her.
can come help us with
As soon as we left the house, it that?
started to rain / raining.

• Verbs
 related to the senses: hear, listen to, see,
Verbs followed by to or -ing with a change in smell, watch, etc. can be followed by an infinitive
meaning without to or -ing. We use the infinitive without
After the talk, he went to to imply that we have witnessed the whole
to: change activities on to answer our action or event. By using the -ing form of the
questions. verb, we imply that we notice an action which is
go on -ing: continue in progress.
He went on talking for
three more hours. We watched the mechanic fix the car. It only
took him ten minutes.
I didn’t mean to hurt
to: have the intention
your feelings.
We saw the mechanic fixing our car when we
mean -ing: involve walked by the garage.
Saying no to the project
will mean losing jobs.
We need to find ways NEW SUBJECT BEFORE -ING
to: active meaning to solve this problem.
need -ing: passive meaning This house needs
• We
 can have different subjects in the main clause
tidying up. (It needs to
and in the -ing clause. The subject of the -ing clause
be tidied up.)
can be expressed by a pronoun in the object form
We regret to inform or by using a possessive adjective (in more formal
to: give bad news you that your request contexts).
-ing: wish something has been denied. I hope you don’t mind me / my watching while
regret
had been different I regret not taking their you are trying to fix that.
offer. I would be rich She wouldn’t want to risk us / our losing the contract.
now.
I remembered to lock
to: do something the door, but I forgot to OFFERS AND REQUESTS
as a result of leave the key under the
remembering mat.
remember -ing: remember Of course, I remember Offering help
that you did meeting her. She made • Why don’t I + infinitive?
something a great impression on Why don’t I carry those bags for you?
me!
• Can I give / lend you a hand + -ing?
We stopped to have Can I lend you a hand mowing the lawn?
a coffee, and then we
to: reason for stopping continued our trip. • Let me + infinitive
stop I stopped worrying
Let me open this door for you.
-ing: quit
about the future years • Subject + would + be delighted to + infinitive
ago. I’d be delighted to cook for you while you’re ill.

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Requests • For
 decimals we use point and then say the figures
one by one.
• Imperative + will / won’t / would you?
3.47% ➞ three point four seven per cent
Open that door for me, will / won’t / would you?
• Can you give / lend me a hand with…? • With negative numbers we use the word minus.
Can you give me a hand with this, please? -17ºC ➞ minus seventeen (degrees) Celsius
• Could you (possibly) + infinitive? • We
 can use some or -something (colloquial) for
Could you (possibly) turn the volume down? approximate numbers.
• Will / Would you + infinitive? There were some two hundred people at the
Will you please stop making that noise? meeting. (Approximately two hundred)
Would you please lock the door when you She’s thirty-something. (In her thirties)
leave?
• We use twice, three times, etc. for multiple
• Would you mind + -ing? quantities.
Would you mind helping me with the gardening?
There were twice as many people at the second
meeting.
Unit 6 Their budget is three times larger than ours.
EXPRESSING QUANTITY This prison was designed for one thousand people
but now holds three times that number.

• When
 saying long numbers, remember to use the Basic mathematical operations
singular with million, thousand and hundred. Say
and after hundred or, when there are no hundreds, 2+2=4 5–3=2
after thousand or million. Two plus two is four. Five less three is two.
120 ➞ a / one hundred and twenty Two plus two equals Five minus three
756 ➞ seven hundred and fifty-six four. equals two.
39,042 ➞ thirty-nine thousand and forty-two Two and two is four. Five take away three
equals two.
78,384,915 ➞ seventy-eight million, three hundred
and eighty-four thousand, nine 5 x 2 = 10 12 : 3 = 4
hundred and fifteen Five times two is ten. Twelve divided by
Five multiplied by two three is four.
• In
 sport results we often use the word nil for equals ten. Three goes into
zero. twelve four times.
They lost two - nil (2-0).
• In
 tennis, however, we use the word love for
zero. PLURALS
The score is 15-love (15-0).
• When
 numbers are used to identify or classify Irregular plurals
(e.g. room numbers, course numbers, post foot – feet, tooth – teeth, man
office box numbers) and for telephone numbers, changes in the /mæn/ – men /men/, mouse –
we usually say oh for zero. word mice, woman /ˈwʊmən/ – women
I’m in room five oh two (502). /ˈwɪmɪn/
Our phone number is oh eight oh eight, one half – halves, knife – knives,
six eight, double one six eight (0808 168 1168). leaf – leaves, life – lives, shelf –
-f(e) ➞ -ves
shelves, thief – thieves, wife –
wives, wolf – wolves
• We use ordinal numbers in fractions.
2/3 two thirds    4/8 four eighths -Ø deer, fish, salmon, sheep
1/10 one tenth of a second
old English
child – children, ox – oxen
-en
•  1/2 a / one half is an exception. We also say
half a + noun.
two and a half kilos of potatoes
an hour and a half / one and a half hours
half a pint of beer
half a kilo of meat

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Irregular plurals of Latin and Greek origin • S

 ome words that were originally compounds
are now considered one unit and take a final -s.
cactus – cacti, syllabus – syllabi,
-us ➞ -i bagful – bagfuls (although bagsful is also
nucleus – nuclei
common)
-a ➞ -ae alga – algae
•S
 ome words with prefixes may look like a
compound but they are not.
bacterium – bacteria, curriculum –
-um ➞ -a curricula, datum – data*, vice-president – vice-presidents
symposium – symposia

analysis – analyses, crisis – crises, Collective nouns

-sis ➞ -ses
parenthesis – parentheses • Collective nouns refer to groups, for example,
family or team. They are usually followed by a
criterion – criteria, phenomenon – singular verb when we think of them as a unit
-on ➞ -a
phenomena
and a plural verb when we think of them as a
group of individuals.
* Many people use data as a singular countable noun nowadays.

The family lives in the house on the corner.
Nouns ending in -s The family are eating hamburgers in the café.
-s in singular The class has equal numbers of girls and boys.
means, series, species The class are behaving badly today.
and plural
singular billiards, economics, linguistics, • Some nouns that can be used as singular or
words that mathematics, measles, mumps, plural are:
end in -s news, phonetics, physics, politics
army, class, club, committee, company,
classics, clothes, customs, council, crew, department, family, government,
earnings, funds, glasses, goods,
words used greens, headquarters, jeans,  jury, public, orchestra, staff, team, board (of
only in plural manners, the Middle Ages, directors), (political) party
savings, scissors, shorts, stairs,
surroundings, trousers, valuables BOTH, ALL, NONE, NEITHER, EITHER

 emember: a piece of news, a pair of glasses /

R • Both, all and none are plural when used as pronouns.
scissors / trousers
The teacher asked two students for the answer but
both were wrong.
The plural of compound nouns There were a few restaurants in the area but all
two nouns (the first noun acting as an adjective) were closed.
➞ the second noun takes plural form They offer rooms to let but none are available.
golf clubs, apple pies, toy shops, assistant
teachers, toothbrushes 
• Both (of the) is always followed by a plural noun
and verb.
two nouns (the first noun is the word man or Both (of the) answers were right.
woman) ➞ both nouns take plural form
women teachers, men farmers, women doctors • All (of) can be followed by singular or plural.
All (of) the money is in the bank now.
noun + other elements ➞ the noun takes
plural form All (of) the contestants have won a prize.
coats-of-arms, commanders-in-chief, passers-by,
mothers-in-law • None of can also be followed by a singular or plural
noun. When it’s followed by a plural noun, the verb
can be singular or plural.
verb + particle used as noun ➞ the compound
takes -s at the end None of that money was ours.
grown-ups, take-offs None of the students is / are ready to take the test yet.

• Neither (nor) and either (or) are generally used with

verbs in the singular.
Neither John nor his partner wants to continue
with the project.

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I have talked to both of them but neither thinks

It is essential (that) we should make
the idea will work.
a long-term plan.
If either you or your daughter needs to talk to me, It is + adjective It is crucial (that) he should consider
I’ll be in my office. + (that) + the after effects.
subject + should It is vital (that) they should include
+ infinitive all the staff in decision-making.
REVISION OF SUGGESTING AND It is imperative (that) she should act
RECOMMENDING as quickly as possible.

propose / recommend / suggest

Unit 7
These verbs can be used with the following structures
without a change in meaning.
PERSUADING AND DISSUADING
The guide proposed spending some
time at Stonehenge.
+ -ing I recommend starting the day early. • Persuading
He suggested visiting the new

There are many ways to express persuasion. The
factory.
use of intonation is also a common device.
They proposed (that) we had a new
meeting the following day.
The boss recommended (that)
+ (that) + Making suggestions
we checked every single piece of
subject + verb
information twice.
She suggested (that) we increased Would you mind if we
the budget for next year. Would you mind if +
stayed here a bit longer?
subject + verb?
Can I persuade you to stay
He proposed (that) we should spend Can / Could I
for dinner?
+ (that) + more money on R&D. persuade you to +
subject + The council recommended (that) infinitive? If you’re going to commute
should + citizens should use bicycles. to work every day, you
Subject + might as
infinitive We suggest (that) you should invest might as well get a travel
well + infinitive
in low-risk options. card.
May / Might I
May I suggest visiting our
suggest + -ing…?
I propose (that) we have a meeting local museum?
next week.
+ (that) +
His doctor recommended (that) he
subject +
take up yoga.
infinitive
My daughter’s teacher has
suggested (that) she read more. Reassuring

Making strong recommendations You don’t have to worry

Subject + don’t /
It is essential to make a long-term about having to pay
doesn’t have to
plan. for extras. Everything’s
worry about + -ing
It is crucial to consider the after included!
It is + adjective effects.
+ to + infinitive It is vital to include all the staff in
I can assure you… I can assure you it will last
decision-making.
It is imperative to act as quickly as you a lifetime.
possible. I guarantee… I guarantee you won’t regret
it!
It is essential (that) we make a long-
term plan. You will definitely + You will definitely save time
It is + adjective It is crucial (that) he consider the infinitive… and money by buying one
+ (that) + after effects. of our machines.
subject + It is vital (that) they include all the It can’t be that difficult to
It can’t be that +
infinitive staff in decision-making.
adjective! convince your wife!
It is imperative (that) she act as
quickly as possible.

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Offering alternatives
• Remember the contraction for am I not is aren’t I:
Wouldn’t you prefer Wouldn’t you prefer to
to + infinitive? stay in a hotel? I’m early, aren’t I?
Tired of cooking?
Why don’t you…
Why don’t you go to a
instead?
restaurant instead?
• Imperatives
Instead of + noun / Instead of slaving away in – shall we? is the question tag for let’s.
-ing, the kitchen, you could be
enjoying a nice evening Let’s go over the contract now, shall we?
out.
You don’t need to carry – will you / won’t you? is the question tag for
… instead. positive imperatives.
cash with you. You can use
your debit card instead. Call me when you’ve made up your mind, will
you / won’t you?

– will you is the question tag for negative

imperatives.
Encouraging
Don’t forget to buy some bread, will you?
Come on! Come on! You can
definitely pass the exam! • Questions
 with subjects like anything, nothing,
everything or something in the main sentence use
Go for it! You won’t regret it in the question tag.
Go for it! it!
Nothing will ever change, will it?

• Dissuading • Questions
 with subjects like anyone, someone,
everybody, etc. in the main sentence use they in

These are some expressions you can use to the question tag.
dissuade people from doing things. Everyone wants to find a solution, don’t they?

• Statements using barely, hardly, seldom, neither,

I would (strongly) I would strongly advise no, nobody, none and nothing are regarded as
advise against + against trying to extend negative statements, so they take a positive
noun / -ing the life of your car beyond question tag.
fifteen years. No one likes him as a person, do they?
I wouldn’t bother I wouldn’t bother fixing We hardly have any time, do we?
(about) + -ing that lamp. Just get a new
one.
I wouldn’t bother I wouldn’t bother about REFUSING
about + noun the money now!

• Here
 are a few expressions that can be used to
refuse to do something emphatically.
QUESTION TAGS

• Question
 tags are used at the end of a sentence to No way!
check information or ask for agreement. We can use Absolutely not!
question tags to soften emotional appeals, orders A: Please, say you will buy
or suggestions and make them more persuasive. Over my dead me a new car when I get
They are usually formed by using the same auxiliary body! my licence!
we would use to transform the main sentence into Not in a million B: Over my dead body! I will
a question. If the main sentence is affirmative, the years! never buy you a car or even
question tag is usually negative and vice versa. Don’t (you) even pay for your petrol! Get a
You don’t really want to spend the rest of the think about noun / job! And don’t even think
evening here, do you? -ing! about asking your mother
either!
You aren’t going to let me down, are you? I will never (ever)
This isn’t the first time you’ve spoken to him, is it? + infinitive

He will never agree to that, will he?

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• After
 negative expressions like no way, never
before in my life / in a million years, etc., on no • N
 otice that after rather than, we use infinitive
account (formal) or under no circumstances without to.
(formal), sentences take the structure of a They prefer to walk to work rather than
question (i.e. auxiliary verb before the subject). take the bus.
No way am I going to let them use my house
for free!
Never in a million years would I agree to • Indicating what we would like other people to
appear on a reality TV show! do.
On no account should they be allowed to
enter the premises.
would prefer it if + subject2 + past simple
Under no circumstances does our company
ever grant that kind of permission. I’d prefer it if you went by bus.
She’d prefer it if we didn’t call her in the evening.
Unit 8 Would you prefer it if we stayed a bit longer?

PREFER AND WOULD RATHER would rather + subject2 + past simple

They’d rather we paid them in cash.
• Expressing preferences
I’d rather you didn’t smoke inside the house.
– To express preference with nouns Would you rather we left now?

prefer + noun + (to + noun)

I prefer tea to coffee. • E
 xpressing complaints or regrets about what
happened in the past.
We gave my father an e-reader, but he still
prefers his old books.
would prefer it if + subject2 + past perfect
– To express preference with actions I’d prefer it if you had taken it a bit more seriously.
Would you prefer it if she hadn’t stayed here
last weekend?
prefer + (not) to + prefer + (not) -ing +
infinitive + (rather (to + -ing)
than + infinitive) would rather + subject2 + past perfect
We prefer not to take I prefer not having to I’d rather you had warned me before bringing
a bus there because make a choice. everybody over to the house.
it takes longer than
walking. She’d rather we hadn’t spoken to the boss, but
how could we have known?
She prefers to live Does he really prefer
alone rather than cooking to eating in
share a flat. a restaurant? would rather have + past participle + (than +
infinitive)
would rather + (not) would rather + We would rather have stayed* home than go to
infinitive infinitive + (than + the cinema, but mum insisted.
Although I like coffee, infinitive) They would have rather spent* the weekend at
I’d rather have tea in He’d rather stay here home with us than stay in a hotel.
the morning. than move to London. Would you rather have seen a more serious film?

 When there is only one subject, we usually use

*
•Prefer can be followed by to + infinitive or by would rather have + past participle. However,
-ing. Both structures are similar but prefer + to
can imply habit or refer to what we think is the would have rather + past participle is also
best way to do things. correct.
B ToI indicate
prefer towhat weearly
get up would like other
every people
morning so Ito She’d rather have seen the movie the first
dohave more time to get ready for work. (This time it was on. = She’d have rather seen the
doesn’t imply that I enjoy getting up early.) movie the first time it was on.

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REVISION OF SECOND AND MIXED CONDITIONALS

THIRD CONDITIONALS
Mixed conditionals
Second conditional If + subject + past perfect, subject + would /
If + subject + past simple, subject + would / could + infinitive
could + infinitive • Condition in the past, present consequences.
• Improbable
 or unreal condition in the present, If I hadn’t sold those shares two months ago,
present consequences. we would be rich now.
If I had a bigger house, I would get a dog. If they had given you the job, you’d be my
boss now.
If she was / were taller, she could be a model. Would you still live in Australia if you hadn’t
Would you buy the car if it was / were cheaper? married an Australian man?

Third conditional
If + subject + past simple, subject + would +
If + subject + past perfect, subject + would / have + past participle
could + have + past participle
• Present
 state or habit, past consequences.
• 
Impossible condition in the past, past
consequences. If I were more organised, I wouldn’t have lost
the report.
If she had known that you were coming, she She would have understood your note if you
would have stayed longer. wrote more clearly.
If they hadn’t wasted so much money, they
could have gone on the trip.
Would they have acted differently if they had REVISION OF CONNECTORS
had the chance?
Reason
because of + noun
• R
 emember that in the case of the verb to be, you due to + pronoun or possessive + -ing
can use were for all subjects.
+ -ing
because / as /
+ clause (subject + verb)
since
SUPPOSE / SUPPOSING
Result
• We
 can use Suppose / Supposing instead of If at Consequently, …
the beginning of a conditional sentence to imagine
Therefore, …
the result of a potential action or situation.
– For present situations: Suppose / Supposing + As a result, …
present tense So, …
Suppose we take the other road. Do you think it Purpose
will be quicker than the motorway? in order (not) to …
– For possibility: Suppose / Supposing + past + infinitive
so as (not) to
tense
Suppose we took the other road. It might be to...
quicker than the motorway. + clause
so / so that …
– For impossible situations: Suppose / Supposing
+ past perfect tense Addition
Suppose we had taken the other road, it would in addition to
have been quicker than the motorway. + noun / pronoun / -ing
as well as
Also, … ... as well.
In addition, … Furthermore, ...
Likewise, ... Moreover, …
As well as that, … Besides (this), …
What’s more, …

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Contrast • If
 what we want to emphasise is an action, we need
to use the verb do.
Despite They were trying to fool you. ➞ What they were
+ noun / pronoun / -ing, ...
In spite of trying to do was fool you.
Despite I can give you advice. ➞ What I can do is give you
+ the fact that + clause, ... advice.
In spite of
Whereas
While + clause, ...
Although ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION

However, … On the other hand, …

Nevertheless, … In contrast, … Adjective + preposition
On the contrary, …
addicted to drugs, a fond of football, her boss,
game, watching TV telling jokes

afraid / terrified of the

Unit 9 dark, making a mistake
glad about your new job

INVERSION WITH SO AND SUCH anxious about the glad for you
meeting, losing his job (but also: glad to see you)
• Remember
 we use so + adjective / adverb (that…)
or such (a / an) + adjective + noun (that…) to
emphasise qualities. good / bad / great / terrible
anxious for your family
at maths, giving directions
He’s become so famous that he seems to have lost
his right to privacy. aware of your
surroundings, having involved in a task, a book
She’s such an enthusiastic person! made a mistake
They’re such great artists that their works are
priceless. capable of anything, involved with his family,
• In
 written or more literary language, we can start solving a problem their school
a sentence with so or such. In this case, the rest of
the sentence takes the structure of a question (i.e. keen on my neighbours,
committed / dedicated /
auxiliary verb before the subject). reading
devoted to her family,
(but also: keen to help,
So quickly did the fire spread that it seemed helping others
accept the offer)
impossible to put it out.
Such was the force of the wind that all ships had delighted / pleased
ready for school, bed
to return to port. about / with the results /
(but also: ready to join the
(but also: delighted /
party)
pleased to help us)
WHAT CLAUSE + BE FOR EMPHASIS depressed / worried responsible for our safety,
about the future breaking the vase
• We
 can use this structure to emphasise one part of
the sentence (the part underlined in the examples desperate for a job
satisfied with their
below). (but also: desperate to
performance
find a partner)
The way he dealt with the press was amazing. ➞
What was amazing was the way he dealt with the devastated /
press. fascinated / frustrated /
You need a good opportunity. ➞ What you need is impressed / moved /
short of money, breath
a good opportunity. shattered / shocked /
upset by the news, the
The encouragement from his friends gave him results
strength. ➞ What gave him strength was the
encouragement from his friends. disappointed in / with sick of this car, politicians,
you, the President repeating the same thing
• If
 what we want to emphasise is a clause, we need
staggered / surprised at /
to introduce it with the fact that.
disappointed at / about / by the price (but also:
He sold a million copies of his book and that was by their response staggered / surprised to
amazing. ➞ What was amazing was the fact that hear her complaints)
he sold a million copies of his book.

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Adjective + preposition
ecstatic / excited about
suitable for children, the
their new car, starting a
occasion
new career
famous for her articles, overjoyed / thrilled about /
being caustic with / by their success

PASSIVE + INFINITIVE /
PERFECT INFINITIVE
• Some
 verbs, mainly connected with language
or opinion, like claim, consider, know, prove,
report, say, suppose, think, etc., have two possible
structures in the passive voice.

It + be + past participle + that + clause

It is thought that he lives in the south of France
now.
It is said that they are the richest family in the UK.

Subject + be + past participle + to + infinitive

He is thought to live in the south of France.
They are said to be the richest family in the UK.

• If
 the action described with the infinitive is finished,
we use the perfect infinitive (have + past participle).
He is thought to have lived in France.
They are said to have been the richest family in
the UK.

• There
 are a number of verbs that can also be
followed by an infinitive in the passive voice: be
allowed to, be asked to, be expected to, be made
to and be scheduled to.
We have been asked to write a report about our
trip.
They were made to fill in a number of documents
before they were allowed to go through customs.
The ship is scheduled to depart at 6 a.m.

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