Module 1- Introduction

I. The Computer Revolution

A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Who invented the first Computer?

The first digital computer was invented by the English mathematician “Charles Babbage” between the
year 1833-1871. He was born on 27 December 1791 London. His interest mainly focuses on
mathematics, science, and technology, particularly in the development of mechanical computing devices
like the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine. Due to his main focuses to build computing devices
that why he is also known as the “Father of Computer”.

ABACUS

- It was one of the first computing tools which were discovered in ancient times. In 3000 BC, it
was the first calculating device that helped us to calculate arithmetic calculations.
- It is a manual counting device used for basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
- Although it is not an electronic computer, it represents an early step in the evolution of
computing, influencing later inventions like mechanical calculators and, eventually, digital
computers.

NAPIER BONES

- After that, In 1617 A.D. “John Napier” built a mechanical device with the name of Napier
bones which help us with the calculation of products and quotients of numbers. This has a major
upgrade from the abacus.
- Napier’s Bones is a manual calculating device invented by John Napier in 1617 to simplify
multiplication and division. It consists of strips (bones) with numbers inscribed on them, arranged
in a way that allows users to perform complex calculations quickly. The device works using
multiplication tables and lattice multiplication, making it an early mechanical aid for
computation.

SLIDE RULE

- Around 1620 The Slide Rule was invented by “E Gunter”(An English mathematician), The device
Slide performs many operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, this is the
third improvement from the first computing device (abacus).
- A slide rule is a mechanical analog device used for mathematical calculations, including
multiplication, division, logarithms, and trigonometry. It consists of two sliding scales with
logarithmic markings that allow users to quickly perform complex calculations without the need
for paper or a calculator.

PASCAL CALCULATOR
 - After that, the Pascal calculator came in the 17th century which is also known as the “arithmetic
machine” or “Pascaline”. It is a mechanical calculator invented by “Blaise Pascal”, this machine
was operated by dialing a series of wheels, gears, and cylinders.
- Users would turn the dials to input numbers, and the machine would automatically carry over
values, making arithmetic operations easier. Although limited to basic calculations, the Pascal
Calculator was a significant step in the development of modern computing devices. It influenced
later mechanical calculators and eventually the digital computers we use today.

STEPPED RECKONER

- Gottfried Leibniz(a German mathematician) was a seventeen-century scientist who recognized

the value of building machines and it was built around 1673. It is a mechanical device that can
do mathematical calculations and save labor too. He improved Pascal’s invention by making this
machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner.

DIFFERENCE ENGINE

- In the 1820s This engine was developed by Charles Babbage he was an English machine and he
is also known as the “father of computers”. This engine is an automatic mechanical calculator
which is designed to tabulate polynomial functions. This was the first step towards the creation
of computers, he realized that all mathematical calculations can be broken up into simple
operations which are then constantly repeated, and that, these operations could be carried out
by an automatic machine.
- After 10 years, he abandoned it for the “analytical engine”.

ANALYTICAL ENGINE

- The Analytical engine marks the progression from the arithmetic calculation to general-purpose
computation. This device is the successor of “Difference Engine” and It was also developed by
“Charles Babbage” in 1830.
- This machine was based on the principle that for certain formulas & certain values are constant.
The engine had a “store”(memory) where numbers and intermediate results could be held, and
a separate “Mill”(processor) Where the arithmetic progression is performed. It was also capable
of functions like conditional branching looping(iteration), latching, polling and
microprogramming, etc.

TABULATING MACHINE

- This is the electromechanical machine that was invented by “Herman Hollerith” around the
1880s. This tabulating machine is designed to summarize information stored in punched cards.
In the punch card, the Data was recorded by punching holes in these cards or strips of non-
conducting paper and then counting these by mechanical counters operated by electromagnets.

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL CALCULATOR

- At the beginning of the 19th century, the mechanical calculator was developed to calculate all
the mathematical calculations.
- In the 1960s, it was widely used. Later the rotating part of this mechanical calculator was
replaced by an electric motor which is called the electrical calculator.

MODERN ELECTRIC CALCULATOR

- The electrical calculator used in the 1960s was run with electron tubes, which were quite heavy
because they were bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and then the result was fairly
small which makes a good feel in the hand as compared to the electrical calculator. Modern
 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations.
These calculators can perform sophisticated arithmetic and financial computations such as
converting from polar to rectangular coordinates, taking square roots, and comparing
logarithms and trigonometric relationships.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

These evolution were made in five different generation:

1. First Generation Computer (1940-1956)

2. Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
3. Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computer(1971-Present)
5. Fifth Generation Computer(Present and Beyond)

1. FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

 The first generation of computers is generally regarded as the time between (1940 and 1956).
 It is characterized by the use of “Vacuum tubes” and it was developed in 1904 by the British
engineer “John Ambrose Fleming”.
 It is used in CRT(Cathode Ray Tube) TV, Radio, etc.
 ENIAC was the first computer developed in this period.

ENIAC

- (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)- designed by and constructed under the
supervision of John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania.
- was the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer.
- was a decimal rather than a binary machine.

UNIVAC

- Universal Automatic Computer

- In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation to manufacture
computers commercially.

UNIVAC 1

- first successful commercial computer that was commissioned by the Bureau of the Census for
the 1950 calculations.

UNIVAC II

- had a greater memory capacity and higher performance than the UNIVAC II
- Examples are ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),
EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer),
UNIVAC-1(Univeral Automatic Computer-1)

ADVANTAGES

- These computers were designed by using vacuum tubes.

- These generations’ computers were simple architecture.
- These computers calculate data in a millisecond.
- This computer is used for scientific purposes.
DISADVANTAGES

- The computer was very costly.

- Very large.
- It takes up a lot of space and electricity
- The speed of these computers was very slow
- It is used for commercial purposes.
- It is very expensive.
- These computers heat a lot.
- Cooling is needed to operate these types of computers because they heat up very quickly.

Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)

- The second generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Transistors” and it was
developed in 1947 by three American physicists “John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley”.
- A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals or open or
close a circuit. It was invented in Bell labs, The transistors became the key ingredient of all
digital circuits, including computers.
- The invention of transistors replaced the bulky electric tubes from the first generation of
computers.
- Transistors perform the same functions as a Vacuum tube, except that electrons move through
instead of through a vacuum. Transistors are made of semiconducting materials and they
control the flow of electricity.
- It is smaller than the first generation of computers, it is faster and less expensive compared to
the first generation of computers. The second-generation computer has a high level of
programming
languages, including FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL(1958), and COBOL(1959).
- Examples are PDP-8(Programmed Data Processor-8),
IBM1400(International business machine 1400 series),
IBM 7090(International business machine 7090 series),
CDC 3600( Control Data Corporation 3600 series)

ADVANTAGES:

- It is smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computer

- It used less electricity
- Not heated as much as the first-generation computer.
- It has better speed

DISADVANTAGES:

- It is also costly and not versatile

- still, it is expensive for commercial purposes
- Cooling is still needed
- Punch cards were used for input
- The computer is used for a particular purpose

THIRD GENERATION COMPUTER: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

 - The Third generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Integrated Circuits” It was
developed in 1958 by two American engineers “Robert Noyce” & “Jack Kilby”. The integrated
circuit is a set of electronic circuits on small flat pieces of semiconductor that is normally known
as silicon. The transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips which are called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the efficiency and speed of the computers.
- These ICs (integrated circuits) are popularly known as chips. A single IC has many transistors,
resistors, and capacitors built on a single slice of silicon.
- This development made computers smaller in size, low cost, large memory, and processing. The
speed of these computers is very high and it is efficient and reliable also.
- These generations of computers have a higher level of languages such as Pascal PL/1, FORTON-II
to V, COBOL, ALGOL-68, and BASIC(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was
developed during these periods.
- Examples are NCR 395(National Cash Register),
IBM 360,370 series,
B6500

ADVANTAGES:

- These computers are smaller in size as compared to previous generations

- It consumed less energy and was more reliable
- More Versatile
- It produced less heat as compared to previous generations
- These computers are used for commercial and as well as general-purpose
- These computers used a fan for head discharge to prevent damage
- This generation of computers has increased the storage capacity of computers

DISADVANTAGES:

- Still, a cooling system is needed.

- It is still very costly
- Sophisticated Technology is required to manufacture Integrated Circuits
- It is not easy to maintain the IC chips.
- The performance of these computers is degraded if we execute large applications.

FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER: Microprocessor (1971-Present)

- The fourth generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Microprocessor”. It was

invented in the 1970s and It was developed by four inventors named are “Marcian Hoff,
Masatoshi Shima, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor“. The first microprocessor named was
the “Intel 4004” CPU, it was the first microprocessor that was invented.
- A microprocessor contains all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control
functions on a single chip. Because of microprocessors, fourth-generation includes more data
processing capacity than equivalent-sized third-generation computers. Due to the development
of microprocessors, it is possible to place the CPU(central processing unit) on a single chip.
These computers are also known as microcomputers. The personal computer is a fourth-
generation computer. It is the period when the evolution of computer networks takes place.
Examples are APPLE II, Alter 8800

ADVANTAGES:
 - These computers are smaller in size and much more reliable as compared to other generations
of computers.
- The heating issue on these computers is almost negligible
- No A/C or Air conditioner is required in a fourth-generation computer.
- In these computers, all types of higher languages can be used in this generation
- It is also used for the general purpose
- less expensive
- These computers are cheaper and portable

DISADVANTAGES:

- Fans are required to operate these kinds of computers

- It required the latest technology for the need to make microprocessors and complex software
- These computers were highly sophisticated
- It also required advanced technology to make the ICs(Integrated circuits)
-

FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (Present and beyond)

- These generations of computers were based on AI(Artificial Intelligence) technology. Artificial

technology is the bran ch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like
humans and allowing the computer to make its own decisions currently, no computers exhibit
full artificial intelligence (that is, can simulate human behavior).
- In the fifth generation of computers, VLSI technology and ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology are used and the speed of these computers is extremely high. This generation
introduced machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working on different parts of
a single program. The development of a more powerful computer is still in progress. It has been
predicted that such a computer will be able to communicate in natural spoken languages with
its user.
- In this generation, computers are also required to use a high level of languages like C language,
c++, java, etc.
- Examples are Desktop computers, laptops, notebooks, MacBooks, etc. These all are the
computers which we are using.

ADVANTAGES:

- These computers are smaller in size and it is more compatible

- These computers are mighty cheaper
- It is obviously used for the general purpose
- Higher technology is used
- Development of true artificial intelligence
- Advancement in Parallel Processing and Superconductor Technology.

DISADVANTAGES:

- It tends to be sophisticated and complex tools

- It pushes the limit of transistor density.

The Evolution Of Computer | Generations Of Computer - C.S. Point