Chapter 40

Interference and Diffraction of Light

COHERENT WAVES are waves that have the same form, the same frequency, and a ®xed phase
di€erence (i.e., the amount by which the peaks of one wave lead or lag those of the other wave
does not change with time).

THE RELATIVE PHASE of two coherent waves traveling along the same line together speci®es
their relative positions on the line. If the crests of one wave fall on the crests of the other, the
waves are in-phase. If the crests of one fall on the troughs of the other, the waves are 180 8 (or
one-half wavelength) out-of-phase.

INTERFERENCE EFFECTS occur when two or more coherent waves overlap. If two coherent
waves of the same amplitude are superposed, total destructive interference (cancellation, darkness)
occurs when the waves are 180 8 out-of-phase. Total constructive interference (reinforcement,
brightness) occurs when they are in-phase.

DIFFRACTION refers to the deviation of light from straight-line propagation. It usually corre-
sponds to the bending or spreading of waves around the edges of apertures and obstacles. Dif-
fraction places a limit on the size of details that can be observed optically.

SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION: When parallel rays of light of wavelength j are incident nor-
mally upon a slit of width D, a di€raction pattern is observed beyond the slit. Complete darkness
is observed at angles m 0 to the straight-through beam, where
m 0 j ˆ D sin m 0
Here, m 0 ˆ 1; 2; 3; . . ., is the order number of the di€raction dark band.

LIMIT OF RESOLUTION of two objects due to di€raction: If two objects are viewed through
an optical instrument, the di€raction patterns caused by the aperture of the instrument limit our
ability to distinguish the objects from each other. For distinguishability, the angle  subtended at
the aperture by the objects must be larger than a critical value cr , given by
j
sin cr ˆ 1:22†
D
where D is the diameter of the circular aperture.

DIFFRACTION GRATING EQUATION: A di€raction grating is a repetitive array of apertures

or obstacles that alters the amplitude or phase of a wave. It usually consists of a large number
of equally spaced, parallel slits or ridges; the distance between slits is the grating spacing a. When
waves of wavelength j are incident normally upon a grating with spacing a, maxima are observed
beyond the grating at angles m to the normal, where
mj ˆ a sin m

366

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CHAP. 40] INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 367

Here, m ˆ 1; 2; 3; . . ., is the order number of the di€racted image.

This same relation applies to the major maxima in the interference patterns of even two and three
slits. In these cases, however, the maxima are not nearly so sharply de®ned as for a grating consisting of
hundreds of slits. The pattern may become quite complex if the slits are wide enough so that the single-
slit di€raction pattern from each slit shows several minima.

THE DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS of wavelength j by re¯ection from a crystal is described by

the Bragg equation. Strong re¯ections are observed at grazing angles m (where  is the angle be-
tween the face of the crystal and the re¯ected beam) given by
mj ˆ 2d sin m
where d is the distance between re¯ecting planes in the crystal, and m ˆ 1; 2; 3; . . ., is the order of
re¯ection.

OPTICAL PATH LENGTH: In the same time that it takes a beam of light to travel a distance
d in a material of index of refraction n, the beam would travel a distance nd in air or vacuum.
For this reason, nd is de®ned as the optical path length of the material.

Solved Problems
40.1 Figure 40.1 shows a thin ®lm of a transparent material of thickness d and index nf where
n2 > nf > n1 . For what three smallest gap thicknesses will re¯ected light rays 1 and 2 interfere
totally (a) constructively and (b) destructively? Assume the light has a wavelength in the ®lm of
600 nm.
(a) Ray 2 travels a distance of roughly 2d farther than ray 1. The rays reinforce if this distance is 0, j, 2j,
3j, . . ., mj, where m is an integer. Hence for reinforcement,
1
mj ˆ 2d or dˆ 2 m† 600 nm† ˆ 300m nm
The three smallest values for d are 0, 300 nm, and 600 nm.
(b) The waves cancel if they are 1808 out-of-phase. This occurs when 2d is 12 j, j ‡ 12 j†, 2j ‡ 12 j†; . . .,
mj ‡ 12 j†; . . ., with m an integer. Therefore, for cancellation,
2d ˆ mj ‡ 12 j or d ˆ 12 m ‡ 12†j ˆ m ‡ 12† 300† nm
The three smallest values for d are 150 nm, 450 nm, and 750 nm.

Fig. 40-1 Fig. 40-2

368 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT [CHAP. 40

40.2 Two narrow horizontal parallel slits (a distance a ˆ 0:60 mm apart) are illuminated by a beam of
500-nm light as shown in Fig. 40-2. Light that is di€racted at certain angles  reinforces; at others,
it cancels. Find the three smallest values for  at which (a) reinforcement occurs and (b) cancella-
tion occurs. (See Fig. 40-3.)
The di€erence in path lengths for the two beams is r1 r2 †. From the ®gure,
r1 r2 †
sin  ˆ
a
(a) For reinforcement, r1 r2 † ˆ 0, j, 2j, . . . . The corresponding three smallest values for  are found
from
sin 0 ˆ 0 or 0 ˆ 0
500  10 9 m
sin 1 ˆ ˆ 8:33  10 4 or 1 ˆ 0:0488
6  10 4 m
2 500  10 9 m† 4
sin 2 ˆ ˆ 16:7  10 or 2 ˆ 0:0958
6  10 4 m
(b) For cancellation, r1 r2 † ˆ 12 j, j ‡ 12 j†, 2j ‡ 12 j†; . . . . The corresponding three smallest values for 
are found from
250 nm 4
sin 1 ˆ ˆ 4:17  10 or 1 ˆ 0:0248
600 000 nm
750 nm
sin 2 ˆ ˆ 0:001 25 or 2 ˆ 0:0728
600 000 nm
1250 nm
sin 3 ˆ ˆ 0:002 08 or 3 ˆ 0:128
600 000 nm

40.3 Monochromatic light from a point source illuminates two narrow, horizontal parallel slits. The
centers of the two slits are a ˆ 0:80 mm apart, as shown in Fig. 40-3. An interference pattern
forms on the screen, 50 cm away. In the pattern, the bright and dark fringes are evenly spaced.
The distance y shown is 0.304 mm. Compute the wavelength j of the light.

Fig. 40-3

Notice ®rst that Fig. 40-3 is not to scale. The rays from the slit would actually be nearly parallel. We can
therefore use the result of Problem 40.2 with r1 r2 † ˆ mj at the maxima (bright spots), where
m ˆ 0; 1; 2; . . . . Then

r1 r2 †
sin  ˆ becomes mj ˆ a sin m
a

Or, alternatively, we could use the grating equation, since a double slit is simply a grating with two lines.
Both approaches give mj ˆ a sin m .
CHAP. 40] INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 369

We know that the distance from the central maximum to the ®rst maximum on either side is 0.304 mm.
Therefore, from Fig. 40-3,
0:030 4 cm
sin 1 ˆ ˆ 0:000 608
50 cm
Then, for m ˆ 1,
3
mj ˆ a sin m becomes 1†j ˆ 0:80  10 m† 6:08  10 4 †
from which j ˆ 486 nm, or to two signi®cant ®gures 0:49  103 nm.

40.4 Repeat Problem 40.1 for the case in which n1 < nf > n2 or n1 > nf < n2 .
Experiment shows that, in this situation, cancellation occurs when a is near zero. This is due to the fact
that light often undergoes a phase shift upon re¯ection. The process is generally rather complicated, but for
incident angles less than about 308 it's fairly straightforward. Then there will be a net phase di€erence of
1808 introduced between the internally and externally re¯ected beams. Thus when the ®lm is very thin
compared to j and d  0, there will be an apparent path di€erence for the two beams of 12 j and cancellation
will occur. (This was not the situation in Problem 40.1, because there both beams were externally re¯ected.)
Destructive interference occurs for d ˆ 0, as we have just seen. When d ˆ 12 j cancellation again occurs.
The same thing happens at d ˆ 12 j ‡ 12 j. Therefore cancellation occurs at d ˆ 0, 300 nm, and 600 nm.
Reinforcement occurs when d ˆ 14 j, because then beam 2 acts though it had traveled an additional
1
2 j ‡ 2† 14 j† ˆ j. Reinforcement again occurs when d is increased by 12 j and by j. Hence, for reinforcement,
d ˆ 150 nm, 450 nm, and 750 nm.

40.5 When one leg of a Michelson interferometer is lengthened slightly, 150 dark fringes sweep
through the ®eld of view. If the light used has j ˆ 480 nm, how far was the mirror in that leg
moved?
Darkness is observed when the light beams from the two legs are 1808 out of phase. As the length of one
leg is increased by 12 j, the path length (down and back) increases by j and the ®eld of view changes from dark
to bright to dark. When 150 fringes pass, the leg is lengthened by an amount
150† 12 j† ˆ 150† 240 nm† ˆ 36 000 nm ˆ 0:036 0 mm

40.6 As shown in Fig. 40-4, two ¯at glass plates touch at one edge and are separated at the other edge
by a spacer. Using vertical viewing and light with j ˆ 589:0 nm, ®ve dark fringes (D) are obtained
from edge to edge. What is the thickness of the spacer?
The pattern is caused by interference between a beam re¯ected from the upper surface of the air wedge
and a beam re¯ected from the lower surface of the wedge. The two re¯ections are of di€erent nature in that
re¯ection at the upper surface takes place at the boundary of a medium (air) of lower refractive index, while
re¯ection at the lower surface occurs at the boundary of a medium (glass) of higher refractive index. In such

Fig. 40-4 Fig. 40-5

370 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT [CHAP. 40

cases, the act of re¯ection by itself involves a phase displacement of 1808 between the two re¯ected beams.
This explains the presence of a dark fringe at the left-hand edge.
As we move from a dark fringe to the next dark fringe, the beam that traverses the wedge must be held
back by a path-length di€erence of j. Because the beam travels twice through the wedge (down and back up),
the wedge thickness changes by only 12 j as we move from fringe to fringe. Thus,
Spacer thickness ˆ 4 12 j† ˆ 2 589:0 nm† ˆ 1178 nm

40.7 In an experiment used to show Newton's rings, a plano-convex lens is placed on a ¯at glass plate,
as in Fig. 40-5. (The curvature is vastly exaggerated.) When the lens is illuminated from directly
above, a top-side viewer sees a series of bright and dark rings centered on the contact point, which
is dark. Find the air-gap thickness at (a) the third dark ring and (b) the second bright ring.
Assume 500 nm light is being used.
(a) The gap thickness is zero at the central dark spot. It increases by 12 j as we move from a position of
darkness to the next position of darkness. (Why 12 j?) Therefore, at the third dark ring,
Gap thickness ˆ 3 12 j† ˆ 3 250 nm† ˆ 750 nm

(b) The gap thickness at the ®rst bright ring must be large enough to increase the path length by 12 j. Since
the ray traverses the gap twice, the thickness there is 14 j. As we go from one bright ring to the next, the
gap thickness increases by 12 j. Therefore, at the second bright ring,
Gap thickness ˆ 14 j ‡ 12 j ˆ 0:750† 500 nm† ˆ 375 nm

40.8 What is the least thickness of a soap ®lm which will appear black when viewed with sodium light
j ˆ 589:3 nm) re¯ected perpendicular to the ®lm? The refractive index for soap solution is
n ˆ 1:38.
The situation is shown in Fig. 40-6. Ray b has an extra equivalent path length of 2nd ˆ 2:76d. In
addition, there is a relative phase shift of 1808, or 12 j, between the beams because of the re¯ection process, as
described in Problems 40-4 and 40-6.
Cancellation (and darkness) occurs if the retardation between the two beams, is 12 j, or 32 j, or 52 j, and so
on. Therefore, for darkness,
2:76d ‡ 12 j ˆ m 12 j† where m ˆ 1; 3; 5; . . .
When m ˆ 1, this gives d ˆ 0. For m ˆ 3, we have
j 589:3 nm
dˆ ˆ ˆ 214 nm
2:76 2:76
as the thinnest possible ®lm other than zero.

Fig. 40-6 Fig. 40-7

CHAP. 40] INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 371

40.9 A single slit of width D ˆ 0:10 mm is illuminated by parallel light of wavelength 600 nm, and
di€raction bands are observed on a screen 40 cm from the slit. How far is the third dark band
from the central bright band? (Refer to Fig. 40-7.)
For a single slit, the locations of dark bands are given by the equation m 0 j ˆ D sin m 0 . Then
3j 3 6:00  10 7 m†
sin 3 ˆ ˆ ˆ 0:018 or  ˆ 1:08
D 0:10  10 3 m
From the ®gure, tan  ˆ y=40 cm, and so
y ˆ 40 cm† tan † ˆ 40 cm† 0:018† ˆ 0:72 cm

40.10 Red light falls normally on a di€raction grating ruled 4000 lines/cm, and the second-order image
is di€racted 34:08 from the normal. Compute the wavelength of the light.
From the grating equation mj ˆ a sin ,
 
1
cm 0:559†
a sin 2 4000 5
jˆ ˆ ˆ 6:99  10 cm ˆ 699 nm
2 2

40.11 Figure 40-8 shows a laboratory setup for grating experiments. The di€raction grating has 5000
lines/cm and is 1.00 m from the slit, which is illuminated with sodium light. On either side of the
slit, and parallel to the grating, is a meterstick. The eye, placed close to the grating, sees virtual
images of the slit along the metersticks. Determine the wavelength of the light if each ®rst-order
image is 31.0 cm from the slit.

Fig. 40-8

tan 1 ˆ 31:0=100 or 1 ˆ 17:28

a sin 1 0:000 200 cm† 0:296† 7

so jˆ ˆ ˆ 592  10 cm ˆ 592 nm
1 1

40.12 Green light of wavelength 540 nm is di€racted by a grating ruled with 2000 lines/cm. (a) Compute
the angular deviation of the third-order image. (b) Is a 10th-order image possible?

3j 3 5:40  10 5 cm†
a† sin 3 ˆ ˆ ˆ 0:324 or  ˆ 18:98
a 5:00  10 4 cm

10j 10 5:40  10 5 cm†

b† sin 10 ˆ ˆ ˆ 1:08 impossible†
a 5:00  10 4 cm
Since the value of sin  cannot exceed 1, a 10th-order image is impossible.
372 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT [CHAP. 40

40.13 Show that, in a spectrum of white light obtained with a grating, the red jr ˆ 700 nm) of the
second order overlaps the violet jv ˆ 400 nm† of the third order.

2jr 2 700† 1400

For the red: sin 2 ˆ ˆ ˆ a in nm†
a a a
3j 3 400† 1200
For the violet: sin 3 ˆ v ˆ ˆ
a a a
As sin 2 > sin 3 , 2 > 3 . Thus the angle of di€raction of red in the second order is greater than that of
violet in the third order.

40.14 A parallel beam of X-rays is di€racted by a rock salt crystal. The ®rst-order strong re¯ection is
obtained when the glancing angle (the angle between the crystal face and the beam) is 6850 0 . The
distance between re¯ection planes in the crystal is 2.8 AÊ. What is the wavelength of the X-rays?
(1 angstrom ˆ 1 A ˆ 0:1 nm.)
Note that the Bragg equation involves the glancing angle, not the angle of incidence.

2d sin 1 2† 2:8 A † 0:119† 
jˆ ˆ ˆ 0:67 A
1 1

40.15 Two point sources of light are 50 cm apart, as shown in Fig. 40-9. They are viewed by the eye at a
distance L. The entrance opening (pupil) of the viewer's eye has a diameter of 3.0 mm. If the eye
were perfect, the limiting factor for resolution of the two sources would be di€raction. In that
limit, how large could we make L and still have the sources seen as separate entities?

Fig. 40-9

In the limiting case,  ˆ c , where sin c ˆ 1:22† j=D†. But, we see from the ®gure that sin c is nearly
equal to s=L, because s is so much smaller than L. Substitution of this value gives
sD 0:50 m† 3:0  10 3 m†
L  ˆ 2:5 km
1:22j 1:22† 5:0  10 7 m†
We have taken j ˆ 500 nm, about the middle of the visible range.

Supplementary Problems
40.16 Two sound sources send identical waves of 20 cm wavelength out along the ‡x-axis. At what separations of
the sources will a listener on the axis beyond them hear (a) the loudest sound and (b) the weakest
sound? Ans. (a) m(20 cm), where m ˆ 0; 1; 2; . . . ; (b) 10 cm ‡ m (20 cm)

40.17 In an experiment such as that described in Problem 40.1, brightness is observed for the following ®lm
thicknesses: 2:90  10 7 m, 5:80  10 7 m, and 8:70  10 7 m. (a) What is the wavelength of the light
being used? (b) At what thicknesses would darkness be observed? Ans. (a) 580 nm; (b) 145 1 ‡ 2m† nm
CHAP. 40] INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT 373

40.18 A double-slit experiment is done in the usual way with 480-nm light and narrow slits that are 0.050 cm apart.
At what angle to the straight-through beam will one observe (a) the third-order bright spot and (b) the
second minimum from the central maximum? Ans. (a) 0:178; (b) 0:0838

40.19 In Problem 40.18, if the slit-to-screen distance is 200 cm, how far from the central maximum are (a) the
third-order bright spot and (b) the second minimum? Ans. (a) 0.58 cm; (b) 0.29 cm

40.20 Red light of wavelength 644 nm, from a point source, passes through two parallel and narrow slits which are
1.00 mm apart. Determine the distance between the central bright fringe and the third dark interference
fringe formed on a screen parallel to the plane of the slits and 1.00 m away. Ans. 1.61 mm

40.21 Two ¯at glass plates are pressed together at the top edge and separated at the bottom edge by a strip of
tinfoil. The air wedge is examined in yellow sodium light (589 nm) re¯ected normally from its two surfaces,
and 42 dark interference fringes are observed. Compute the thickness of the tinfoil. Ans. 12:4 m

40.22 A mixture of yellow light of wavelength 580 nm and blue light of wavelength 450 nm is incident normally on
an air ®lm 290 nm thick. What is the color of the re¯ected light? Ans. blue

40.23 Repeat Problem 40.1 if the ®lm has a refractive index of 1.40 and the vacuum wavelength of the incident light
is 600 nm. Ans. (a) 0, 214 nm, 429 nm; (b) 107 nm, 321 nm, 536 nm

40.24 Repeat Problem 40.6 if the wedge is ®lled with a ¯uid that has a refractive index of 1.50 instead of air. -
Ans. 785 nm

40.25 A single slit of width 0.140 mm is illuminated by monochromatic light, and di€raction bands are observed
on a screen 2.00 m away. If the second dark band is 16.0 mm from the central bright band, what is the
wavelength of the light? Ans. 560 nm

40.26 Green light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a grating, and the second-order image is di€racted
32:08 from the normal. How many lines/cm are marked on the grating? Ans. 5:30  103 lines/cm

40.27 A narrow beam of yellow light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a di€raction grating ruled 2000
lines/cm, and images are formed on a screen parallel to the grating and 1.00 m distant. Compute the distance
along the screen from the central bright line to the ®rst-order lines. Ans. 12.1 cm

40.28 Blue light of wavelength 4:7  10 7 m is di€racted by a grating ruled 5000 lines/cm. (a) Compute the angular
deviation of the second-order image. (b) What is the highest-order image theoretically possible with this
wavelength and grating? Ans. (a) 288; (b) fourth

40.29 Determine the ratio of the wavelengths of two spectral lines if the second-order image of one line coincides
with the third-order image of the other line, both lines being examined by means of the same grating.
Ans. 3 : 2

40.30 A spectrum of white light is obtained with a grating ruled with 2500 lines/cm. Compute the angular
separation between the violet jv ˆ 400 nm) and red jr ˆ 700 nm) in the (a) ®rst order and (b) second
order. (c) Does yellow (jy ˆ 600 nm) in the third order overlap the violet in the fourth order?
Ans. (a) 4820 0 ; (b) 8857 0 ; (c) yes

40.31 A spectrum of the Sun's radiation in the infrared region is produced by a grating. What is the wavelength
being studied, if the infrared line in the ®rst order occurs at an angle of 25:08 with the normal, and the
fourth-order image of the hydrogen line of wavelength 656.3 nm occurs at 30:08? Ans. 2:22  10 6 m

40.32 How far apart are the di€racting planes in a NaCl crystal for which X-rays of wavelength 1:54 A make a
glancing angle of 15854 0 in the ®rst order? Ans. 2:81 A